General Studies Paper -2

Context: India and France share a robust strategic partnership based on mutual respect, shared values, and cooperation on global challenges, reaffirmed during PM Modi’s recent visit to France.

India-France Relationship

Historical Background:

• Diplomatic ties between India and France date back to 1947 when France recognized India’s independence.
• The relationship transformed significantly, culminating in the establishment of a strategic partnership in 1998.
• France was among the first Western nations to support India after its nuclear tests, recognizing it as a responsible nuclear power.

Trade and Economic Partnership:

• France is India’s 11th largest trading partner in the European Union, with bilateral trade exceeding $12 billion in 2023.
• French companies like Airbus, Dassault, Renault, and Michelin have significant operations in India, while Indian IT firms like TCS, Infosys, and Wipro maintain a strong presence in France.
• At the 14th India-France CEOs Forum, PM Modi emphasized increasing investments in digital technology, green energy, and artificial intelligence.

Defense Cooperation:

• Defense Industrial Roadmap: Aimed at co-designing and co-developing military hardware.
• Advanced Artillery & Technology Transfer: Collaboration on advanced weaponry, joint military exercises (e.g., Varuna), and defense technology sharing.
• France-India Defence Startup Excellence (FRIND-X): Initiative under HORIZON 2047 and the India-France Defence Industrial Roadmap.
• Rafale Fighter Jets: India procured 36 Rafale jets under a 2016 deal, with a recent agreement for Rafale-M jets to operate from India’s aircraft carriers, set for delivery by 2029.
• Scorpène-Class Submarines: France assisted India in building Scorpène-class submarines and plans integration of Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) under Project 75, along with a possible Integrated Combat System (ICS) in future P75-AS submarines.

Space Collaboration:

• ISRO and CNES collaborate on satellite launches and joint research, enhancing space technology applications.

Strategic & Geopolitical Cooperation:

• Shared vision for a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific; strengthened naval collaboration to counter China’s influence.
• France supports India’s bid for a permanent UN Security Council (UNSC) seat and its membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
• India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC): A MoU signed at the G20 Summit to facilitate European market access, technological collaboration, and counter China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Energy & Climate Cooperation:

• International Solar Alliance (ISA): Co-founded by India and France in 2015 to promote solar energy worldwide.
• Collaboration on nuclear energy projects including nuclear reactors at Jaitapur, Maharashtra.
• Agreements for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and Advanced Modular Reactors (AMRs).
• France supports India’s renewable energy ambitions by investing in hydrogen energy and sustainable urban development.
• India-France Indo-Pacific Triangular Development Cooperation: Supports climate and SDG-focused projects in third countries in the Indo-Pacific.

Counterterrorism & Financial Security:

• Joint efforts against terrorism through designations of UN-sanctioned individuals and organizations.
• Commitment to Financial Action Task Force (FATF) standards and participation in No Money for Terror (NMFT) initiatives.

Health Infrastructure:

• Cooperation in digital health, antimicrobial resistance, and exchange of health professionals under the Indo-French Life Sciences Sister Innovation Hub.
• Centre for Cellular and Molecular Platforms (C-CAMP) collaboration for biotech innovation.

Cultural & Educational Exchanges:

• France remains a popular destination for Indian students, with over 10,000 currently studying there.
• Opening of the Consulate General of India in Marseille to strengthen cultural and business ties.
• Young Professionals Scheme (YPS) under the India-France Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement (MMPA).

Concerns in India-France Relations

• Trade & Economic Frictions:
• Lack of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA): France supports an ambitious EU-India trade deal, but differences over tariffs, labor laws, and environmental clauses have delayed progress.
• Agricultural & Dairy Disputes: France sees India’s protectionist policies as a hurdle, particularly regarding dairy and wine market access. India seeks fewer restrictions on IT services and skilled labor mobility.
• Digital Taxation & Data Protection: France’s digital tax policies affect Indian IT firms, while India’s data localization rules raise concerns for French businesses.
• Technology Transfer Issues:
  • Barriers to Technology Transfer: India’s Make in India and Aatmanirbhar Bharat push for technology transfer, while France remains cautious, particularly in military technology.
  • Delays in Project Implementation: Indo-French defense projects, especially naval collaborations, have faced delays, raising concerns over cost escalations.
• Geopolitical Challenges:
  • Russia-Ukraine War: India’s neutral stance contrasts with France’s pro-Western approach, impacting defense trade and energy security.
  • Multilateral Cooperation Issues: Divergences on UNSC reforms, climate change policy, and energy transitions require negotiation.
  • Rise of Protectionism & Visa Issues: Stricter work and study visa rules affect business mobility.
  • China Factor & Indo-Pacific Strategy: France balances ties with China, sometimes conflicting with India’s deepening QUAD and AUKUS engagements.

Conclusion & Way Forward

• While India and France share a strong, time-tested relationship, geopolitical divergences, defense technology issues, and trade frictions require diplomatic foresight and pragmatic solutions.
• Strengthening defense collaboration, economic cooperation, and multilateral coordination is crucial.
• Both nations are well-positioned to play a key role in regional and global stability.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: China’s plan to construct the world’s largest hydropower dam on the Brahmaputra River, known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, has raised significant concerns among downstream countries, particularly India and Bangladesh.

