General Studies Paper-3

Context: NASA reported that global sea levels rose faster than expected in 2024, reaching 0.59 cm per year, surpassing the anticipated 0.43 cm.

Global Mean Sea Level

• Global mean sea level provides an integrative measure of the state of the climate system, encompassing both the ocean and cryosphere (ice covered portions of Earth).
• It is the average height of the entire ocean surface.
• It is a key indicator of climate change, reflecting changes in both the ocean and ice-covered regions.

Causes of Global Mean Sea Level changes

• Ice Melt: Warming causes ice sheets and glaciers to melt, adding freshwater to the ocean.
• Thermal Expansion: As oceans absorb heat, water expands, raising sea levels.
• In 2024, thermal expansion contributed to two-thirds of the rise, a shift from previous years when melting ice was the dominant factor.
• It was also the warmest year on record, with Earth’s oceans at their highest levels in three decades. Since 1993, global sea levels have risen by 10 cm, with the rate of rise more than doubling.
• Land Water Storage: Changes in water storage on land, such as groundwater pumping or dam building, can alter the amount of water in the ocean.
• Climate change is the primary driver of global sea level rise.

Effects of Global Sea Level Rise

• Threatens infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and buildings, leading to increased repair costs.
  • Causes more frequent and severe coastal flooding, exacerbating erosion and saltwater intrusion into freshwater supplies.
  • Endangers coastal ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, coral reefs) and displaces people in low-lying areas, causing social and economic challenges.
• Economic and Social Impacts: Rising seas lead to higher costs for coastal protection (e.g., sea walls) and infrastructure repairs.
  • Displacement of communities and loss of livelihoods (tourism, fishing, agriculture) due to coastal flooding and erosion.
  • Disrupts economic activities and places strain on social services, especially in vulnerable regions.

 Countries Most Affected by Rising Sea Levels:

• High-Risk Countries: Bangladesh, China, India, and the Netherlands are highly vulnerable.
• Pacific Island Nations: Kiribati, Tuvalu, and the Marshall Islands face extreme risks due to high exposure to storms and sea-level sensitivity.

What can be done to counter sea level rise?

• Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The most important action is to slow global warming by cutting emissions, the primary cause of climate change and sea level rise.
• Mitigation and Adaptation: Build infrastructure like sea walls and storm surge barriers to protect against flooding and erosion.
  • Improve drainage systems and construct flood-resistant buildings.
  • Restore natural barriers like mangroves, wetlands, and coral reefs to absorb wave energy and reduce storm surge impacts.
• Disaster Risk Reduction: Strengthen disaster risk reduction plans and enhance early warning systems, supported by the UN, to address sea level-related incidents.
  • In some cases, relocate communities from vulnerable coastal areas as part of adaptation strategies.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The ongoing trade war between the United States and China has caused significant global economic turbulence, influencing everything from tariffs on goods to the financial markets and international relations.

What is a Trade War?

• A trade war occurs when nations impose tariffs or trade barriers against each other in retaliation for perceived economic harm or unfair trade practices.
• It disrupts global supply chains, increases production costs, and impacts economic growth worldwide.

Background

• The US-China trade war began in 2018 when the US, under President Donald Trump, accused China of unfair trade practices.
• The US imposed tariffs on Chinese goods, leading to countermeasures from China. This escalation affected trade worth over $450 billion.
• India also got caught in the US-China trade war, facing tariffs on steel and aluminum exports and losing its Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) status in 2019.
• In February 2025, President Trump reintroduced a 10% tariff on all Chinese imports, prompting China to retaliate with its own set of tariffs.
• Trump’s reciprocal tariff policy is set to take effect from April 2.
• Trump’s policy aims to balance trade by imposing tariffs on countries that impose high tariffs on US goods.
• The policy is designed to reduce the US trade deficit and generate tariff revenue.

