General Studies Paper -3

Context: As satellite internet becomes a crucial component of global connectivity, and the competition to dominate satellite-based communications is not just about technological advancement but also about national security, economic influence, and digital sovereignty.

About Satellite Net 

• It is communications infrastructure in space that has the potential to connect underserved and unserved regions, transforming education, healthcare, and commerce, which are critical for national security.
• However, the ability to control satellite networks can influence military operations, surveillance, and emergency response systems.
• As nations race to secure orbital slots, frequency bands, and Low-Earth orbit (LEO)dominance, the competition extends to domains like:
  • Cybersecurity and surveillance;
  • Digital colonization risks;
  • Sovereignty over data and infrastructure;
  • Military dual-use of satellites;
• It is not only technological but deeply geopolitical, with ramifications across spectrum allocation, national sovereignty, data governance, and digital dominance.

Strategic Players

• United States: Dominates with SpaceX’s Starlink, boasting over 5,000 satellites in orbit.
• China: Developing its own LEO constellation called Guowang, aiming to avoid reliance on Western networks.
• Others: OneWeb (United Kingdom), Amazon’s Project Kuiper

India’s Satellite Internet Strategy

• India still has regions where fiber optic cables have never reached, and cellular towers remain sparse.
• India is planning satellite internet networks via Bharti-backed OneWeb and Jio’s collaboration with SES, positioning itself as a regional player.
• Recent partnerships between SpaceX and Indian telecom giants Airtel and Jio to expand Starlink services across India mark a fundamental shift in connectivity, sovereignty, and economic power.

Radio Frequency Spectrum and Sovereignty

• The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs spectrum access on a ‘first come, first served’ basis. It incentivizes a space race among major powers.
• For countries of the Global South, particularly India, it raises urgent questions about access parity.
• India has pushed for a more equitable model of spectrum distribution, echoing its calls for Global South-centric multilateralism.

Challenges and Concerns

• Monopoly Concerns in Satellite Internet: With around 7,000 satellites already in orbit, SpaceX enjoys a first-mover advantage in the LEO internet market.
  • The dominance of US-based Starlink raises concerns about digital influence, particularly as China develops its rival GuoWang constellation.
• Market Risks: A monopolistic structure could lead to concerns about competition, pricing, and dependency.
  • Private companies wielding nation-state levels of influence over critical infrastructure pose strategic risks, as seen when SpaceX briefly cut Ukraine’s Starlink access during military operations.
• Space debris: With tens of thousands of satellites expected, orbital crowding poses serious environmental and collision risks.
• Regulatory vacuum: International rules governing LEO satellite operations are underdeveloped, creating loopholes.
• Digital divide: While promising connectivity for underserved regions, satellite internet might exacerbate inequalities if monopolized.

Framework for Satellite Internet Geopolitics 

• Digital Sovereignty (High Economic Value, High Geopolitical Control): Nations achieve both profitable telecommunications and strategic independence.
• Example: China’s GuoWang constellation, a state-controlled satellite system ensuring economic benefits while maintaining complete national control.
• Market Dominance (High Economic Value, Low Geopolitical Control): A highly profitable system, but control remains outside the host nation’s hands.
• Example: Starlink (SpaceX), offering strong commercial potential worldwide but limiting host countries’ control.
• Strategic Asset (Low Economic Value, High Geopolitical Control): Satellites provide strategic value but lack commercial viability.
• Example: India’s limited indigenous satellite capacity, which is strategically vital but economically suboptimal.

Indian Perspective

• Technological Capability: ISRO’s SatCom division and private players like Tata, Reliance, and Bharti must scale domestic production and launch capacity to ensure self-reliance.
• Strategic Autonomy: India must avoid dependence on foreign orbital networks for critical services. Satellite-based internet must be embedded in national cyber strategy.
• Legal Frameworks: Updating the Satellite Communications Policy and Spacecom Policy is vital to regulate foreign players and protect digital sovereignty.
• Diplomatic Positioning: India can leverage forums like the Quad and BRICS to push for norms on fair access, orbital debris management, and peaceful space usage.

Conclusion 

• The race for satellite internet dominance is shaping global geopolitics, influencing digital sovereignty, economic dependencies, and national security.
• As India navigates this evolving landscape, balancing technological partnerships with strategic autonomy will be crucial for its future in the digital age.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: World Health Day, observed annually on 7 April, highlights pressing global health issues and mobilises action to improve public health outcomes.