Implications of China’s Mega-Dam Project

Environmental and Ecological Concerns:

• Altered Water Flow and Sediment Reduction: River Brahmaputra carries vast amounts of sediment that fertilize downstream agricultural lands.
  • Chinese dams trap these sediments, reducing soil fertility and affecting farming communities in India and Bangladesh.
• Increased Risk of Flash Floods: Sudden releases of water from Chinese reservoirs could lead to devastating floods in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • There have been instances in the past where unannounced water discharges led to loss of lives and property.
• Biodiversity Loss and Habitat Destruction: River ecosystems, including aquatic species such as the Gangetic dolphin, are under threat due to fluctuating water levels and disrupted breeding cycles.
• Glacial Melt and Climate Change Effects: The Tibetan Plateau, often referred to as the “Third Pole”, is home to the largest volume of ice outside the Arctic and Antarctic. It plays a critical role in the Earth’s cryosphere and influences global climate patterns.
• Seismic Risks: The dam’s location in a seismically active and ecologically fragile Himalayan region raises concerns about potential earthquakes and environmental degradation.
  • Such a massive infrastructure project could increase the risk of landslides and other geological disasters.

Geopolitical Ramifications:

• India’s Vulnerability: India, which relies on the Brahmaputra for agriculture and drinking water, fears that China could use its control over the river as a strategic weapon, either by restricting water flow or causing artificial floods.
• Legal and Diplomatic Challenges: International laws governing transboundary rivers, such as the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997), emphasize equitable and reasonable utilization of shared water resources.
  • However, China is not a signatory to this convention, allowing it to exercise unchecked control over these rivers.
  • China and India have the Expert Level Mechanism (ELM) since 2006 for hydrological data sharing, but lack a comprehensive treaty.
• Conflict with Southeast Asian Nations: Countries like Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand, which depend on the Mekong River, have raised similar concerns over reduced water availability due to China’s upstream damming.
• Economic and Social Impact: Large dam projects often lead to forced relocation of local communities.
  • Altered river flows can disrupt irrigation patterns and reduce fish stocks, threatening food security in India and Bangladesh.

India’s Response and Possible Strategies

• Developing Its Own Water Infrastructure: India has been ramping up dam and hydropower projects in Arunachal Pradesh, like the proposed Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP) to ensure water security and energy generation.
• Strengthening Diplomacy: India has been engaging with Bangladesh and other regional stakeholders to form a united front on transboundary water management.
• Enhancing Satellite Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: Improved satellite surveillance of Chinese dam activities and better flood prediction models can help mitigate risks.
• Exploring Legal Avenues: India could push for regional agreements on water-sharing and seek international arbitration in cases of water disputes.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Supreme Court permitted High Courts to appoint retired judges on an ad-hoc basis to address the mounting backlog of cases.

About

• The Supreme Court first endorsed the appointment of ad-hoc judges in its 2021 ruling in Lok Prahari v. Union of India.
  • These judges were authorised to hear only criminal appeals as part of a bench led by a sitting judge.
• Backlog: As of January 2025, High Courts were burdened with a staggering backlog of 62 lakh cases.
• In 2021, the SC noted there have only been three recorded instances of ad hoc judges being appointed under Article 224A, calling it a “dormant provision”.

Related Constitutional Provisions

• Article 224A of the Indian Constitution allows the Chief Justice of a High Court to request retired HC judges to perform the duties of a judge again, with the permission of the President of India.
  • Such appointees are entitled to allowances as determined by the President’s order and have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges of a Judge of that High Court.
• Lok Prahari v Union of India (2021): SC held that ad hoc judges can only be appointed when recommendations have not been made for less than 20% of the vacancies, after considering both the number of active judges and pending proposals for judge appointments.

Reasons for the Backlog of Cases in Indian Judiciary

• Insufficient Judges: India has one of the lowest judge-to-population ratios globally.
• Increased Litigation: The growing number of litigants and cases, coupled with the increasing population and socio-economic complexities, contributes to the rise in the number of cases.
• Delays in the Justice System: There are delays due to procedural inefficiencies, adjournments, and delays in filing of evidence, which further prolong case resolutions.
• Lack of Infrastructure: Many courts, especially in rural areas, are under-equipped and under-staffed, making it difficult to handle the growing number of cases efficiently.
• Bureaucratic and Administrative Challenges: The judicial process can sometimes be slowed down by inefficiencies in the system, including paperwork, administrative delays, and a lack of modernization in court processes.

How does it impact?

• Delay in Justice: The backlog results in long delays in cases, and justice is often delayed for years.
• Increased No. of Undertrials: The number of undertrials (accused awaiting trial) in prisons has increased, prisons are running at an over-capacity of 114%.
• Increased Costs: The delay in cases causes financial strain on the litigants and the government. It can also result in the erosion of public confidence in the judicial system.
• Overburdened Judges: Judges are often overburdened with cases, leading to burnout and further delays.