Global impact of Trade War

• Stock Market Volatility: Trade wars create uncertainty, leading to fluctuating stock prices. Investors react sharply to tariff announcements, impacting market stability worldwide.
• Supply Chain Disruptions: Tariffs increase production costs, forcing companies to rethink supply chains. Businesses look for alternative suppliers, leading to relocation of manufacturing hubs.
• Currency Fluctuations: As investors seek safer assets, emerging market currencies often depreciate, increasing import costs and inflationary pressures in developing economies.
• Commodity Price Swings: Trade wars can disrupt global demand for raw materials like oil, metals, and agricultural products, leading to price instability.
• Shifts in Trade Alliances: Countries seek new trading partners to mitigate tariff impacts. Regional trade agreements and economic blocs often gain prominence during such periods.

Negative Impact on India

• Electronics and Gadgets: Indian manufacturers depend on Chinese components for smartphones, laptops, and appliances. Disruptions in supply chains may lead to higher prices and shortages.
• Pharmaceuticals: Around 70% of India’s raw materials (APIs) for medicines come from China. Any delay or price hike in these imports will raise the cost of essential medicines.
• Automobile Industry: India’s auto sector relies on Chinese spare parts. Trade disruptions could slow production, increase costs, and extend delivery timelines.
• Stock Market and Currency: During the last trade war, foreign investors withdrew ₹33,000 crore from Indian markets, and the rupee depreciated by 9.5%, making imports costlier.

Positive Impact on India

• Rise in Exports: Indian exporters gained from the trade diversion as US buyers looked for alternatives to Chinese goods. Sectors like textiles, chemicals, and electronics saw increased demand.
• Boost to Indian IT Sector: US companies, reducing reliance on Chinese tech, outsourced more work to Indian firms, benefiting the IT industry.
• Agricultural Exports: India took advantage of China reducing US agricultural imports in 2018 by increasing soybean and other crop exports.

Way Ahead

• Geopolitical Strategy: India must navigate the US-China trade tensions carefully while securing its own economic interests through diplomacy and trade partnerships.
• Diversifying Supply Chains: Reducing reliance on China by strengthening domestic manufacturing under initiatives like ‘Make in India’ and boosting alternative supplier networks.
• Strengthening Trade Agreements: India should negotiate favorable trade deals with the US, ASEAN, and EU to capitalize on shifting trade dynamics.

Concluding Remarks

• Trade wars might seem like distant problems involving big governments, but their effects trickle down to everyday life.
• The global economy is more connected than ever. When two giants like the U.S. and China clash, the rest of the world, especially countries like India, feels the impact.
• While some sectors might find opportunities, overall uncertainty tends to slow down growth and affect livelihoods.
• The US is India’s largest trading partner, so India must accommodate US interests to maintain a good relationship.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recent advancements in technology are empowering women farmers and giving them a stronger voice on farms.

Key Contributions of Women in Agriculture

• Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economy, employing nearly 54.6% of the total workforce (Census2011), with women making up about 75% of the full-time farm labor force.
  • The workforce participation rate for rural females is significantly higher at 41.8% against urban women participation rate of 35.31% (MoSPI, 2017).
• Women comprise a substantial portion of the agricultural workforce, especially in rural areas, where 80% of women rely on agriculture for livelihood (ICAR Data).
  • The work of rural women in India is responsible for 60-80% of the country’s food production.

Role of Digital Technologies in Women’s Agricultural Work

• Enhanced Decision-Making Through Digital Tools: Mobile-based agricultural advisory services (such as Digital Green, Precision Agriculture for Development) provide real-time weather updates, market prices, and farming techniques.
• Increased Productivity and Reduced Labor Burden: Irrigation technologies (drip irrigation, solar-powered pumps) provide women with greater autonomy over water management, especially in drought-prone areas.
  • Climate-resilient farming techniques, including drought-resistant seeds and vertical farming, allow women to maintain productivity despite changing climate conditions.
• Mobile-Based Solutions for Market Access:
  • eNAM (National Agriculture Market): It allows women to connect with buyers directly.
  • Kisan Suvidha and AgriMarket App help in price discovery and weather forecasts.
  • Pusa Krishi offers expert agricultural advice to improve yields.
• Digital Financial Services for Women Farmers: These enable women to receive payments securely, avail of loans, and participate in decision-making.
  • Aadhaar-enabled Payment Systems (AePS)
  • Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) for subsidies
  • Access to Finance and Credit: Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana and the Self Help Group (SHG) – Bank Linkage platforms like the Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) have played a crucial role in improving women’s access to finance.
• AI, IoT, and Smart Farming Technologies:
• AI-powered crop disease detection apps that provide real-time alerts.
• IoT-based smart irrigation systems that optimize water use and reduce labor burden.
• Precision Agriculture technologies, such as GPS-guided equipment and drones, have significantly enhanced the efficiency and productivity of farming operations.
• Online Training & Capacity Building: Government programs such as the Digital India Initiative and National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) have introduced digital literacy programs targeted at rural women. Online platforms like:
  • Digital Green: Uses participatory videos to train women farmers.
  • YouTube Agricultural Channels: Provide free farming lessons.
  • Organizations like the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation and various government agencies provide training on the use of modern agricultural tools and techniques.
• Gender-Inclusive Agri-Tech Startups: Startups like Kalgudi, CropIn, and DeHaat provide AI-driven farm advisory, weather alerts, and soil analysis, empowering women farmers.

