General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Justice Yashwant Varma controversy has reignited debates about judicial accountability, the process of appointing judges in India and brought the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) back into the spotlight.

Evolution of the Judiciary Appointments in India

• Pre-Collegium Era (1950–1973): Initially, Article 124(2) and Article 217 of the Constitution of India granted the President the power to appoint judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts, respectively, in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other judges.
• The executive had the upper hand in judicial appointments, with the President (on the advice of the Council of Ministers) making final decisions.
• First Judges Case (1981) –P. Gupta v. Union of India: The Supreme Court ruled that ‘consultation’ with the CJI did not mean ‘concurrence’ meaning the executive had more power in judicial appointments.
• It allowed greater government interference in appointments.
• Second Judges Case (1993) – Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association v. Union of India: It overturned the First Judges Case, and established the Collegium System, giving primacy to the judiciary in appointments.
• The ruling held that CJI’s recommendation, in consultation with senior judges, would be binding on the President.
• Third Judges Case (1998) – Presidential Reference: The composition of the Collegium was clarified:
• SC Judges’ appointments: The CJI and four senior-most judges.
• HC Judges’ appointments: The CJI and two senior-most judges.

National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)

• It was established through the 99th Constitutional Amendment in 2014 to replace the Collegium System with a committee including the executive with judiciary.
• It aimed to make judicial appointments more transparent by involving the executive and eminent persons alongside the judiciary.
• However, the Supreme Court of India, in 2015, struck down NJAC, ruling it unconstitutional, as it diluted judicial independence.

Key Reasons For Revisiting the NJAC

• Concerns Over Collegium System: Lack of transparency; No clear criteria for selection.
• The Supreme Court’s opaque decision-making process in appointments raises concerns about favoritism.
• Legislative Consensus & Judicial Overreach: The NJAC was passed with near-unanimous support in Parliament and ratified by 16 state legislatures, reflecting a broad consensus on the need for reform.
• It was argued that the reinstatement of the Collegium system (after NJAC) was an example of judicial overreach.
• Delays in Judicial Appointments: The long, secretive collegium process leads to delays in filling vacancies, affecting judicial efficiency.
• Executive-judiciary tension; Government delays in approving names.
• Lack of Diversity: The current system has been criticized for not ensuring adequate representation from various sections of society, particularly marginalized communities and women.
• Addressing Case Backlogs: With over 4.4 crore pending cases in Indian courts, judicial vacancies need urgent attention.
• A well-functioning NJAC can help streamline appointments, ensuring a faster selection process and filling vacancies more efficiently.
• Balancing Independence and Oversight: A revised NJAC can ensure that executive involvement does not compromise judicial independence.
• It could be achieved by maintaining a judiciary-dominated body while allowing limited and structured participation from the executive.

Way Forward

• Global Practices: Many democracies involve a mix of judicial and executive inputs in judicial appointments.
• The United Kingdom has the Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC), an independent commission ensuring merit-based appointments.
• Revisiting the NJAC could align India’s system with global best practices while addressing domestic concerns.
• The International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) released a report advocating for a new law to establish a ‘Judicial Council’, aiming for judicial appointments and transfers based on transparent, predetermined, and objective criteria.
• Modifying the Composition of NJAC: Instead of granting excessive influence to the executive, the revised NJAC can include members from the judiciary, executive, and civil society to ensure balanced participation.
• Ensuring Judicial Primacy: While the executive may be given a role, judicial independence should remain paramount by ensuring that judges hold a majority in the commission.
• Transparency Mechanisms: Clear guidelines on appointments, merit-based selection, and reasons for rejections should be made public to avoid favoritism.
• Timely Appointments: A defined timeline for recommendations and approvals should be mandated to prevent delays.
• Inclusion and Diversity: Special emphasis should be given to appointing judges from diverse backgrounds to make the judiciary more representative of society.

Conclusion

• The Justice Varma case underscores the urgent need for judicial reform in India. Revisiting the NJAC could provide a framework for a more transparent and accountable judiciary while preserving its independence.
• As the debate continues, the Supreme Court has an opportunity to lead the way in restoring public trust and ensuring the integrity of India’s judicial system.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The evolving defence partnership between India and the United States has brought significant advancements in technology sharing, joint exercises, and defence procurement, it raises critical questions about India’s strategic autonomy.

India-US Defense Ties

Cold War Period (1947-1991):

• Early Engagement (1947-1962): Initially, India and the US maintained diplomatic ties with limited military cooperation.
• Sino-Indian War (1962): The first major defense cooperation, though short-lived, occurred when the US and the UK provided military aid to India during its border conflict with China.
• US-Pakistan Alliance (1954-1971): Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement (1954) and SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955), which provided Pakistan with advanced American weaponry.
• Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Soviet Treaty (1971): India, in response to US’s support to Pakistan, signed the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation (1971), further distancing itself from the US.
• Post-1974 Relations and Nuclear Sanctions: – India’s nuclear test in 1974 (Smiling Buddha) led to US sanctions and a reduction in defense cooperation.
• The US, under its non-proliferation policy, imposed restrictions on India’s access to advanced military technology.
• India’s Non-alignment Policy and Strategic Partnership with the Soviet Union limited defense engagement with the US.