Efforts to Address the Issue

• Judicial Reforms: It includes increasing the number of judges, modernizing court infrastructure, and implementing e-courts and technology to speed up hearings.
• Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR): ADR mechanisms like arbitration, mediation, and conciliation are being promoted to resolve disputes outside of the traditional court system.
• E-Courts and Technology: The E-Courts Project has been an important initiative to digitize court proceedings and allow online hearings. This helps in streamlining case management and reducing physical backlogs.
• Fast Track Courts: Special courts or fast-track courts have been set up to handle specific types of cases like corruption, crimes against women, and long-pending cases to expedite the process.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The global economic landscape has been significantly reshaped by trade wars initiated during the US President Donald Trump and the broader trend of trade weaponization. These measures have had far-reaching effects on various sectors of the global economy.

What is a Trade War?

A trade war occurs when nations impose tariffs or trade barriers against each other in retaliation for perceived economic harm or unfair trade practices.

Key Example:

• S.-China Trade War (2018-Present): The U.S. imposed heavy tariffs on Chinese goods, citing intellectual property theft, unfair subsidies, and currency manipulation. In response, China levied counter-tariffs, leading to disruptions in global supply chains.

What is Trade Weaponization?

Trade weaponization refers to the strategic use of trade policies as geopolitical tools rather than purely economic measures. It includes economic sanctions, export controls, supply chain restrictions, and currency manipulation to exert pressure on rival nations.

Examples:

• S. sanctions on Huawei to curb China’s technological advancements.
• Russia’s gas supply cuts to Europe amid geopolitical tensions.
• China’s rare earth export controls to maintain dominance in technology manufacturing.
• Recent U.S. tariffs: A 25% tariff on all imports from Canada and Mexico and a 10% levy on Chinese goods.

Major Trade Wars and Trade Weaponization in Global Politics

• US-China Trade War:
  • The U.S. imposed tariffs on $550 billion worth of Chinese goods.
  • China retaliated with countermeasures, disrupting electronics, automobiles, and agriculture sectors.
• US Sanctions on Russia (2022-Present):
  • Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the U.S. and the EU imposed sanctions restricting oil, gas, and banking transactions.
• China’s Economic Coercion Tactics:
  • Australia: Bans on Australian coal, barley, and wine after it called for a COVID-19 origins investigation.
  • Taiwan: Banned Taiwanese food imports amid rising political tensions.
  • Lithuania: Blocked Lithuanian exports after it deepened ties with Taiwan.

Impacts of Trade War & Trade Weaponization

• Economic Disruptions:
  • Increased production costs, inflation, and energy price surges.
  • Disruptions to global supply chains and trade flows.
  • Shift of manufacturing away from China (e.g., Apple and Samsung moving production to India and Vietnam).
• Weaponization of Commodities:
  • Energy: Oil and gas as leverage in geopolitical conflicts.
  • Food: Grain exports being restricted as economic pressure.
  • Technology: AI and semiconductor supply chains becoming battlegrounds.
• Shifts in Global Alliances:
  • Friendshoring: Countries shifting trade towards geopolitical allies.
  • New Trade Alliances: India’s active participation in QUAD and IPEF.
  • Mineral Security Partnership (MSP): Diversifying and stabilizing critical mineral supply chains.
• Technology Wars:
  • The U.S.-China chip war over semiconductor dominance.
  • Rise of alternative payment systems (e.g., Russia’s Mir, India’s rupee-ruble trade).

Strategies and India’s Role in the Trade War Era

• India’s Response to the US-China Trade War:
  • ‘China Plus One’ Strategy: Global firms shifting production to India.
  • Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Attracting manufacturers in electronics, pharmaceuticals, and semiconductors.
• India-Russia Trade Relations Amid Sanctions:
  • Oil Imports: Increased imports of discounted Russian oil.
  • Alternative Payment Systems: Exploring RuPay and rupee-ruble trade to bypass SWIFT sanctions.
• India’s Strategy Against Chinese Trade Dominance:
  • Ban on Chinese Apps (2020): Over 200 apps, including TikTok, banned citing national security concerns.
  • Higher Import Duties: Raised tariffs on electronics, solar panels, and chemicals.
  • Strengthening Domestic Manufacturing: ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiatives to reduce reliance on Chinese goods.
  • Trade Diversification: Strengthening ties with ASEAN, Africa, and Latin America.
  • Tariff Adjustments: Raising tariffs on Chinese goods while negotiating Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with Australia, UAE, and the EU.

India’s Path Forward

• Strengthening Trade Partnerships: Expanding ties with the EU, ASEAN, and Africa.
• Investing in Critical Sectors: Developing semiconductor, renewable energy, and AI industries.
• Enhancing Supply Chain Resilience: Boosting indigenous manufacturing.
• WTO Reform: Addressing challenges posed by unilateral trade actions.

Future Outlook

• The era of free trade is gradually shifting toward economic nationalism and strategic decoupling. The rise of regional trade agreements (RCEP, IPEF, QUAD Economic Framework) and an increased focus on supply chain resilience indicate a movement toward de-globalization.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India’s role as a bridge between the Global North and South has gained significant attention in recent years, allowing India to amplify the voice of the Global South while fostering stronger ties with traditional partners in the Global North.