Challenges in Adoption of Digital Technologies

• Limited land ownership: Only about 12.8% of the operational holdings were owned by women, which reflects the gender disparity in ownership of landholdings in agriculture.
  • Moreover, there is a concentration of operational holdings (25.7%) by women in the marginal and small holdings categories.
• Gender wage gap: Women agricultural workers earn 20-30% less than their male counterparts.
• Limited Digital Literacy: Many rural women lack the skills to operate digital platforms.
• Gendered Socio-Cultural Barriers: Societal norms restrict women’s mobility and independent decision-making.
• Financial Constraints: Smartphones and internet access remain costly for some women.
• Lack of Localized Content: Many digital tools are in English or Hindi, limiting regional language accessibility.

Initiatives Supporting Digital Agriculture for Women in India

• Digital Agriculture Mission (2021-2025): It promotes digital technologies like AI, IoT, blockchain, and remote sensing in farming.
  • Women farmers can access precision agriculture tools, digital advisories, and financial services through this initiative.
• National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGPA): It focuses on the digital transformation of agriculture by integrating ICT-based solutions.
  • Special provisions are made for women farmers, including mobile-based advisories and digital market access.
• Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): A sub-component of the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), MKSP aims to empower women in agriculture.
  • Digital tools are used to train women in climate-resilient practices and sustainable farming.
• Kisan Suvidha App: A mobile app providing weather updates, market prices, and expert guidance.
  • It enables women farmers to make informed decisions in agriculture.
• PM KISAN & Direct Benefit Transfers: Ensures financial support directly to farmers’ bank accounts, including women farmers.
  • Encourages financial independence and access to credit for women in agriculture.
• AGRI STACK: A digital database that helps create farmer-centric digital services.
  • Women farmers can access customized support for inputs, finance, and markets.

Conclusion

• The integration of technology in agriculture is transforming the landscape for women farmers, giving them greater control over their farming operations and enhancing their decision-making power.
• By providing access to digital tools, precision agriculture, financial services, mechanization, and training, these technologies are paving the way for a more inclusive and equitable agricultural sector.
• As women continue to embrace these innovations, they are poised to play an even more significant role in shaping the future of farming.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: As India aims to become a developed nation by 2047, it is crucial to adopt a more flexible approach to fiscal deficit targets to ensure long-term investments without compromising fiscal prudence.

Understanding the Fiscal Deficit Target

• A fiscal deficit occurs when a government’s total expenditure exceeds its total revenue, excluding borrowings.
• In India, the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, 2003 initially set a fixed target for the fiscal deficit to ensure fiscal discipline.
• However, evolving macroeconomic conditions and economic shocks have led policymakers to consider a more flexible approach—termed the Flexible Deficit Target.
• It allows for adjusting fiscal deficit goals based on economic cycles, external shocks, and investment priorities.

Key Components of Flexibility

• Counter-Cyclicality: Allowing higher deficits during economic downturns and consolidation during high-growth periods.
• Expenditure Prioritization: Focusing on essential spending such as infrastructure and welfare while cutting non-urgent outlays.
• Revenue Considerations: Adapting targets based on tax collection efficiency, disinvestment proceeds, and other fiscal inflows.
• Escape Clauses: Built-in mechanisms to deviate from deficit targets during crises (e.g., pandemic, global shocks).