About

• It was founded by WHO in 1950.
• The idea for World Health Day originated from the first World Health Assembly, held in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1948.
• It is aimed at uniting governments, institutions, and communities to address global health priorities.
• 2025 Theme: “Healthy Beginnings, Hopeful Futures” focuses on maternal and newborn health, urging countries to reduce preventable deaths and prioritize women’s long-term well-being.
• India’s Commitment: The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, strengthens efforts for equitable, accessible, and quality healthcare.
• According to WHO, close to 300,000 women lose their life due to pregnancy or childbirth each year, while over 2 million babies die in their first month of life and around 2 million more are stillborn.
• Based on current trends, 4 out of 5 countries are off track to meet targets for improving maternal survival by 2030.

India’s Maternal Mortality and Child Mortality

• MMR (Maternal Mortality Ratio) in India dropped from 130 (2014-16) to 97 (2018-20) per 1,00,000 live births – a decline of 33 points.
• Infant & Child Mortality: IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) dropped from 39 (2014) to 28 (2020) per 1,000 live births.
• NMR (Neonatal Mortality Rate) reduced from 26 (2014) to 20 (2020) per 1,000 live births.

Challenges in India’s Healthcare

• Limited Access to Healthcare: Rural and remote areas often lack sufficient healthcare facilities and trained professionals.
• Poor Infrastructure: Inadequate medical infrastructure, including hospitals, equipment, and sanitation, especially in underserved regions.
• High Disease Burden: India faces a heavy burden of both infectious and non-communicable diseases, requiring diverse healthcare solutions.
• Financial Barriers: High out-of-pocket expenses for healthcare, leading to financial strain on low-income families.
• Inequality in Healthcare Access: Disparities in healthcare access based on geography and socioeconomic status.
• Shortage of Skilled Workforce: Insufficient number of healthcare workers, including doctors, nurses, and specialists.
• Fragmented Health System: Lack of integration and coordination between public and private health sectors.

Government Initiatives

• Maternal Death Surveillance and Response (MDSR): Conducted at facility and community levels to identify causes of maternal deaths and implement corrective actions for improving obstetric care.
• Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) Portal: A name-based digital platform to track pregnant women and newborns, ensuring timely antenatal, delivery, and postnatal care.
• Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB): Part of POSHAN Abhiyan; focuses on testing, treatment, and prevention of anaemia in adolescents and pregnant women.
• National Health Mission (NHM): Focused on improving maternal and child health, expanding digital health access, and enhancing infrastructure and services.
  • The Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM) is a unified digital health ecosystem to securely connect patients, healthcare providers, and systems through an interoperable digital infrastructure.
• Disease Elimination & Control: India’s major strides in malaria elimination, with a 69% drop in cases and 68% reduction in deaths between 2017 and 2023.
  • India has eliminated Trachoma as a public health problem in 2024.
  • Under the National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP), TB incidence fell by 17.7% between 2015 and 2023.
  • India has successfully achieved Kala-azar elimination as of 2024.

Conclusion

• Maternal and newborn health is crucial for several reasons, as it directly impacts the well-being of mothers, infants, families and communities.
• Prioritizing regular health check-ups throughout pregnancy can help with early detection and management of potential complications.
• India’s advancements in public health, especially in maternal and child care, reflect a strong commitment to equitable and inclusive healthcare.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Thailand to attend the 6th BIMSTEC Summit in Bangkok, at the invitation of Thai Prime Minister Paetongtarn Shinawatra.

India-Thailand Strategic Partnership

• Historical Background : India and Thailand share a long history of warm and cordial relations, with diplomatic ties established in 1947.
  • Both countries celebrated the 75th anniversary of these relations in 2022.
• Cooperation areas :  bilateral ties cover a broad range of areas, including trade, investment, defence, security, connectivity, culture, tourism, education, science, and technology, as well as people-to-people exchanges.
  • Thailand’s ‘Act West’ policy complements India’s ‘Act East’ policy, and Thailand is an important maritime neighbor to India.
• Multilateral framework : Regionally, Thailand plays a key role in various multilateral frameworks with India, such as ASEAN, the East Asia Summit (EAS), BIMSTEC, Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (MGC), Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), and ACMECS, reinforcing their strong and strategic partnership.
• Defence Cooperation: India and Thailand’s defence ties are formalized through the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Cooperation, signed on January 25, 2012.
  • These include regular defence dialogues, joint maritime patrols, annual staff talks, training exchanges, and participation in trilateral/multilateral military exercises.
• Economic & Commercial Cooperation: Bilateral trade between India and Thailand has significantly increased in recent years.
  • In FY 2023-2024, Thailand was India’s 21st largest trading partner, with a total trade value of approximately USD 14.94 billion.
  • In 2024, India became Thailand’s 11th largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching around USD 17.5 billion.
• Cultural and Tourism Cooperation and Connectivity: The Swami Vivekananda Cultural Centre in Bangkok, opened in 2009, promotes cultural ties.
  • The India-Thailand Cultural Exchange Programme (CEP) for 2022-2027 was signed in December 2022.
• Tourism: India and Thailand are closely connected by over 400 weekly flights across 15 Indian cities.
  • In 2024, around 2.1 million Indian tourists visited Thailand, making up 6% of the total foreign visitors.
  • To enhance people-to-people ties, India offers a 30-day e-tourist visa to Thai nationals, and Thailand has extended a 60-day visa-free entry for Indian passport holders.
• Education Cooperation: The MoU on Education Cooperation was signed in 2005. India offers about 75 scholarships annually to Thai nationals and 1,000 Ph.D. fellowships to ASEAN countries, including 100 for Thailand.
• Indian Diaspora in Thailand: The Indian-origin population in Thailand is estimated at 4-5 lakh, including over 25,000 NRIs.
• Latest Developments: Both countries discussed a wide range of bilateral issues, including defence, trade, education, health, culture, and security.
  • Several MoUs were exchanged, and a new India-Thailand Strategic Partnership was established, aimed at strengthening their relationship across various sectors.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: PM Modi attended the 6th BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) Summit, hosted by Thailand, which is the current chair.