Understanding the Global North and Global South

• The Global North typically comprises advanced economies such as the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, and Australia, characterized by high GDP, industrialization, and technological dominance.
• In contrast, the Global South includes nations from Asia, Africa, and Latin America that face developmental challenges such as poverty, inadequate infrastructure, and climate vulnerability.
• Despite economic disparities, interdependence has grown between these two blocs. The North relies on the South for labor, resources, and markets, while the South benefits from investments, trade, and technology transfer.

India’s Diplomatic Efforts in the Global North

• Strengthening Strategic Partnerships: India’s relationship with countries like the United States, European Union, and Japan focus on areas like defense cooperation, economic collaboration, and technological exchange.
• Participation in Multilateral Forums: India’s active participation in multilateral forums such as the G20, BRICS, and the United Nations with aims to shape global policies and advocate for the interests of developing nations.
• Climate Leadership: India in a leadership role in climate action, promoting initiatives like the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI).
  • Initiatives like the Global Development Compact and Mission LiFE are steps in this direction.
• Economic Diplomacy: By showcasing its success in building and deploying digital public infrastructure, such as the Universal Payments Interface (UPI) and Aadhaar biometric identity program, India has gained interest from both developed and developing nations.
• Addressing Expatriate Concerns: India has been working to address the concerns of its large expatriate population in the Global North.
  • It includes providing support for employment-related issues, visa matters, and other expatriate concerns through its diplomatic missions.
• Promoting Cultural and Educational Exchanges: To strengthen people-to-people ties and enhance mutual understanding, that include student programs, cultural festivals, and academic collaborations.

India’s Diplomatic Efforts in the Global South

• South-South Cooperation: It includes bilateral agreements, trade partnerships, and development assistance programs in regions like Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
• Voice of the Global South Summits: India has convened the Voice of the Global South Summits since 2023, providing a platform for leaders and representatives of developing countries to discuss pressing global challenges.
  • These summits focus on issues such as food and energy security, climate change, and equitable development.
• BRICS and G77: India plays a significant role in BRICS nations and the Group of 77, advocating for the interests of developing nations in international forums.
  • These platforms allow India to push for reforms in global governance and promote inclusive decision-making.
• Vaccine Diplomacy: During the COVID-19 pandemic, India engaged in vaccine diplomacy, providing vaccines to several developing countries.
  • It helped strengthen India’s relationships with its neighbors and other nations in the Global South.
• Peacekeeping Operations: India has been a significant contributor to UN peacekeeping operations, deploying troops and resources to conflict zones in Africa and other regions.
  • This commitment to peace and stability enhances India’s diplomatic standing in the Global South.
• Economic and Technological Assistance: India has provided economic and technological assistance to developing countries, including infrastructure projects, capacity-building programs, and humanitarian aid.
  • These efforts aim to support sustainable development and improve the quality of life in the Global South.

Challenges in India’s Role as a Bridge

• Global Power Structures: The dominance of Western-led institutions limits India’s ability to push transformative reforms.
• Geopolitical Rivalries: India and China are vying for influence in regions like Africa and Asia, leading to competition in investment and development projects.
  • India’s efforts to counter China’s dominance while maintaining its own strategic interests can be a delicate balancing act.
• Balancing Divergent Interests: While the Global North focuses on issues like climate change, trade, and technological advancements, the Global South prioritizes poverty alleviation, infrastructure development, and access to basic services.
• Economic Disparities: Developing countries often face debt burdens and conditionalities imposed by international financial institutions, which can hinder their growth.
• Institutional Reforms: India’s push for reforms in global governance institutions, such as the UNSC, is met with resistance from established powers.
  • Achieving meaningful reforms that ensure more inclusive representation and decision-making is a complex and ongoing challenge.
• Resource Constraints: India itself faces resource constraints, including financial limitations and developmental challenges.
  • Balancing domestic priorities with its international commitments requires careful planning and resource allocation.

India’s Strategic Considerations and Global Positioning

• Geopolitical Balancing and Non-Alignment 2.0: Historically, India’s non-aligned stance during the Cold War allowed it to maintain autonomy in global affairs.
  • Today, it continues this balancing act by maintaining strong ties with both the United States and Russia, engaging in the QUAD alliance while being an active member of BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO).
• India as an independent emerging power: India’s growing role in the Global South is often seen as a counter to China’s rising global dominance.
  • Investment patterns in Africa indicate a race between India and China, with both nations focusing on countries with significant Chinese presence.
  • However, India’s approach is not solely about competition; it aims to establish itself as an independent emerging power with its own strategic trade, defense, and geopolitical interests.

Conclusion & Way Forward

• India’s role as a bridge between the Global North and South is a testament to its growing influence on the global stage.
• By fostering inclusive governance and development cooperation, India can effectively support the Global South while strengthening its own strategic interests.
• This balanced approach will help India navigate the complexities of global politics and contribute to a more equitable world.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The maritime boundary between India and Sri Lanka, particularly in the Palk Strait, has been a long-standing contentious issue. Allegations of illegal fishing, destructive fishing practices, and frequent arrests of Indian fishermen by the Sri Lankan Navy have fueled diplomatic tensions between the two nations.