Post-Cold War Period (1991-2000):

• Economic Reforms and Strategic Shift (1991): India’s economic liberalization in 1991 brought both countries closer.
• The US recognized India’s growing strategic importance in Asia.
• Defense Cooperation Initiated (1995): – The signing of the Agreed Minute on Defense Relations in 1995 marked the beginning of formal military ties.
• It enabled military-to-military contacts and high-level defense dialogues.
• Nuclear Tests and Sanctions (1998): India’s nuclear tests in 1998 (Pokhran-II) resulted in renewed US sanctions under the Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.
• However, diplomatic efforts led to a gradual lifting of these restrictions by 2001.

Post-9/11 Era (2001-2010):

• Defense Policy Group (DPG) Revived (2001): Both nations resumed high-level defense talks and intelligence-sharing post-9/11.
• New Framework for US-India Defense Relationship (2005): It laid the foundation for deeper military cooperation, joint exercises, and technology transfers.
• US-India Civil Nuclear Deal (2008): The landmark 123 Agreement removed nuclear-related sanctions and enhanced strategic trust between both nations.
• Modern Era (2010-Present): Comprehensive Defense Partnership
• Defense Trade and Military Procurement: India is one of the largest importers of US defense equipment, purchasing advanced military hardware such as:
• C-17 Globemaster III and C-130J Super Hercules transport aircraft;
• Apache AH-64E and Chinook CH-47 helicopters;
• MH-60R Seahawk helicopters for the Indian Navy;
• P-8I Poseidon maritime surveillance aircraft;
• Predator MQ-9B drones for surveillance and reconnaissance;
• US designated India as a Major Defense Partner (MDP) in 2016, a status that facilitates defense trade and technology transfers at levels comparable to America’s closest allies.
• Strategic Agreements and Logistics Cooperation: India and the US have signed several foundational agreements, that have significantly boosted operational coordination, especially in the Indo-Pacific, like:
• Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) – 2016: Allows the armed forces of both countries to use each other’s bases for refueling and resupply.
• Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) – 2018: Enables secure communications between their military platforms.
• Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) – 2020: Facilitates sharing of geospatial intelligence and satellite data for military use.
• Joint Military Exercises: India and the US regularly conduct joint military exercises to enhance interoperability and readiness. Some notable exercises include:
• Malabar (Naval Exercise): Conducted with Japan and Australia as part of the Quad alliance.
• Yudh Abhyas (Army Exercise): Enhances land warfare coordination.
• Vajra Prahar (Special Forces Exercise): Strengthens counterterrorism capabilities.
• Cope India (Air Force Exercise): Focuses on aerial combat and air superiority.
• Indo-Pacific Strategy and QUAD Cooperation: With China’s growing assertiveness in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, India & US have aligned their strategic interests to ensure a free, open, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
• They are active members of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), along with Japan and Australia, aiming to promote maritime security, infrastructure development, and economic resilience in the region.
• Technology Transfer and Defense Innovation: The India-US Defense Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI) facilitates co-development and co-production of advanced defense technologies. Some of the key areas of collaboration include:
• Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET)
• Jet Engine Technology
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
• AI in Defense
• Cybersecurity and Space-based Systems

Challenges in India-US Defense Relations

• India’s Strategic Autonomy: India seeks to maintain its non-aligned stance, balancing relations with the US while continuing defense ties with Russia and France.
• Unpredictability in US Policy: The transactional nature of US foreign policy, influenced by changing administrations, adds an element of unpredictability.
• India must ensure that its defence strategy is not overly reliant on a single partner.
• Technology Transfer Restrictions: The US remains cautious in sharing sensitive defense technology.
• Indigenous Defence Capabilities: While the partnership has brought advanced technologies, it has not significantly boosted India’s indigenous defence manufacturing.
• CAATSA and Sanctions Concerns: India’s purchase of Russian S-400 missile defense systems risks US sanctions under the CAATSA law.
• Bureaucratic Hurdles: Complex procurement processes and policy mismatches slow down defense cooperation.

Way Forward

• Diversification of Partnerships: India should continue to engage with multiple defence partners to avoid over-dependence on any single country.
• Focus on Self-Reliance: Initiatives like ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ must be prioritized to build a robust domestic defence industry.
• Balanced Diplomacy: While deepening ties with the U.S., India must also maintain strong relationships with other global powers to ensure a balanced and independent foreign policy.

Conclusion

• India-US defense ties have grown stronger over the past two decades, evolving into a comprehensive security partnership.
• As both nations seek to maintain stability in the Indo-Pacific and counter emerging security threats, defense cooperation will continue to be a cornerstone of their bilateral relationship.
• By addressing challenges such as technology transfer, policy alignment, and strategic autonomy, the partnership can unlock its full potential for regional and global security.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India’s e-retail market is expected to triple to $170–$190 billion in gross merchandise value (GMV) by 2030 driven by an expanding shopper base and innovative business models.

India’s retail industry

• It is one of the fastest-growing globally and India is a key market for international retail giants, driven by its large middle class and untapped potential.
• The urban Indian consumer’s increasing purchasing power is fostering demand for branded goods across various categories.