About

• Theme: “BIMSTEC: Prosperous, Resilient, and Open”
• Focus on shared growth amid global uncertainties.
• The BIMSTEC Summit is the first in-person meeting in seven years.
• The chairmanship of the regional grouping was handed over to Bangladesh.

India-led Initiatives:

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi proposed a 21-point action plan.
• Mitigation and Disaster Management:
  • Establishing the BIMSTEC Centre of Excellence for Disaster Management in India to cooperate in disaster management, relief and rehabilitation.
  • Fourth joint exercises between BIMSTEC Disaster Management Authorities to be held in India this year.
• BODHI Program for skilling youth: BODHI [BIMSTEC for Organized Development of Human Resource Infrastructure] under which training and scholarships would be provided to professionals, students, researchers, diplomats and others.
  • 300 youths from BIMSTEC countries in India every year.
• To Strengthen people-to-people linkages: India to host BIMSTEC Athletics Meet (this year).
  • First BIMSTEC Games in 2027
  • BIMSTEC Traditional Music Festival.
• Youth-focused initiatives: Young Leaders’ Summit, Hackathon, Young Professional Visitors program.
  • Pilot study on Digital Public Infrastructure, cancer care capacity building.
  • Proposal for BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce and Business Summit.
  • Proposed establishing connectivity between India’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and the payment systems of BIMSTEC member states.
  • Such integration would bring substantial benefits across trade, industry and tourism, enhancing economic activity at all levels.
• Space Sector: Build nano-satellites for the BIMSTEC member nations and also explore the setting up of ground stations and promote the use of remote sensing data.
• Sustainable Maritime Transport Centre: Proposed the establishment of a Sustainable Maritime Transport Centre in India to enhance coordination in capacity building, research, innovation and maritime policies.

Summit Outcomes:

• BIMSTEC Bangkok Vision 2030: It’s the first long-term plan to make BIMSTEC more prosperous, strong, and open by the year 2030.
  • The vision focuses on improving trade, transport links, and people’s safety and well-being
• Rules of Procedure for BIMSTEC: This sets clear rules for how BIMSTEC will work, helping the group to function more smoothly and efficiently.
• Report by the BIMSTEC Eminent Persons’ Group: This report gives helpful suggestions for how BIMSTEC should move forward, in line with the 2030 vision.
• Agreement on Maritime Transport Cooperation: A new agreement was signed to improve sea transport between South and Southeast Asia.
  • This will help reduce shipping costs, make trade faster, and make it easier for goods and people to move across the region

About BIMSTEC

• It is a regional cooperation organization formed in 1997 with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
• It unites South and Southeast Asian nations bordering the Bay of Bengal.
• Founding Members (1997): Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand.
• Current Members: It comprises seven member states, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• Objective: To help countries in their economic growth, to support social development, and to encourage development in other areas, like science, technology and economic development.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Digital child abuse, fueled by AI-based exploitation, is an emerging threat, and protecting children from these dangers requires urgent regulatory, technological, and social interventions.

Digital Child Abuse & Implications

• Digital child abuse refers to any form of harm inflicted on children through online platforms. It includes:
• Cyberbullying: Harassment and intimidation through social media, messaging apps, and gaming platforms.
  • Exposure to Harmful Content: Children being exposed to pornography, graphic violence, and inappropriate material.
• Online Grooming: Predators luring minors into exploitative relationships.
  • Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM): It refers to material (audio, video, and images) that depicts a sexually explicit portrayal of a child.
• Identity Theft and Privacy Violations: Misuse of children’s personal data for illegal activities.
  • Data Mining and Privacy Breaches: AI algorithms analyze children’s data from educational apps, social media, and gaming platforms to create behavioral profiles, which can be exploited by malicious actors for targeted manipulation, harassment, or identity theft.
  • International AI Safety Report 2025 flags the imminent risk of the generation, the possession, and the dissemination of CSAM with the help of AI tools.
  • Internet Watch Foundation, in October 2024, underscored the proliferation of CSAM on the open web.
• The World Economic Forum, in 2023, highlighted how generative AI can create life-like images, especially of children.