Historical Context

• India and Sri Lanka have defined their maritime boundary through a series of agreements, focusing on territorial waters, exclusive economic zones (EEZ), and fishing rights:
• 1974 Agreement: India recognized Sri Lanka’s sovereignty over Katchatheevu, an uninhabited island in the Palk Strait.
• 1976 Agreement: Extended the maritime boundary and restricted fishing rights to the respective countries.

Key Issues

• Recurrent Arrests & Seizures:
  • Indian fishermen, especially from Tamil Nadu, frequently cross the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) in search of fish due to depleting fish stocks in Indian waters.
  • Sri Lankan authorities have responded with arrests, boat confiscations, and legal actions, straining diplomatic relations.
• Violation of the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL):
  • The IMBL, established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), demarcates territorial waters.
  • Indian fishermen claim historical fishing rights beyond the IMBL, leading to legal and diplomatic conflicts with Sri Lanka.
• Ecologically Destructive Fishing Methods:
  • Bottom trawling by Indian fishermen is a major concern for Sri Lanka, as it damages marine habitats and depletes fish stocks.
  • Sri Lankan fishermen advocate for sustainable fishing practices to protect their waters from over-exploitation.
• National Security Concerns:
  • Sri Lanka fears that organized trawler intrusions could be exploited by Tamil militant groups for illegal activities.
• Katchatheevu Island Dispute:
  • Indian fishermen retain limited rights to use Katchatheevu for drying nets and resting, but its sovereignty remains a contentious issue.
  • Tamil Nadu politicians periodically demand its return to India, keeping the dispute alive in public discourse.
• Livelihood Crisis:
  • Declining fish stocks in Indian waters have forced Indian fishermen into Sri Lankan territory, increasing conflicts.
  • Sri Lankan Tamil fishermen, recovering from decades of civil war (1983–2009), find their livelihoods threatened by Indian fishing incursions.

Recent Developments

• Diplomatic Talks & Agreements: India and Sri Lanka have held multiple discussions on the issue, with Sri Lanka urging India to ban bottom trawling.
• Joint Working Group on Fisheries: A bilateral mechanism to address fishing disputes and explore sustainable solutions.
• Deep-Sea Fishing Initiatives: The Indian government has introduced schemes to promote deep-sea fishing, but implementation has been slow.
• Continued Arrests: Despite diplomatic efforts, arrests of Indian fishermen persist, with incidents reported in 2023, 2024, and early 2025.

Potential Solutions

• Bilateral Agreements on Fishing Rights:
  • A structured agreement allowing regulated access to Sri Lankan waters for Indian fishermen under specific conditions.
• Technology and Sustainable Fishing:
  • Encouraging Indian fishermen to adopt sustainable fishing practices and transition to deep-sea fishing instead of bottom trawling.
• Joint Patrolling and Monitoring:
  • Strengthening cooperation between Indian and Sri Lankan Coast Guards to prevent illegal crossings and ensure fair treatment of fishermen.
• Compensation and Livelihood Support:
  • The government should provide financial aid and alternative employment opportunities for affected fishermen to reduce dependence on illegal fishing.
• People-to-People Diplomacy:
  • Facilitating dialogue between Indian and Sri Lankan fishing communities to foster mutual understanding and reduce tensions.

Conclusion

The India-Sri Lanka maritime dispute remains a complex issue with economic, diplomatic, and ecological dimensions. While diplomatic discussions continue, a comprehensive approach involving sustainable fishing practices, alternative livelihoods, and enhanced maritime cooperation is crucial to achieving a long-term resolution.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, Russia’s state-owned defense export company (Rosoboronexport) proposed a partnership with India on the Russian fifth-generation fighter aircraft (FGFA), the Su-57E.

India-Russia Defence cooperations

• Defence cooperation is a key aspect of the India-Russia strategic partnership, guided by the Agreement on the Programme for Military Technical Cooperation.
• The India-Russia defense cooperation also includes the supply and development of military equipment and technology, as well as agreements like the military technical cooperation and a Navy-to-Navy cooperation agreement.

Cooperation Frameworks

• Agreement for 2021-2031 signed during the India-Russia 2+2 Dialogue in 2021
• It aims to strengthen military cooperation in R&D, production, and after-sales support of armaments and military equipment.
• IRIGC-MTC : India and Russia have a structured approach for military cooperation, led by the India-Russia Inter-Governmental Commission on Military Technical Cooperation (IRIGC-MTC), established in 2000.
• Annual Defence Minister Meetings: The Defence Ministers meet annually to review ongoing projects and discuss military cooperation.
• Bilateral Projects: It includes the supply of S-400, licensed production of T-90 tanks and Su-30 MKI, supply of MiG-29 and Kamov helicopters, INS Vikramaditya (formerly Admiral Gorshkov), production of Ak-203 rifles in India and BrahMos missiles.
• Joint Exercises – “INDRA”: Tri-Service joint exercises, including the Indra exercise, have been held.
  • India also participated in the International Army Games and Ex Vostok in Russia.
• Exercise Aviaindra, a Biennial Air Force level exercise between Indian and the Russian Federation.
• India and Russia had previously signed a joint development deal in 2010 for the fifth-generation fighter aircraft (FGFA)program, but India withdrew in 2018 due to issues with technology transfer.