Drivers of Growth

• Favorable Demographics: India’s large, young population, rising middle class, urbanization, and changing lifestyles are major contributors to retail growth, supported by favorable government policies.
• User adoption is spreading to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, with 60% of new shoppers since 2020 coming from smaller cities.
• The Northeast region shows higher e-retail penetration, with 1.2 times higher shopper adoption than other parts of India.
• Increase in Income and Purchasing Power: India ranks amongst the top economies in GDP by Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), with rising income levels and improved purchasing power, alongside a significant reduction in extreme poverty.
• Change in Consumer Mindset: A shift from traditional retail to online platforms has led to increased convenience, wider product selection, price sensitivity, trust in online transactions, and greater reliance on technology and fast delivery.
• Brand Consciousness: Consumers in India are becoming more brand-conscious, influenced by economic, cultural, and technological factors.
• Easy Consumer Credit and Quality Products: The growth of unsecured retail loans alongside a rise in quality products, has further boosted consumer spending.

Current Status

• India is currently the world’s second-largest e-retail market and had over 270 million online shoppers in 2024.
• India now trails only China, which boasts a staggering 920 million digital buyers.
• The market is valued at $60 billion in 2024, with a growth rate of 10–12%, down from over 20% due to macroeconomic pressures.
• Categories like grocery, lifestyle, and general merchandise are expected to drive 70% of incremental growth by 2030, with penetration levels rising two to four times.
• Quick commerce (Q-commerce), accounting for 10% of total e-retail GMV, is forecast to grow over 40% annually.

Challenges

• India’s e-retail market surged in 2024, but its annual growth rate has slowed due to broader economic challenges, including rising inflation, stagnant wages, and weakened consumer spending, particularly in urban markets.
• Many consumer brands have reported sluggish revenue growth, struggling to adapt to changing spending patterns.

Various initiatives

• The government has introduced policies to improve the business climate and simplify the process for foreign companies to establish fully owned subsidiaries, further boosting the retail sector’s growth.
• Government of India has allowed 100% FDI in online retail of goods and services through the automatic route, thereby providing clarity on the existing businesses of E-commerce companies operating in India.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• The COVID-19 pandemic has shifted consumer preferences, blending online and offline shopping experiences.
• Retailers are using innovative strategies, integrating e-commerce with traditional methods, and experimenting with new revenue models to enhance customer value.
• E-commerce is growing rapidly, offering consumers more choices at lower prices, and is expected to continue revolutionizing the retail industry.
• Retailers should focus on digital channels to reduce real estate costs and reach more customers in Tier II and Tier III cities.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Some doctors express ethical discomfort about performing abortions, especially as the pregnancy progresses.

• Concerns intensify in cases of advanced gestation, where Foetal viability debates emerge.

About

• Foetal Viability Debate: Viability refers to the point at which a fetus can survive outside the womb, but no definitive moment exists.
• As pregnancy advances, the fetus’s right to life grows stronger, making viability a contentious issue in legal and ethical discussions.

India’s Legal Stance on Abortion

• The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act permits abortions in specific predetermined situations.
• Before the enactment of the MTP Act in 1971, the medical termination of pregnancy was governed by the Indian Penal Code (IPC).
• Most of these provisions aimed at criminalising abortions, except where the procedure was done in good faith in order to save the woman’s life.
• The provisions failed to make a distinction between wanted and unwanted pregnancies, making it extremely onerous for women to access safe abortions.
• In 1971, the MTP Act was enacted by Parliament as a “health” measure, to decriminalise abortion in certain defined circumstances and under due supervision of registered medical practitioners.
• A pregnancy could only be terminated under Section 3(2) if it did not exceed 20 weeks.
• It laid down that the pregnancy can be terminated on the opinion of one doctor if it is done within 12 weeks of conception and two doctors if it is done between 12 and 20 weeks.
• The 2021 amendment to the MTP Act: Rule 3B permitted abortion up to 24 weeks for women due to change of marital status during the ongoing pregnancy, besides in cases of survivors of rape, victims of incest, and other vulnerable women.
• It also replaced the word “by any married woman or her husband” with the words “any woman or her partner”, bringing within the fold of the law pregnancies outside marriage institutions.
• After 24 weeks, the MTP Act requires medical boards of expert doctors to be set up by the state government in each district, which opine on whether to allow termination of pregnancy in case of substantial foetal abnormality.

Arguments in favour of MTP

• Bodily Autonomy and Reproductive Rights: Women should have the autonomy to make decisions about their own bodies, the Supreme Court has emphasized the importance of reproductive rights as part of personal liberty.
• Physical Health: If carrying a pregnancy threatens a woman’s health, including conditions like gestational diabetes or eclampsia, abortion may be justified to protect her life.
• Mental Health: In cases where pregnancy exacerbates mental health conditions (e.g., postpartum depression or psychosis), abortion may be necessary to safeguard the mental health of the mother.
• Non-Viable Fetuses: If the fetus has congenital abnormalities or conditions incompatible with life, abortion may be ethically acceptable to avoid prolonged suffering for the child.
• Unplanned Pregnancies: For women facing economic or social hardships, the ability to access abortion services can allow them to avoid further challenges.
• Reduction in Unsafe Abortions: Legal access to abortion reduces the number of unsafe, illegal abortions that often lead to serious health risks or even death for women.