Evolution of Flexible Deficit Targeting in India

• FRBM Act and Amendments:
• FRBM Act, 2003: Mandated reducing the fiscal deficit to 3% of GDP.
• FRBM Review Committee (2017, N.K. Singh Panel): Recommended a more flexible approach, with a 2.5% – 3% target and an escape clause allowing deviation of 0.5% in exceptional circumstances.
• COVID-19 Impact (2020-21): The government increased the fiscal deficit target to 9.5% of GDP, demonstrating the necessity of flexibility in fiscal management.
• Union Budget 2021-22 & Beyond: The government set a medium-term goal of reducing the deficit to 4.5% of GDP by FY2025-26, instead of enforcing an immediate return to pre-pandemic levels.
  • Allowed for higher spending on infrastructure and social welfare to boost economic recovery.
  • The government emphasized pragmatic fiscal management over strict adherence to targets.
    • Capex boost to sustain economic growth.
    • Gradual deficit reduction instead of aggressive fiscal tightening.
    • A willingness to recalibrate targets based on economic needs.
    • It signals a de facto shift towards flexible deficit targeting.

Why India Needs a Flexible Deficit Target?

• Economic Shocks & Global Uncertainty: Events like COVID-19, geopolitical tensions, and oil price volatility demand fiscal space for counter-cyclical measures.
  • A rigid deficit target could limit government intervention during crises.
• Investment-Driven Growth Strategy: The government’s capital expenditure (CapEx) push requires sustained spending on infrastructure, which may exceed fixed deficit limits.
  • Flexible targets allow the government to borrow strategically rather than enforcing arbitrary spending cuts.
• Counter-Cyclical Fiscal Policy: During economic slowdowns, the government should increase spending to boost demand.
  • In periods of high growth, deficit targets can be tightened to maintain fiscal discipline.
• Infrastructure and Social Sector Needs: Developing economies like India require continuous investment in infrastructure, health, and education.
  • A rigid deficit target could force spending cuts in these critical areas.
• Private Sector Confidence: A balanced approach — where fiscal discipline is maintained without excessive rigidity — can boost investor confidence.
  • The key is ensuring that fiscal expansion is targeted and productive.

Challenges of Flexible Deficit Targeting

• Risk of Fiscal Indiscipline: A lack of strict targets may lead to uncontrolled borrowing, increasing debt-to-GDP ratios and risking credit rating downgrades.
  • Markets and credit rating agencies prefer clear deficit targets for policy predictability.
• Market Perception & Investor Confidence: International investors prefer fiscal predictability. Frequent adjustments to deficit targets could create policy uncertainty, affecting bond markets and FDI flows.
• Inflationary Pressure: Increased government borrowing may fuel inflation, especially when supply-side constraints exist.
• Higher Interest Costs: Persistent high deficits lead to increased government debt and interest payments, limiting funds for development projects.
• Welfare Programme Constraints: States with extensive welfare models, like Kerala and Tamil Nadu, struggle to expand services like healthcare and education.

International Best Practices

• USA: Adopts countercyclical fiscal policies, allowing higher deficits during recessions and aiming for gradual consolidation during growth phases.
• Germany: Traditionally follows strict fiscal discipline but relaxed its ‘debt brake’ during COVID-19.
• Japan: Prioritizes economic growth and employment stability, despite a 200% debt-to-GDP ratio.
• Australia: It uses public-private partnerships (PPP) to finance infrastructure, reducing its reliance on public debt.

Way Forward: Balancing Flexibility with Responsibility

• Strengthening Fiscal Rules: Introducing a clear range-based deficit target (e.g., 2.5% – 4% of GDP) rather than a strict fixed number.
• Institutional Oversight: Setting up an independent Fiscal Council to ensure responsible deficit deviations.
• Gradual Deficit Reduction: Committing to a credible glide path toward fiscal consolidation without abrupt spending cuts.

Conclusion

• India’s shift towards a Flexible Deficit Target reflects the need for adaptive economic policies in an unpredictable world.
• While flexibility helps manage crises and promote growth, it must be implemented prudently to maintain long-term fiscal sustainability.
• A balanced approach—allowing temporary deviations while maintaining a clear medium-term fiscal roadmap—is key to ensuring both economic stability and development.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to the World Air Quality Report 2024, thirteen of the world’s top 20 most polluted cities are in India, with Byrnihat on the Assam-Meghalaya border being the most polluted.