Latest Developments

• Su-57E in India: Russia’s state-owned defense export company  offered to localize production of the Su-57E in India, potentially starting as early as 2025, at the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) plant.
  • It would provide advanced fifth-generation technologies, including engines, Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars, optics, AI elements, software communication, and air weapons.
• These technologies could benefit India’s Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) program.
• Additionally, Russia proposed long-term cooperation with India in upgrading aircraft capabilities, building on 60 years of successful collaboration in aircraft production.
• Russia is considering a logistics support agreement similar to India’s Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) with the US.
• This would allow mutual use of military bases for refuelling, repairs, and resupply.
• Russia recently authorized the signing of the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Agreement (RELOS), which will facilitate military exchanges, exercises, training, port calls, and humanitarian assistance operations.

Importance

• India views Russia as a long-time ally, particularly from the Cold War era, with significant cooperation in defence, oil, nuclear energy, and space exploration.
• India-Russia defence relations are robust which highlight the compatibility of their military hardware, which India largely procures from Russia.
• The potential logistics agreement holds strategic significance for India, especially in the Arctic region, as it would enhance India’s presence in this geopolitically critical area with access to Russian military facilities.

Issues and Concerns

• Reliance on import : India is trying to develop into a defence manufacturing hub.
  • But it lacks a strong industrial base for military equipment.
  • Russia -Ukraine War has raised concerns about Russia’s ability to meet timelines for spares and hardware.
  • Western sanctions on Russia have raised concerns about delays in military deliveries
• China Factor : The  partnership has become complicated due to Russia’s growing ties with China, especially in light of the ongoing war in Ukraine, which is seen as a challenge for India.

Conclusion 

• India-Russia military technical cooperation has evolved over time from a buyer-seller framework to one involving joint research and development, co-development and joint production of advanced defence technology and systems.
• Therefore to maintain their partnership ,India and Russia must address emerging issues.
• This collaboration will continue to play a key role in shaping regional and global security.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: In 2025, the government allocated ₹96,777 crore for urban development, an increase from the previous year, but after adjusting for inflation, this marks a reduction.

Urbanization Growth

• India’s urbanisation is driven by economic distress, unlike the Global North where it followed industrialisation and colonial wealth transfer.
• India’s urbanisation is categorized as “poverty-driven urbanisation” with both rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration.
• The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the inadequacies of urban planning, with reverse migration showing gaps in infrastructure.

Key Urban Challenges in India

• Lack of precise data on urban population (2021 Census missing); around 40% of India’s population is urban.
• Planning Issues: Spatial plans are outdated, causing overcrowding and slums.
  • Plans focus on capital growth rather than addressing people’s needs.
• Climate Change Impact: Pollution, urban flooding, and heat island effects severely affect cities, especially in Delhi’s NCR region.
• Governance Challenges: Despite the 74th Constitutional Amendment, urban planning in Indian cities is controlled by undemocratic bodies.
  • Cities receive a minimal 0.5% of GDP in intergovernmental transfers.

Initiatives

• Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban (SBM-U) 2.0 was launched on October 1st, 2021 for a period of five years with a vision of achieving safe sanitation and scientific processing of municipal solid waste in all cities.
• AMRUT 2.0 was launched on 1st October 2021 to make cities ‘self-reliant’ and ‘water secure’.
• The Smart Cities Mission was launched to enhance the quality of life in 100 selected cities by providing efficient services, robust infrastructure, and a sustainable environment.
• The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U) 2.0 aims to construct 1 crore houses for urban poor and middle-class families over the next five years, with an investment of ₹10 lakh crore and a government subsidy of ₹30 lakh crore.
• Street Vending Plans: Development of 100 weekly ‘haats’ or street food hubs in select cities.
  • States encouraged to create street-vending plans for more hubs as per local needs

Suggestions and Way Forward

• The progress has been made towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) but still urban areas struggle with poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation.
• The challenges faced by Indian cities call for comprehensive national interventions to improve urban planning, governance, and infrastructure.
• Urban development requires sustained investments, with cities being recognized as growth hubs.
• There is a need to focus on sustainable, low-rise, radial development over high-rise buildings to prevent urban sprawl and reduce carbon emissions.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The promise of technology in education has always been to democratize learning, making quality education accessible to all.

• In a country as diverse as India, where socio-economic disparities shape access to resources, technology often widens the digital divide rather than bridging it.