Arguments Against MTP

• Right to Life of the Fetus: Ethical objections argue that the fetus has a right to life, especially as pregnancy progresses and fetal viability increases, making abortion less acceptable.
• Emotional and Psychological Effects: Terminating a pregnancy can have long-term psychological consequences for the woman, including guilt, regret, and emotional trauma.
• Non-Medical Abortions: There is a concern that allowing abortion may lead to its normalization as a method of birth control, rather than a rare and necessary medical intervention.
• Risk of Misuse: There is a concern that abortion laws may be misused, such as for sex-selective abortions or for non-medical reasons, like convenience.
• Negative Impact on Society: Widespread abortion could contribute to a decline in societal values regarding family and the value of life.
• Cultural Beliefs: Cultural norms often view abortion as morally unacceptable, especially when it’s perceived as a violation of the natural order or traditional family structures.

Way Ahead

• Access to Abortion Care: Making MTP pills more accessible and reducing administrative barriers could improve abortion access.
• Improved sex education and viewing abortion as a health service rather than a legal exception might help reduce stigma.
• Empathy in Medical Decision-Making: Doctors are encouraged to treat women with empathy, especially in emotionally and physically challenging situations involving late-term abortions.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Indian delegation discussed cross-border cooperation with Chinese officials during the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) on border affairs.

Key Highlights

• The meeting was part of efforts by the two sides to normalise bilateral relations.
• It also came in the wake of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s recent remarks about India-China cooperation being essential for global stability and prosperity.
• India and China explored ways to rebuild ties, focusing on people-to-people exchanges, including resumption of direct flights and Kailash Manasarovar Yatra.
• The two sides discussed resuming dialogue in a “step-by-step” manner to stabilize relations.

India-China Relations (2025 marks the 75 Years of Ties)

• Panchsheel Agreement:
• Signed in 1954 which emphasized the principles of peaceful coexistence, mutual respect for sovereignty, and non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, forming the foundation of India-China diplomatic relations.

Historical Tensions:

• Strained since the 1962 Sino-Indian war, deepened by recent clashes and mistrust.
• India restricted Chinese investments, banned Chinese apps (e.g., TikTok), and halted flights to China.
• Trade Relations: China overtook the U.S. in 2024 as India’s largest trading partner, with over $100 billion in imports. Despite tensions, economic ties continue to grow.
• Ongoing Mechanisms: Despite tensions, mechanisms like the Special Representatives (SR) and Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) have been in place to address the boundary issue.

Recent Developments:

• 2024 Disengagement: India and China announced successful disengagement in eastern Ladakh.

Key areas of concern in India-China Relations

• Ongoing Border Tensions:
• The unresolved border dispute spans over 2,000 miles, marked by frequent clashes.
• Incidents in Doklam (2017), Galwan Valley (2020), and northeastern states (Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh).
• Military Infrastructure: Both countries have heavily fortified the border with roads, railways, and airstrips for rapid troop mobilization.
• Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): India has expressed reservations about China’s Belt and Road Initiative, especially regarding the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which passes through territory of India.
• Trade imbalance: While politically desirable, reducing trade dependence is complicated by China’s economic influence and India’s need for foreign investment.

China’s growing presence in the Indian Ocean Region:

• Sri Lanka: China’s presence at Hambantota Port and investments in an oil refinery raise concerns in India.
• Nepal: China’s investments in infrastructure (e.g., Pokhara airport) challenge India’s strategic position.
• Bangladesh: China’s growing influence, including loan agreements, threatens India’s regional influence.
• Myanmar: China’s deepening ties with Myanmar’s junta, including the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor, strengthen its presence in India’s backyard.

India’s Efforts to Address these concerns

• India’s Defense Partnerships: Strengthened ties with France, Germany, Spain, and expanded naval alliances in Southeast Asia.
• Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad): India’s shift towards the U.S. and its allies to counter China’s growing influence.
• Maritime Security: India has prioritized maritime security, expanding its naval capabilities and strengthening defense ties with the U.S. and Japan.
• Countering the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): India joined alternative infrastructure projects such as the Global Infrastructure Facility and India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor to counter China’s BRI.
• Trade Relations: India seeks to reduce reliance on Chinese goods, especially in electronics and renewable energy.

Way Ahead

• Addressing the Border Issue: Resolving boundary disputes remains critical. Continued efforts through military and diplomatic negotiations—such as recent developments regarding Depsang and Demchok along the Line of Actual Control (LAC)—are essential to ensure stability and prevent future escalations.
• Diplomatic Engagements: Sustaining open and constructive dialogue is key. India should strengthen bilateral communication mechanisms and actively engage through regional and multilateral platforms such as BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and others to foster mutual understanding and strategic stability.
• Streamlining Unbanked Section: Awareness should be provided related to the importance of bank accounts in rural and tribal areas, financial literacy, mobile banking etc.
• Women: Pre- and post-pregnancy care, healthcare, education, childcare, skill-development, opportunities for financial improvement etc.