Key Findings of the report

• India is the fifth most polluted country in the world, with an average Air Quality Index (AQI) of 50.6 μg/m3 – 10 times higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) annual PM2.5 guideline value of 5 μg/m3.

• In 2023, India was the third most polluted country.

• Delhi continues to be the most polluted Capital city in the world with an average PM 2.5 concentration of 91.8 μg/m3.
• Out of the 138 countries and regions, 126 (91.3%) exceeded the WHO annual PM2.5 guideline value of 5 μg/m3.
  • Only 17% of global cities met WHO air pollution guidelines.
• 5 concentrations decreased in every country in Southeast Asia, though trans-boundary haze and lingering El Niño conditions remain major factors.

Steps Taken by Government of India to combat Air Pollution

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP is a comprehensive initiative with the goal of reducing air pollution in identified cities and regions across India.
  • The program focuses on improving air quality monitoring, implementing stricter emission standards, and promoting public awareness.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards: The government implemented BS-VI emission standards for vehicles nationwide in 2020.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): The PMUY scheme aims to provide clean cooking fuel to households by promoting the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as an alternative to traditional biomass-based cooking methods.
• FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme: The FAME scheme promotes the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce air pollution caused by vehicular emissions.
• Green Initiatives for Sustainable Habitat (GRIHA): GRIHA is an initiative to promote sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in the construction and operation of buildings.
• Waste Management Programs including the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, aim to address solid waste issues and promote cleaner disposal methods.
• Commission for Air Quality Management: The Commission has been set up for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas for better coordination, research, identification, and resolution of problems surrounding the air quality index.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): It is a set of emergency measures that kick in to prevent further deterioration of air quality once it reaches a certain threshold in the Delhi-NCR region.

Promotion of Public Transportation: Encouraging the use of public transportation, such as buses and metro systems, helps reduce the number of individual vehicles on the road, consequently lowering vehicular emissions.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Prime Minister paid a state visit to Mauritius, his second since 2015.

• He was the Chief Guest at Mauritius’ National Day Celebrations on March 12.

Key Highlights of the Visit

• MOUs Signed: Includes training civil servants, small and medium enterprises, blue economy development, combating financial crimes, and local currency settlement for trade.
• Indian Rupee Credit Line: A 487.6 crore INR line of credit for replacing water pipelines in Mauritius, a first-ever INR-based credit line.
• White-Shipping Agreement: Technical agreement for maritime security and information exchange.
• Award Conferred: PM Modi received the Grand Commander of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean, marking him as the first Indian recipient.
• Vision for the Global South: PM introduced Vision MAHASAGAR (Mutual And Holistic Advancement for Security And Growth Across Regions), building on the previous Vision SAGAR.

About Mauritius

• Location: Mauritius is a strategically located island nation in the western Indian Ocean, close to India.
• Population: Nearly 70% of the population (1.2 million) is of Indian origin, strengthening ties with India.
• Colonial History: Mauritius was initially a French colony before becoming a British possession.
• National Day: Mauritius celebrates National Day on March 12, in honor of the date of Mahatma Gandhi’s Dandi March.