Current Status Digital Child Abuse

• According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) Report 2022, cybercrimes against children have substantially increased compared to the previous year’s statistics.
• Moreover, the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP), under the aegis of the Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC) scheme, recorded 1.94 lakh child pornography incidents as of April 2024.
• In 2019, the NCRB signed a MoU with the National Centre for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC), USA to receive tip-line reports on CSAM.
• As of March 2024, 69.05 lakh cyber tip-line reports have been shared with the States and Union Territories concerned.

Challenges in Addressing Digital Child Abuse

• Lack of Robust Digital Laws: While laws like the POCSO Act and IT Act exist, enforcement remains inconsistent, and legal loopholes allow perpetrators to evade justice.
  • The existing legislative framework lacks adequate safeguards to deal with the AI-generated CSAM.
• Anonymous Nature of Cybercrime: Offenders exploit encryption and the dark web to remain undetected.
• Slow Legal Processes: Convictions in cyber abuse cases are often delayed due to lack of technical expertise in law enforcement.
• Rapid Growth of AI and Deepfake Technology: Deepfake tools are being misused to manipulate images of children, further complicating efforts to combat exploitation.
• Challenges in Reporting and Victim Support: Victims and their families often hesitate to report due to social stigma, lack of trust in law enforcement, and fear of re-victimization.
• Lack of Digital Literacy: Many parents and teachers are unaware of online threats.

Government Measures and Legal Framework

• Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000: Criminalizes online child pornography, cyberstalking, and identity theft.
  • Section 67B of the IT Act 2000 punishes those who publish or transmit material in electronic form depicting children in sexually explicit acts.
• Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012: Strengthened provisions to punish online child exploitation.
  • Sections 13, 14, and 15 of the POCSO prohibit using children for pornographic purposes, storing child pornography in any form, and using a child for sexual gratification.
• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS): Section 294 of BNS penalises the sale, distribution, or public exhibition of obscene materials.
  • Section 295 makes it illegal to sell, distribute, or exhibit such obscene objects to children.
• National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal: Enables citizens to report cases of cybercrime, including CSAM.
• Collaboration with Social Media Companies: The government works with platforms like Meta, Google, and WhatsApp to remove harmful content.
• Awareness Campaigns: Programs like the Digital India initiative promote safe internet usage for children.
  • The Press Information Bureau (PIB) has confirmed that the Indian government is actively working on measures to tackle online pornography and abuse.

Way Forward

• Stronger AI-Based Detection Tools: Automated systems to detect and remove CSAM quickly.
• Cybersecurity Education: Teaching children safe online habits.
• Parental Controls and Monitoring: Encouraging responsible digital parenting.
• International Collaboration: International Cooperation: Working with INTERPOL, EUROPOL, and UNICEF to track and prosecute offenders across borders.

Conclusion

• Digital child abuse is a pressing issue in India that requires urgent intervention. While the government has taken steps to counter online threats, technological advancements have also increased the risk of AI-based exploitation.
• A combination of stricter regulations, awareness, and advanced monitoring is essential to protect children in the digital world.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Researchers and campaigners fear that the government has not properly reviewed rejected claims under the Forest Rights Act (FRA) ahead of a crucial Supreme Court hearing.

About

• More than 150 tribal and forest rights organisations, under platforms such as the Campaign for Survival and Dignity, have accused the government of submitting incomplete and misleading data on forest encroachments, while failing to fully implement the FRA.

About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, commonly known as the Forest Rights Act (FRA), was enacted in 2006 to:
• Recognise historical injustices against forest-dwelling communities.
• Grant legal rights over forest land and resources to Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs).
• Empower Gram Sabhas to verify and approve claims at the grassroots level.
• Ensures that tribal populations and forest dwellers are not evicted without proper rehabilitation, aligning with the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation, and Settlement Act, 2013.
• The FRA includes provisions for individual and community rights over land, forest produce, grazing areas, and traditional knowledge.

Evolution of Forest Rights Act (FRA)

• In the colonial era, British policies exploited forest resources, leaving tribal and forest-dwelling communities in a state of tenurial insecurity.
• The National Forest Policy of 1988 emphasized the involvement of tribal people in forest protection, leading to the enactment of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, which aimed to protect their rights to the environment, life, and livelihood.
• The FRA recognizes the rights of tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to access forest land and resources.