Need for Inclusive Development in India

• Addressing Inequality: India has significant disparities in income, education, healthcare, and living standards, particularly between urban and rural areas, and among different social groups.
• Empowering Marginalized Communities: Large sections of society, including tribal communities, women, and the differently-abled, remain excluded from mainstream development and opportunities.
• Promoting Social Justice: Inclusive development ensures that every citizen, regardless of their background, has access to the benefits of growth, promoting fairness and reducing social tensions.
• Economic Growth: India can unlock the full potential of its population, leading to more sustainable and equitable economic growth.
• Global Competitiveness: A more inclusive society leads to a more productive, skilled, and innovative workforce, enhancing India’s global competitiveness.
• Sustainable Development: It aligns with the goal of long-term, sustainable growth, considering the needs of all sections of society, including future generations.

Constitutional Framework for Inclusive Development

Fundamental Rights (Part III):

• Equality Before Law (Article 14): Guarantees equality for all citizens.
• Prohibition of Discrimination (Article 15): Ensures no discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
• Equality of Opportunity (Article 16): Ensures equal opportunities in public employment.
• Right to Education (Article 21A): Guarantees free education for children aged 6 to 14.
• Protection of Minorities (Articles 29 & 30): Safeguards the cultural and educational rights of minorities.

Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV):

• Social Justice (Article 38): Promotes the welfare of the people, focusing on justice and reducing inequalities.
• Promotion of Weaker Sections (Article 46): Aims to protect and promote the interests of SCs, STs, and OBCs.

• Reservation and Affirmative Action: Articles 15(4) and 16(4) allow for affirmative action, such as reservations in education and employment for SCs, STs, and OBCs.
• Panchayats and Local Governance (Part IX): Article 243N strengthens local self-governance, ensuring the participation of marginalized communities.
• Legal Protection for Vulnerable Groups: Laws like the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 protect disadvantaged communities from discrimination and violence.
• Judicial Oversight: The Supreme Court and High Courts ensure that policies align with the constitutional values of equality and justice.

Conclusion

• There are many Government initiatives focused on providing opportunities, resources, and social security for marginalized communities, ensuring broad-based growth and well-being.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Sagarmala Programme which was launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Ports has revolutionized India’s maritime sector.

About

• With a 7,500 km coastline, 14,500 km of potentially navigable waterways, and a strategic position on key global trade routes, India holds immense potential for port-led economic growth.
• The Sagarmala Programme is a key pillar of the Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision 2047 (MAKV), driving India’s ambition to become a global leader in maritime affairs. Building on Maritime India Vision 2030, MAKV sets ambitious targets, including 4 million Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT) of shipbuilding capacity and 10 billion metric tons of port handling annually, aiming to position India among the top five shipbuilding nations by 2047.
• MAKV outlines over 300 strategic initiatives to develop world-class ports, expand coastal and inland waterways, and promote a sustainable Blue Economy.

Sagarmala Programme

• Objectives: To streamline logistics, reduce costs, and enhance international trade competitiveness by shifting from traditional, infrastructure-heavy transport to efficient coastal and waterway networks.
• The program focuses on port modernization, industrial growth, job creation, and sustainable coastal development, ensuring minimal infrastructure investment while maximizing economic impact.

Components:

• The program consists of several key components aimed at transforming India’s maritime sector. The overall set of projects under the Sagarmala Programme are divided into 5 pillars.

Implementation Mechanism:

• Major Ports, central ministries, State Governments, state maritime boards, and other relevant agencies execute projects.
• Projects are selected based on the Master Planning of Major Ports, meetings of the National and State Steering Committees.

Funding Structure:

• Many projects are funded through the internal resources of MoPSW agencies, including Major Ports.
• Priority is given to private sector participation, with PPP models implemented wherever feasible.
• Sagarmala Development Company Limited (SDCL) was established to support project Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs).

Achievements:

• Coastal shipping grew 118% in a decade, Ro-Pax ferries moved over 40 lakh passengers, and inland waterway cargo rose 700%.
• Nine Indian ports rank in the world’s top 100, with Vizag in the top 20 container ports.

Sagarmala 2.0

• Sagarmala Startup Innovation Initiative (S2I2)
• Launched on March 19th 2025, it is a transformative program designed to foster innovation and entrepreneurship in India’s maritime sector.
• S2I2 supports startups in green shipping, smart ports, maritime logistics, shipbuilding technology, and sustainable coastal development by providing funding, mentorship, and industry partnerships.
• Anchored in the principles of RISE—Research, Innovation, Startups, and Entrepreneurship-S2I2 will drive technological advancements, enhance industry competitiveness, and accelerate economic growth.

Challenges

• Investment Mobilization and Budgetary Support: Securing timely investments and adequate budgetary allocations has been a persistent issue.
• Land Acquisition and Environmental Concerns: Acquiring land for infrastructure development, especially in coastal areas, involves complex legal and environmental considerations.
• Stakeholder Coordination: Effective implementation requires seamless coordination among central and state agencies, port authorities, and private sector participants.
• Connectivity Issues: Inadequate last-mile connectivity between ports and the hinterland affects the efficiency of cargo movement. Underutilization of domestic waterways and constrained rail infrastructure further exacerbate this problem.
• Community and Social Impacts: Port expansion and related industrial activities can lead to the displacement of local communities, particularly fishing populations.