Promise of Technology in Education

• Technology has revolutionized education in numerous ways, offering interactive and engaging learning experiences. Adaptive learning technologies personalize education, catering to individual learning styles and paces, thereby improving student outcomes.
• These include delivery of quality education; expanding access to education; training and retraining of teachers; preparing students for digital economy; promoting inclusivity and diversity; and automated administrative tasks etc.
• In 2018, nearly 90% of rural households had simple mobile phones and 36% had smartphones.
• In 2022, the proportion of households with smartphones had risen to over 74% and, according to ASER 2024, it has grown further to 84% this year.
• The proportion of children aged between 14 and 16 years who own a smartphone has risen from 19% to about 31% within a year.
• A study revealed that 87% of parents support the integration of technology in schools, recognizing its potential to enhance learning, thereby improving students’ understanding and retention of information.
• Economic Survey 2024-25 highlights the increase in computer and internet access in schools, which has significantly improved learning outcomes.

Concerns: Technology in Exacerbating Educational Inequalities

• Digital Divide(gap between those who have access to digital resources and those who do not):
• Lack of Internet Access: According to the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI), as of 2023, India had an internet penetration rate of approximately 50%.
  • Rural areas, in particular, face severe internet connectivity issues.
• Affordability of Devices: Smartphones, tablets, and laptops are essential tools for digital learning.
  • The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2022 highlighted that many students in government schools lacked access to personal digital devices.
• Quality of Digital Infrastructure: Schools in underdeveloped regions often lack adequate digital infrastructure, preventing the smooth implementation of e-learning programs.
• Gender Divide: In many conservative families, girls have restricted access to mobile phones and the internet.
• A UNICEF report on digital education in South Asia found that boys were more likely to have access to digital learning tools than girls.
• Language Barriers: A significant portion of online educational content is available in English, which disadvantages students from non-English-speaking backgrounds.
• Efforts to develop high-quality regional language content are still inadequate.
• Urban-Rural Disparity: Private schools in urban areas have seamlessly integrated technology into their teaching methods, while government schools in rural areas struggle with limited resources.

Policy Interventions and Government Initiatives

• National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: It emphasizes the use of technology to enhance learning while addressing accessibility concerns.
  • It calls for the development of digital infrastructure, particularly in rural areas.
• Digital India Campaign: It aims to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
  • It focuses on providing digital infrastructure, digital literacy, and delivering services digitally to ensure that technology reaches the remotest corners of the country.
• PM eVIDYA: It was aimed to provide multi-modal digital education through television, radio, and online platforms, ensuring that students without internet access could continue learning.
• DIKSHA (Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing): It offers free, high-quality educational content in multiple languages to promote inclusivity.
• Bharat Net Project: Aimed at expanding broadband connectivity to rural areas, BharatNet is crucial in reducing the urban-rural digital divide in education.
• National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR): It aims to create a unified digital infrastructure to energize and catalyze the education ecosystem.
• National Digital Library of India (NDLI): Managed by the Ministry of Education, NDLI is a virtual repository of learning resources, offering free access to a vast collection of educational materials, including textbooks, articles, videos, and audiobooks, catering to learners at all levels.

Way Forward: Ensuring Equitable Digital Education

• Improving Digital Infrastructure: Expanding affordable internet access, particularly in rural areas, is essential. Public-private partnerships can accelerate the development of reliable digital infrastructure.
• Affordable Digital Devices: Government and corporate initiatives should work towards providing subsidized digital devices to students from marginalized communities.
• Local Language Content: More investment is needed in creating high-quality educational content in regional languages to ensure accessibility for all students.
• Teacher Training in Digital Pedagogy: Educators must be equipped with the necessary digital skills to effectively integrate technology into classrooms. Training programs should focus on using tech-driven teaching methodologies to benefit diverse learners.
• Promoting Digital Equity for Girls: Addressing gender-based barriers to technology access through awareness campaigns and policy measures is crucial for ensuring equitable education.
• AI in Education: Artificial Intelligence is being utilized to create interactive and engaging learning experiences, especially in rural areas, making education more personalized and effective.

Conclusion

• Technology can either be a great equalizer or a force that deepens educational inequalities. While digital tools have the potential to revolutionize learning, their benefits remain out of reach for millions of students due to infrastructural, financial, and social barriers.
• Bridging the digital divide requires concerted efforts from the government, private sector, and civil society.
• Only through inclusive policies, improved access, and targeted interventions can we ensure that technology becomes a catalyst for equitable education rather than a contributor to inequality.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The question of whether India should develop its own sovereign, foundational AI model has gained prominence as the world increasingly relies on artificial intelligence for various applications.

• With global tech giants dominating the AI landscape, the idea of India building its own AI model is both ambitious and strategic.

About

• As artificial intelligence (AI) becomes central to economic and strategic policymaking, nations are racing to establish their leadership in this transformative technology.
• The rise of AI foundation models — large-scale AI systems trained on massive datasets — has raised concerns over technological dependence, data security, and national sovereignty.
  • While countries like the United States and China have developed their own sovereign AI models, India currently relies on models built by foreign corporations such as OpenAI, Google DeepMind, and Meta.