Issues and Concerns

• According to Land Conflict Watch, since 2016, there have been 117 land conflicts involving FRA, impacting 611,557 people.
• Key issues include non- implementation of FRA provisions (88.1%), lack of legal protection over land rights (49.15%), and forced evictions (40.68%).
• The issue stems from the lack of clarity regarding whether due process was followed in rejecting claims, particularly in tribal areas with high Left-Wing Extremism.
• Many affected people are poor, illiterate, and unaware of the correct procedure, with gram sabhas being inadequately informed.

Way Ahead

• The Forest Rights Act is a crucial law designed to empower indigenous communities by recognizing their legal rights to forest land and resources.
• It ensures their participation in sustainable forest management, but effective implementation and addressing challenges are essential for its success.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (Ind-Aus ECTA) marked  its third anniversary.

Ind-Aus ECTA

• The agreement signed in April , 2022, has strengthened economic ties between India and Australia, fostering new trade pathways and business opportunities
• Total bilateral trade reached USD 24 billion in 2023-24, with a 14% increase in India’s exports to Australia compared to 2022-23.
• India’s exports to Australia grew by 4.4% from April 2024 to February 2025 compared to the same period in the previous fiscal year.
• Sectors benefiting from ECTA include textiles, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, agriculture, electronics, and engineering.
• New export lines, such as Calcined Petroleum Coke, High-Capacity Diesel Generating Sets, and Air Liquefaction Machinery, show expanding trade opportunities.
• Imports from Australia include key raw materials like metalliferous ores, cotton, and wood products, supporting the growth of Indian industries.

Diplomatic Relations

• Diplomatic relations between Australia and India date back to 1941, with the Consulate-General of India opening in Sydney.
• Both countries hold annual leader-level summits and frequent multilateral forum interactions (e.g., Quad, G20, East Asia Summit).
• The 2+2 format (Foreign & Defence Ministers) meetings occur every two years to discuss strategic issues.
• Foreign Ministers’ Framework Dialogue meets annually.

People-to-People Links

• Nearly 1 million Australians have Indian heritage, forming the second-largest overseas-born group.
• India is Australia’s largest source of skilled migrants and second-largest source of international students.
• Cultural and Community Initiatives like the Australia India Leadership Dialogue and Youth Dialogue strengthen bilateral ties.

Renewable Energy & Resources

• Renewable Energy Partnership was launched November 2024 and focuses on solar, green hydrogen, and energy storage.
• Both countries are developing new supply chains for green steel and minerals to support India’s clean energy goals.

Defence Engagement

• It was enhanced post-2020 with Mutual Logistics Support Agreement and joint military exercises.
• Australia hosted Exercise Malabar, Indian Navy visited Australia’s Cocos Islands in 2023.

Future Outlook

• Australia and India are committed to deepening cooperation for mutual prosperity and a stable Indo-Pacific region.
• The partnership is expected to continue growing, driving mutual prosperity and contributing to a stronger global economy.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Waqf (Amendment) Bill 2025, now renamed as the Unified Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency, and Development (UMEED) Bill, has been passed in the Lok Sabha.

• Mussalman Wakf (Repeal) Bill 2024 also approved, repealing the Mussalman Wakf Act, 1923.

Background

• Two Bills Introduced in 2024:
  • Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024.
  • Mussalman Wakf (Repeal) Bill, 2024.
• Objective of Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025:
  • Amend the Waqf Act, 1995 to address challenges in managing Waqf properties.
  • Improve administration and efficiency of Waqf boards.
• Objective of Mussalman Wakf (Repeal) Bill, 2024:
  • Repeal the Mussalman Wakf Act, 1923, an outdated colonial-era law.
  • Ensure uniformity, transparency, and accountability in Waqf property management under the Waqf Act, 1995.
  • Eliminate inconsistencies and ambiguities created by the continued existence of the old law.

Meaning of ‘Waqf’:

• Refers to properties dedicated solely for religious or charitable purposes under Islamic law.
• Sale or other use of the property is prohibited.
• The ownership of the property is transferred from the person making the Waqf (called waqif) to Allah, making it irrevocable.
• The creator is a wakif, and the property is managed by a mutawalli.

Origin of the Concept of ‘Waqf’:

• Traces back to the Delhi Sultanate when Sultan Muizuddin Sam Ghaor dedicated villages to the Jama Masjid of Multan.
• Waqf properties grew with the rise of Islamic dynasties in India.
• The Mussalman Waqf Validating Act of 1913 protected the institution of Waqf in India.