Way Ahead

• Improve Inter-agency Coordination: Foster better collaboration between central, state, and local bodies for seamless execution.
• Focus on Sustainable Development: Ensure environmental safeguards, promote green ports, and support community livelihoods.
• Enhance Port-Hinterland Connectivity: Invest in multi-modal transport networks to improve last-mile cargo movement.
• Promote Indigenous Shipbuilding & Recycling: Support Make in India initiatives for maritime infrastructure and services.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: President Droupadi Murmu emphasized the importance of inclusive development for all regions, including those affected by Maoist extremism in Chhattisgarh.

About

• She stressed the need to balance modern development with environmental protection and the inclusion of all sections of society in the development process.
• Naxalism or Left Wing Extremism (LWE) is one of the major challenges to India’s internal security.
• Naxalites seek to overthrow the State through violent means.
• Naxal affected areas in India are known as the ‘Red Corridor’.
• The States of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa and Bihar are considered severely affected.
• She emphasized the “saturation approach” to ensure that no citizen is left behind in India’s development journey.

What is Inclusive Development?

• Inclusive Development refers to a development approach that ensures all segments of society have equal access to opportunities, resources, and benefits of economic, social, and political progress.
• It focuses on reducing inequality and addressing the needs of diverse populations.
• The Indian model of inclusive growth, viewed from a development economics perspective, has three pillars: Market economics, Empowerment, and Pragmatism.
• India ranked 62nd out of 74 emerging economies in the World Economic Forums’ Inclusive Development Index (IDI), last released in 2018.
• The three key approaches for inclusive development include:
  • Good governance (progressive politics, effective management and successful engagement in the global economy;
  • Structural transformation, (economic, social and demographic), and;
  • Multi-pronged policy and programme mix (macroeconomic policies, sound institutions, public-private sector development, effective economic policy management).

Identified Segments for Inclusive Development

• Tribal and Rural Communities: Assimilation of communities in society; educating at grassroot level; electricity, network connectivity; connectivity through roads; pucca houses; introduction to new basic technologies etc.
• Physically Disabled: Providing facilities such as wheelchairs and audio-visual aids; installation of ramps and tactical paths for easy accessibility; training of individuals on interacting with differently abled; skilling specially-abled, etc.
• Streamlining Unbanked Section: Awareness should be provided related to the importance of bank accounts in rural and tribal areas, financial literacy, mobile banking etc.
• Women: Pre- and post-pregnancy care, healthcare, education, childcare, skill-development, opportunities for financial improvement etc.

Need for Inclusive Development in India

• Addressing Inequality: India has significant disparities in income, education, healthcare, and living standards, particularly between urban and rural areas, and among different social groups.
• Empowering Marginalized Communities: Large sections of society, including tribal communities, women, and the differently-abled, remain excluded from mainstream development and opportunities.
• Promoting Social Justice: Inclusive development ensures that every citizen, regardless of their background, has access to the benefits of growth, promoting fairness and reducing social tensions.
• Economic Growth: India can unlock the full potential of its population, leading to more sustainable and equitable economic growth.
• Global Competitiveness: A more inclusive society leads to a more productive, skilled, and innovative workforce, enhancing India’s global competitiveness.
• Sustainable Development: It aligns with the goal of long-term, sustainable growth, considering the needs of all sections of society, including future generations.

Constitutional Framework for Inclusive Development

• Fundamental Rights (Part III):
  • Equality Before Law (Article 14): Guarantees equality for all citizens.
  • Prohibition of Discrimination (Article 15): Ensures no discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
  • Equality of Opportunity (Article 16): Ensures equal opportunities in public employment.
  • Right to Education (Article 21A): Guarantees free education for children aged 6 to 14.
  • Protection of Minorities (Articles 29 & 30): Safeguards the cultural and educational rights of minorities.
• Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV):
  • Social Justice (Article 38): Promotes the welfare of the people, focusing on justice and reducing inequalities.
  • Promotion of Weaker Sections (Article 46): Aims to protect and promote the interests of SCs, STs, and OBCs.
  • Reservation and Affirmative Action: Articles 15(4) and 16(4) allow for affirmative action, such as reservations in education and employment for SCs, STs, and OBCs.
  • Panchayats and Local Governance (Part IX): Article 243N strengthens local self-governance, ensuring the participation of marginalized communities.
  • Legal Protection for Vulnerable Groups: Laws like the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 protect disadvantaged communities from discrimination and violence.
  • Judicial Oversight: The Supreme Court and High Courts ensure that policies align with the constitutional values of equality and justice.

Conclusion

• There are many Government initiatives focused on providing opportunities, resources, and social security for marginalized communities, ensuring broad-based growth and well-being.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, the Chief Justice of India (CJI) initiated an unprecedented three-member in-house inquiry into the conduct of Delhi High Court judge Justice Yashwant Varma.