Understanding a Sovereign AI Model

• A sovereign AI model refers to an AI system developed, trained, and maintained within a country, using its own resources, data, and infrastructure.
• Unlike AI models built by multinational corporations, a sovereign AI model ensures that control over the data, decision-making processes, and ethical considerations remains in the hands of national stakeholders.

Why Does India Need Its Own Foundational AI Model?

• Data Sovereignty and Security: AI models are heavily dependent on data, and India generates one of the largest pools of digital data in the world.
  • Relying on foreign AI models raises concerns about data privacy, security, and potential misuse.
  • A homegrown AI model would ensure that India’s sensitive data—ranging from healthcare records to financial transactions—remains within the country.
• Reducing Dependence on Foreign Technology: Currently, India depends on AI systems built by American and Chinese companies.
  • These models operate under the policies and governance frameworks of their home countries, potentially limiting India’s ability to deploy AI in critical areas like defense, governance, and cybersecurity.
  • Developing an indigenous model would reduce this dependency and allow India to chart its own AI future.
• Alignment with Indian Values and Languages: Existing AI models are primarily trained on English-language datasets and Western-centric perspectives.
  • A sovereign Indian AI model can be designed to support regional languages and cultural contexts, making it more inclusive for India’s diverse population.
  • It can significantly boost AI adoption in rural and non-English-speaking populations.
• Boosting Innovation and Economic Growth: An indigenous AI model could foster a thriving AI ecosystem in India, encouraging startups, academic institutions, and industry collaborations.
  • It would create high-skilled jobs, attract investment, and position India as a global AI hub.
• National Security and Defense Applications: AI is increasingly being used in military applications, intelligence gathering, and cybersecurity.
  • Relying on foreign-built AI models in such domains can pose a significant national security risk.
  • A sovereign AI model would ensure that India has full control over its defense AI systems.

Challenges in Building a Foundational AI Model in India

• Computational Power and Infrastructure: Training large AI models requires massive computing resources, including high-performance GPUs and TPUs.
  • India’s current supercomputing infrastructure lags behind global AI powerhouses like the US and China.
  • To build a sovereign model, India would need significant investment in data centers, AI chips, and cloud computing.
• Data Scarcity and Quality: While India generates vast amounts of data, much of it is unstructured, fragmented, and not properly labeled for AI training.
  • The country must focus on improving data collection, annotation, and accessibility to develop high-quality AI models.
• Talent and Expertise: India has a strong IT workforce, but expertise in AI research, particularly in training foundational models, is still limited.
  • The country needs to invest in AI education, research institutions, and global collaborations to build a skilled AI workforce.
• High Costs and Investment Requirements: Developing a sovereign AI model requires billions of dollars in funding.
  • The Indian government must work with private sector companies, startups, and academia to secure the necessary investment.
  • Unlike tech giants such as Google and Microsoft, Indian firms have limited financial capacity to fund large-scale AI projects.
• Regulatory and Ethical Challenges: India must ensure that its AI model adheres to ethical AI principles, including fairness, transparency, and accountability.
  • Clear regulatory frameworks must be established to prevent misuse and bias in AI applications.

What Should India Need To Do?

• Invest in critical foundation models: Building foundational models for critical areas like national security, healthcare, and governance while relying on global models for less sensitive sectors.
  • India’s own foundation models offer unparalleled advantages in cultural representation, data sovereignty, and strategic autonomy.
• Build a DPI For Foundation Model Builders: India should develop datasets, APIs, tools for labelling and curating data, platforms for delivery of services, fine-tuning to a specific context, etc. It should create this as a mission-mode programme.
  • The initiatives of the AI4Bharat Centre at the Wadhwani School of Data Science and Artificial Intelligence (WSAI) demonstrate that a homegrown model can serve India’s multilingual population better.
  • Sarvam AI has already developed Sarvam 1, India’s first homegrown large multilingual language model, in collaboration with Nvidia.
• Encourage Advanced AI Research & Translation: India needs to focus on physical AI (embodied in robots), as well as neurosymbolic reasoning (rule-based logic to enhance AI’s decisionmaking).
  • Public-private partnerships, international collaborations, and phased investments in AI research could reduce risks while fostering a robust AI ecosystem.
• Develop National AI infrastructure: Under its India AI Mission, the govt is planning to create a high-performance AI computing infrastructure comprising over 10,000 GPUs, high performance computing clusters, secure cloud storage, and scalable AI research hubs.
  • Other nations are already developing their ‘Nextgen AI Factories’ – Denmark, with its Gefion supercomputer, and Japan, through its AI Grid initiative.

Way Forward: A Collaborative Approach

• Government, industry, and academia collaborate to create an open-source Indian AI model, supported by public-private partnerships.
• India partners with global AI research institutions to leverage existing expertise while ensuring its model aligns with national interests.
• The focus is on developing AI models tailored to India’s needs, such as AI for agriculture, healthcare, governance, and linguistic diversity.

Conclusion: A Strategic Necessity

• While building a sovereign AI model presents significant challenges, it is a strategic necessity for India. AI is set to become a key driver of economic growth, national security, and technological innovation.
• India must act decisively to invest in AI research, infrastructure, and policy frameworks to develop a homegrown AI ecosystem.