Constitutional Framework and Governance:

• Charitable and religious institutions are under the Concurrent List of the Constitution, allowing both Parliament and State Legislatures to frame laws on it.
• Waqf Governance: Currently governed by the Waqf Act, 1995, replacing earlier laws from 1913, 1923, and 1954.
• Creation of Waqf: Can be created via:
  • Declaration (oral or written deed).
  • Long-term use of land for religious or charitable purposes.
  • Endowment upon the end of a line of succession.
• States with the highest share of Waqf properties: Uttar Pradesh (27%), West Bengal (9%), Punjab (9%).
• Evolution of Waqf Laws:
  • 1913 Act: Validated Waqf deeds.
  • 1923 Act: Made registration of Waqf properties mandatory.
  • 1954: Established Central Waqf Council and State Waqf Boards for better management.
  • 1995 Act: Introduced Tribunals for dispute resolution and added elected members and Islamic scholars to Waqf Boards.

Key Amendments

• Composition of the Central Waqf Council: The Union Minister in-charge of waqf is the ex-officio chairperson.
• Council members include:
  • Members of Parliament (MPs).
  • Persons of national eminence.
  • Retired Supreme Court/High Court judges.
  • Eminent scholars in Muslim law.
  • The Bill removes the Muslim requirement for MPs, former judges, and eminent persons.
  • The Bill mandates two non-Muslim members in the Council.
• Composition of Waqf Boards:
  • Empowers state governments to nominate one person from each group.
  • Non-Muslim members required: two.
  • Must include at least one member each from Shias, Sunnis, and Backward Muslim classes.
  • Requires two Muslim women members.
• Composition of Tribunals:
  • Removes the expert in Muslim law.
  • District Court judge (Chairman).
  • Joint Secretary rank officer.
• Appeals Against Tribunal Orders:
  • Act: Decisions of Tribunals are final, with no appeals allowed in courts.
  • Bill: Allows appeals against Tribunal decisions to the High Court within 90 days.
  • Survey of Properties: The Bill replaces the Survey Commissioner with the District Collector or other senior officers to oversee the survey of Waqf properties.
  • Government property as waqf: The Bill states that any government property identified as waqf will cease to be so.
  • The Collector of the area will determine ownership in case of uncertainty, if deemed a government property, he will update the revenue records.
• Audits: Waqf institutions earning over ₹1 lakh will undergo audits by state-sponsored auditors.
• Centralized Portal: A centralized portal will be created for automating Waqf property management, enhancing efficiency and transparency.
• Property Dedication: Practicing Muslims (for at least five years) can dedicate property to the Waqf, restoring pre-2013 rules.
• Women’s Inheritance: Women must receive inheritance before the Waqf declaration, with special provisions for widows, divorced women, and orphans.

Need for the bill

• The new Bill mandates a unified digital listing of Waqf properties to reduce litigation and ensure transparency.
• The bill ensures gender justice by mandating women’s inclusion in Waqf Boards.

Concerns

• Non-Muslim Members in Waqf Boards: The Bill mandates the inclusion of non-Muslim members in State Waqf Boards and the Central Waqf Council.
  • This could lead to these bodies being majorly composed of non-Muslims, whereas similar boards for Hindu and Sikh endowments primarily consist of members from those religions.
• Impact on Waqf Tribunals: Removal of experts in Muslim law from Waqf Tribunals may affect the redressal of waqf-related disputes.
• Creation of Waqf: The Bill limits the creation of Waqf to people who have been practicing Islam for at least five years.
  • The rationale behind this five-year criterion is unclear and creates a distinction between those who practice Islam for less than five years and those who have done so for more than five years.

Conclusion

• The Bill marks a significant step towards reforming the management of Waqf properties in India.
• The proposed reforms not only ensure better governance and accountability but also foster a more inclusive approach, benefiting all communities involved.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: As India prepares for the 6th Summit of Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), its role in fostering connectivity and addressing shared challenges in the Bay of Bengal region is under scrutiny.

About the BIMSTEC

• It is a regional organization that fosters economic and technical collaboration among countries in the Bay of Bengal region.
• The Bangkok Declaration (1997) formally laid the foundation for the organization, as BIST-EC(Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand Economic Cooperation).
  • Myanmar joined later that year, transforming it into BIMST-EC, and Nepal and Bhutan became members in 2004, finalizing the present-day BIMSTEC.
• Since then, BIMSTEC has expanded its focus to include connectivity, counterterrorism, technology, trade, security, and people-to-people ties.