About the In-House Inquiry

• Origins and Evolution:
  • The need for an in-house inquiry mechanism arose in 1995 following allegations of financial impropriety against Bombay High Court Chief Justice A.M. Bhattacharjee.
  • In-House Procedure was formulated by the Supreme Court in 1997 following a case involving allegations against Justice V. Ramaswami, a former SC judge.
  • The process was refined in 2014 after a sexual harassment complaint led to the establishment of a seven-step inquiry framework

Key Features of the In-House Inquiry

• Distinct from Impeachment: Unlike impeachment, which requires Parliamentary approval under Article 124(4) of the Constitution, the in-house inquiry is an internal mechanism aimed at addressing conduct inconsistent with judicial values.
• Formation of Inquiry Committees: Committees typically consist of senior judges from different High Courts to ensure impartiality.
  • For the current case, a three-member committee includes the Chief Justice of Punjab & Haryana High Court, Chief Justice of Himachal Pradesh High Court, and a Justice of Karnataka High Court.
• Transparency: Recent inquiries have demonstrated a commitment to transparency, with reports and evidence made publicly accessible.

Process of In-House Inquiry

• Preliminary Scrutiny: Complaints against judges are first examined by the Chief Justice of India (CJI) in the case of SC judges, or by the Chief Justice of the respective High Court for HC judges.
• Formation of a Committee: If a prima facie case is established, a three-judge committee is formed to investigate the allegations.
• Inquiry Proceedings: The committee examines the evidence, questions the accused judge, and determines whether the allegations hold merit.
• Report Submission: The committee submits its findings to the CJI, who then decides on further action.

Possible Outcomes

• If the judge is found guilty of misconduct, the report is sent to the President of India for consideration of removal via Parliamentary impeachment.
• If the misconduct is minor, the judge may be advised to resign voluntarily.
• If the allegations are baseless, the matter is dropped.

Challenges in the In-House Inquiry Process

• Lack of Transparency: The inquiry is conducted behind closed doors, and reports are not made public. It raises concerns about accountability.
• No Binding Authority: Even if misconduct is established, the judiciary cannot directly remove a judge; impeachment by Parliament is required.
• Rare Impeachment: The complex impeachment process makes it nearly impossible to remove judges, as seen in the cases of Justice Ramaswami (1991) and Justice S. N. Shukla (2022).
• Political Influence: The impeachment process can be influenced by political considerations, reducing its effectiveness.
• Delayed Justice: Investigations often take years, diminishing public faith in judicial accountability.

Notable Cases of Judicial Inquiry in India

• Justice V. Ramaswami Case (1991): The first judge to face impeachment proceedings, but Parliament failed to remove him due to political maneuvering.
• Justice Soumitra Sen Case (2011): Found guilty of financial misconduct by an in-house inquiry; the Rajya Sabha passed an impeachment motion, but he resigned before the Lok Sabha could vote.
• Justice S. N. Shukla Case (2022): Accused of favoring private medical colleges; he was found guilty by an in-house inquiry, but impeachment did not follow.

Recommendations for Reform

• Make Inquiry Reports Public: Increasing transparency will enhance public trust.
• Strengthen Judicial Oversight Bodies: The establishment of Judicial Standards and Accountability Commission will be a significant step towards ensuring transparency and accountability in the judiciary.
• Introduce Alternative Disciplinary Mechanisms: Instead of only relying on impeachment, other disciplinary actions like suspensions or fines should be considered.
• Ensure Time-Bound Proceedings: Delays in inquiries should be minimized to prevent judicial misconduct from going unpunished.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Chemicals and Fertilizers highlights several key issues and recommendations regarding India’s fertilizer sector.

Key Recommendations of the Committee:

• Funding Concerns: The committee is concerned about the Ministry of Finance’s reduction in the Department of Fertilizers’ budget allocation for 2025-26, specifically impacting the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) and Urea Subsidy Schemes.
  • It urges the Union Fertilizers Ministry to seek additional funds at the revised estimate stage to prevent negative effects on farmer subsidy schemes.
• Nano Fertilizer Promotion: Committee emphasizes the need to expand production capacity for nano urea and nano diammonium phosphate (DAP).
  • It calls for a strategy to popularize these nano fertilizers among farmers, citing their potential to improve crop yields and reduce conventional fertilizer usage.
• Raw Material Security: The committee highlights the lack of mining lease agreements for raw material extraction, exploration, refining, or production.
  • It recommends that the Centre enter into such agreements to strengthen domestic supply and achieve self-sufficiency in fertilizers.
• Fund Utilization: It points out underutilization of funds across various fertilizer categories during 2024-25.
  • It recommends that the Centre ensures full utilization of allocations in a planned and continuous manner.
• Urea Subsidy Scheme: Given urea’s importance in food-grain production, the committee stresses the need for the Urea Subsidy Scheme to continue.

Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Policy

• Objective: Launched in 2010, the NBS Policy aims to:
  • Provide subsidized fertilizers to farmers
  • Promote balanced use of nutrients, ensuring soil health
  • Reduce fiscal burden by making subsidy nutrient-specific
• Validity: The policy has been approved for implementation until the financial year 2025-26.
• Legal Framework: It operates under the Fertilizer (Control) Order (FCO), 1985, which is issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955.
  • The FCO sets standards for fertilizer use, specifications, licensing, and trading regulations.
• Scope and Eligibility: The NBS policy covers 25 grades of Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) fertilizers, including common ones like Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), Muriate of Potash (MOP), Mono Ammonium Phosphate (MAP), and Triple Super Phosphate (TSP).
  • The government sets a fixed subsidy rate (in Rupees per kilogram) for each primary nutrient in these fertilizers: Nitrogen (N), Phosphate (P), Potash (K), and Sulphur (S).
• Subsidy Determination: An Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) plays a critical role in recommending the per-nutrient subsidy rates for N, P, K, and S.
  • These recommendations are made before the start of each financial year and are then considered by the Department of Fertilizers for final approval.
• Key implications: The NBS policy allows for the price of fertilizers to fluctuate according to the cost of the raw materials used to produce the fertilizers. Thus the subsidy amount changes, but the farmer still receives a subsidized fertilizer.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Meghalaya government is pushing for a TB-free State by re-skilling TB survivors and bringing them back into control programmes as ‘TB champions’.

TB Champions

• A TB Champion is a person who has been affected by TB and successfully completed the treatment.
• As survivors, they can provide valuable support to those with TB and their families.
• NTEP has designed a standard sensitization and training curriculum for empowering TB survivors as TB Champions.
  • TB survivors themselves can access the self-learning modules available online.
  • Districts can coordinate with NTEP partners or local NGOs to conduct the training.

What is Tuberculosis?

• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that most often affects the lungs and is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• It spreads through the air when infected people cough, sneeze or spit.
• Symptoms: prolonged cough (sometimes with blood), chest pain, weakness, fatigue, weight loss, fever, night sweats.
• While TB usually affects the lungs, it also affects the kidneys, brain, spine and skin.
• Treatment: It is preventable and curable with antibiotics.
• TB Vaccine: The Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine remains the only licensed vaccine against TB; it provides moderate protection against severe forms of TB (TB meningitis) in infants and young children.

TB in India

• TB as a global health challenge: India has the highest TB burden in the world, contributing to 26% of the global burden and 29% of global TB-related deaths.
• India is followed by Indonesia (10%), China (6.8%), the Philippines (6.8%), and Pakistan (6.3%).
• Multidrug-Resistant TB: India represents 27% of the world’s multi-drug-resistant TB cases, underscoring the need for specialized treatment approaches.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) has recognised India’s progress, with a 17.7% decline in TB incidence from 2015 to 2023, a rate more than double the global decline of 8.3%.
• India’s goal is to eliminate tuberculosis (TB) by 2025, five years ahead of the global target of 2030.

Challenges Faced by India in Eliminating TB

• Drug-resistant TB cases: India has a significant burden of drug-resistant TB, including multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB).
  • This type of TB is much harder to treat and requires more expensive, specialised drugs and a longer duration of treatment.
• Diagnostics and Case Detection: The accurate and timely diagnosis of TB remains a challenge.
  • Some areas lack access to modern diagnostic tools, leading to reliance on older methods with limitations.
• Poor primary health-care and infrastructure: In many parts of India, especially in rural and remote areas, there is limited access to healthcare facilities.
  • This can result in delayed diagnosis and treatment, allowing TB to spread within communities.
• Stigma and Awareness: Stigma associated with TB lead to delays in seeking healthcare, and lack of awareness about the disease contribute to its persistence.
• Private Sector Engagement: A significant portion of healthcare services in India is provided by the private sector.
  • Coordinating efforts between the public and private sectors and ensuring standardized treatment protocols are crucial for effective TB control.
• Treatment Adherence: TB treatment requires a prolonged course of antibiotics, and ensuring patient adherence to the full course is challenging.
• Vulnerable Populations: Certain populations, such as migrant workers, urban slum dwellers, and those living in crowded conditions, are at higher risk of TB.

Steps Taken by Government of India to Eliminate TB

• Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program (RNTCP): The RNTCP, launched in 1997, was the flagship program to control TB in India.
  • The program has been continuously revised and strengthened over the years.
• National Tuberculosis Elimination Program (NTEP): The Government of India has developed a National Strategic Plan (2017-25) for Ending TB in the country by 2025.
• Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (PMTBMBA): Launched in 2022 for community support to TB patients with the objective to provide nutritional, diagnostic and vocational support.
• Universal Drug Susceptibility Testing (DST): The government has scaled up efforts to provide universal access to drug susceptibility testing, helping to identify drug-resistant strains of TB early and tailor treatment accordingly.
  • Earlier, the patients were started on first line treatment and were tested for drug resistance only if the therapy did not work.
• Ni-kshay portal: An online Ni-kshay portal has been set up to track the notified TB cases.
• New Drugs: Newer drugs such as Bedaquiline and Delamanid for the treatment of drug-resistant TB have been included in the government’s basket of drugs provided free TB patients.
• R&D for Treatment: Researchers have been studying shorter three- and four-month courses of anti-tubercular drugs, instead of the existing six-month therapy.
• Vaccine Development: Trials are underway to test the effectiveness of a vaccine called Immuvac, which was initially developed to prevent leprosy, in preventing TB.
  • Researchers are also testing VPM1002, which is a recombinant form of the BCG vaccine modified to express the TB antigens better.