Earlier BIMSTEC Summits

• 1st BIMSTEC Summit, 2004 (Bangkok, Thailand): Strengthening economic cooperation among member countries.
  • Adoption of the Bangkok Declaration, formalizing BIMSTEC as a regional group.
• 2nd BIMSTEC Summit, 2008 (New Delhi, India): Energy, transport, and trade connectivity.
  • Agreement to establish the BIMSTEC Free Trade Area (FTA).
  • India proposed a regional energy grid for better power-sharing.
• 3rd BIMSTEC Summit, 2014 (Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar): Strengthening security and regional connectivity.
  • Endorsement of the BIMSTEC Convention on Counter-Terrorism.
  • Formation of an expert group on energy cooperation.
• 4th BIMSTEC Summit, 2018 (Kathmandu, Nepal): Strengthening institutional mechanisms and transport linkages.
  • Adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter (to institutionalize the organization).
  • Proposal for a BIMSTEC Development Fund.
• 5th BIMSTEC Summit, 2022 (Colombo, Sri Lanka): Post-pandemic economic recovery and security cooperation.
  • Adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter (formalizing the structure of BIMSTEC).
  • Establishment of 7 key sectors of cooperation like:
  • Trade and Investment (Bangladesh): Strengthening economic integration and trade facilitation.
  • Transport & Communication (India): Improving regional connectivity via highways, railways, and shipping.
  • Energy Cooperation (Myanmar): Enhancing energy security, cross-border power trade, and renewable energy projects.
  • Counterterrorism & Security; Climate Change & Disaster Management (India): Coordinating efforts against terrorism, human trafficking, and cyber threats; Addressing environmental challenges and disaster resilience.
  • Technology & Innovation (Sri Lanka): Promoting research and innovation.
  • Public Health (Thailand): Enhancing healthcare cooperation and pandemic preparedness.

Significance of BIMSTEC

• Boost Trade and Investment: Facilitate intra-regional trade and economic collaboration.
• Enhance Connectivity: Develop infrastructure, transport, and digital connectivity.
• Strengthen Regional Security: Cooperate on counterterrorism, cyber-security, and transnational crime.
• Sustainable Development: Address climate change, disaster management, and sustainable energy.
• People-to-People Exchanges: Promote cultural ties, tourism, and educational collaboration.

Importance of BIMSTEC for India

• Strategic Connectivity: Enhances Northeast India’s linkages with Southeast Asia.
  • ‘Act East’ Policy: India plays a leading role in BIMSTEC as the largest economy in the bloc. BIMSTEC aligns with India’s ‘Act East’ policy, strengthening ties with Southeast Asian nations.
  • India is actively involved in BIMSTEC-led projects such as the BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal) Motor Vehicle Agreement, trilateral highways, and port connectivity programs.
• Economic Growth: Expands markets for Indian businesses.
• Energy Security: Facilitates regional power trade and renewable energy projects.
• Geopolitical Influence: Strengthens India’s presence in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Alternative to SAARC: Overcomes challenges posed by Pakistan in South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) by focusing on like-minded nations.

Major Initiatives

• BIMSTEC Free Trade Agreement (FTA): The long-pending BIMSTEC FTA aims to boost intra-regional trade.
  • Negotiations focus on tariff reduction, trade facilitation, and investment flows.
• BIMSTEC Transport Connectivity Master Plan: India has proposed multi-modal transport networks linking ports, roads, railways, and air routes.
  • The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (India-Myanmar) and the Trilateral Highway (India-Myanmar-Thailand) are part of this initiative.
• BIMSTEC Energy Grid: Plans for a regional electricity grid to facilitate cross-border energy trade.
  • India and Myanmar are leading efforts in renewable energy and power sharing.
• BIMSTEC Security Cooperation: The BIMSTEC Convention on Counter-Terrorism and Transnational Crime aims to strengthen security collaboration.
  • India and Thailand are leading cybersecurity and maritime security initiatives.
• BIMSTEC Disaster Management Mechanism: Regional response frameworks for natural disasters, climate change adaptation, and humanitarian assistance.

Challenges Facing BIMSTEC

• Slow Progress on Agreements: The FTA and key connectivity projects have seen delays.
• Institutional Weaknesses: BIMSTEC lacks a permanent secretariat with sufficient funding and staffing.
• Unequal Member Commitments: Some member nations prioritize ASEAN or SAARC over BIMSTEC.
• China’s Growing Influence: Chinese investments in Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Thailand pose strategic challenges for India.
• Geopolitical Issues: Border tensions (e.g., India-Myanmar) and internal instability (Myanmar’s political crisis) affect cooperation.

Way Forward

• Accelerating FTA negotiations to enhance regional trade.
• Boosting connectivity projects for better economic integration.
• Institutional Strengthening – Establishing a fully operational BIMSTEC Secretariat.
• Enhancing security cooperation on terrorism, cyber threats, and transnational crimes.
• Increasing investment in infrastructure and digital trade.
• India, as the regional leader, must prioritize BIMSTEC in its foreign policy by investing in capacity-building, trade facilitation, and technological collaboration.

Conclusion

• BIMSTEC holds immense potential as a regional economic and strategic bloc, bridging South Asia and Southeast Asia.
• With India’s leadership and enhanced cooperation among members, BIMSTEC can emerge as a key driver of regional growth, connectivity, and security.
• However, it requires stronger political will, infrastructure development, and institutional reforms to achieve its full potential.
• If implemented effectively, BIMSTEC could redefine regional diplomacy and economic partnerships in the Bay of Bengal region.

General Studies Paper-3

• India’s air pollution crisis is a persistent issue causing severe health problems, with cities regularly topping global pollution rankings.

World Air Quality Report 2024

• Thirteen of the world’s top 20 most polluted cities are in India, with Byrnihat on the Assam-Meghalaya border being the most polluted.
• India is the fifth most polluted country in the world, with an average Air Quality Index (AQI) of 50.6 μg/m3 – 10 times higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) annual PM2.5 guideline value of 5 μg/m3.
• Delhi continues to be the most polluted Capital city in the world with an average PM 2.5 concentration of 91.8 μg/m3.

Air Pollution

• When harmful substances (pollutants) – particles, gases, or matter – are released into the air and reduce its quality, the air is polluted.
• Common air pollutants include: Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Lead etc.
• Source: These pollutants can originate from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and wildfires, but human activities such as industrial production, transportation, agriculture, and residential heating are significant contributors to air pollution.
• Concerns:
• Health Related: Respiratory issues, cardiovascular problems, reduced lung function.
• Environmental: Ecosystem damage, Biodiversity loss, Water pollution, climate change, crop damage.
• Healthcare Costs: The health impacts of air pollution result in increased healthcare costs, including expenses related to the treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

Reasons for High Level of Air Pollution in India

• Vehicular Emissions: High number of old, inefficient vehicles and dependence on diesel and petrol contribute to air pollution.
• Industrial Emissions: Large-scale industries, especially coal-based power plants, contribute significantly to air pollution.
• Burning of Biomass: Widespread use of crop residue burning and solid fuels like wood and cow dung for cooking in rural areas.
• Construction Dust: Rapid urbanization leads to construction activities, generating significant amounts of dust and particulate matter.
• Waste Burning: Open burning of garbage and waste is common, especially in urban and semi-urban areas, releasing harmful pollutants.
• Population Density: Overcrowded cities with high vehicular traffic and industrial activity increase pollution levels.
• Climate and Geography: Seasonal weather patterns, especially during winters, cause pollutants to remain trapped in the air, exacerbating smog and haze.
• Deforestation: Loss of green cover reduces the natural filtration of air, leading to higher pollution levels.

Government Initiatives

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP is a comprehensive initiative with the goal of reducing air pollution in identified cities and regions across India.
  • The program focuses on improving air quality monitoring, implementing stricter emission standards, and promoting public awareness.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards: The government implemented BS-VI emission standards for vehicles nationwide in 2020.
  • These standards aim to reduce vehicular emissions by mandating the use of cleaner fuel and more advanced emission control technologies.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): The PMUY scheme aims to provide clean cooking fuel to households by promoting the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as an alternative to traditional biomass-based cooking methods.
• FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme: The FAME scheme promotes the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce air pollution caused by vehicular emissions.
  • Incentives are provided to both manufacturers and consumers to encourage the use of electric vehicles.
• Green Initiatives for Sustainable Habitat (GRIHA): GRIHA is an initiative to promote sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in the construction and operation of buildings.
  • It encourages the use of energy-efficient technologies and materials to reduce pollution.
• Waste Management Programs: It is crucial to prevent the burning of waste, which contributes to air pollution.
  • Various waste management initiatives, including the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, aim to address solid waste issues and promote cleaner disposal methods.
• Commission for Air Quality Management: The Commission has been set up for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas for better coordination, research, identification, and resolution of problems surrounding the air quality index.
• Afforestation Programs: Initiatives like the Green India Mission aim to increase tree cover, which can help absorb pollutants and improve air quality.

Way Ahead

• National Targets: India aims to reduce PM2.5 levels by 40% by 2026, but more detailed local data is needed for effective action, such as vehicle types, fuel used, and traffic patterns.
  • The current data gap affects fund utilization and makes air pollution a secondary concern for municipalities.
• Avoiding the “Western Trap”: Over-reliance on high-tech solutions and urban-centric tools could divert attention from basic pollution sources like biomass burning, old industrial processes, and polluting vehicles.
  • India’s strategy must remain rooted in on-ground realities rather than imported models.
• Focus on Implementation: Separate funding streams for research and immediate interventions are needed. The emphasis should be on short-term, scalable solutions.
• Global Guidance: Countries like China, Brazil, California, and London offer lessons on contextual, tailored approaches.
  • India should innovate based on its own unique needs, focusing on federalism and informal economies.