India- Mauritius Bilateral Relations

• Diplomatic Relations: India and Mauritius established diplomatic relations in 1948 and have become key trading partners in the Asian continent.
• Commercial Relations: For the FY 2022-2023, Indian exports to Mauritius was USD 462.69 mn, Mauritian exports to India was USD 91.50 mn and Total trade was USD 554.19 mn.
• Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement: Signed in 1982 to help non-resident investors avoid double taxes.
• CECPA Agreement: India and Mauritius signed the Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) in 2021, India’s first trade agreement with an African country.
• FDI Source: Mauritius is the second-largest source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into India for FY 2023-24, after Singapore.
• Defence Relations: India is Mauritius’ preferred defence partner for acquiring platforms, capacity building, joint patrolling, hydrological services, etc.
• First Agreement: Transfer of a Dornier aircraft and an Advanced Light Helicopter (Dhruv) to Mauritius on lease.
• Second Agreement: A $100 million Line of Credit (LoC) for Mauritius to procure defence equipment.
• Space Cooperation: India and Mauritius are exploring space research opportunities and signed an MoU in November 2023 for developing a joint satellite.
• Indian Migration: French Rule (1700s): Indians from Puducherry were brought to Mauritius as artisans and masons.
  • British Rule (1834 – early 1900s): About half a million Indian indentured workers arrived in Mauritius.
    • The majority of these workers settled in Mauritius, influencing its culture and demographics.
    • Development Partnership: India has been contributing to projects like the Metro Express, new hospitals, and infrastructure in Agaléga Island.
    • Humanitarian Assistance: India assisted Mauritius during Cyclone Chido in 2023, showcasing India’s role as a “First Responder.”
    • SAGAR: The term SAGAR – – ‘Security and Growth for All in the Region’ was coined by the PM in 2015 during his visit with a focus on the blue economy.

Significance of Mauritius for India

• Strategic Location: Mauritius is strategically located in the Indian Ocean, crucial for India’s maritime security and trade routes.
• Agaléga island: It is located 1,100 km north of Mauritius, has strategic importance due to its proximity to the Indian southern coast.
  • In 2024, India and Mauritius jointly inaugurated the air strip and jetty projects on the island, strengthening their bilateral cooperation.
    • Countering China’s Influence: Strengthening ties with Mauritius is crucial for India to counter China’s growing presence in the Indian Ocean region.
    • Geopolitical Competition: The Indian Ocean region is a hotspot for geopolitical rivalry, with countries like Europe, the Gulf, Russia, Iran, and Turkey expanding their influence.
    • Cultural and Historical Ties: With nearly 70% of its population of Indian origin, Mauritius shares deep cultural, historical, and familial ties with India.
    • Blue Economy: Mauritius is key to India’s interests in the Indian Ocean’s blue economy, especially for maritime resources, fisheries, and offshore energy exploration.
    • Indian Ocean Cooperation: Mauritius plays a key role in regional organizations like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), contributing to regional stability and economic cooperation.

Areas of Concern

• Tax Treaty Misuse: The Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) between India and Mauritius had been a point of concern due to its potential misuse for illicit activities like money laundering and round-tripping of funds.
• Security Concerns: Mauritius is a key maritime entity in the Indo-Pacific, making security issues critical.
  • India and Mauritius have a strong defence partnership, but evolving regional dynamics pose challenges to maintaining and enhancing this relationship.
• Economic Challenges: Despite being major economic partners, there are concerns regarding trade imbalances and the need to diversify the trade basket.
  • Both countries may need to explore new avenues for trade cooperation and address any barriers that hinder the flow of goods and services.
    • Presence of China: In recent years, several external powers, including China, have made increasing inroads in Africa and through the Indian Ocean.
  • In 2021, China’s Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Mauritius came into effect.
  • This agreement will help China expand the Belt and Road strategy in Africa.
  • China’s increasing presence in the region will pose concerns for India.

Way Ahead

• The relationship between India and Mauritius is multifaceted and has grown stronger over the years.
• Both nations can work towards expanding defense and security collaboration, including joint training, counterterrorism efforts, and maritime security.
• This multi-faceted approach can further solidify the longstanding relationship between India and Mauritius, contributing to mutual growth and regional stability.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Minister of Science and Technology has said that India’s Space technology is playing a major role in revolutionising governance at the “Good Governance” Conclave.

What is Space Technology?

• Space technologies designate technologies used to enable activities conducted in outer space:
  • such as Earth observation, satellite communication, satellite navigation or even robotic and human space exploration beyond Earth’s orbits.
• Governments use space technology, geospatial data, and field information for planning, monitoring, and evaluating developmental activities.

Use of Space Technology in Governance

• Disaster Management and Response: National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) provides satellite data that helps in identifying flood-affected areas, mapping damage, and planning rehabilitation.
  • The Indian National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) uses it for disaster relief operations.
• Agriculture and Rural Development: FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agrometeorology, and Land-based observations) uses satellite data to predict crop yields, helping farmers make informed decisions.
  • Soil Health Management and irrigation management are optimized using remote sensing technologies.
• Efficient Land Management: Initiatives like “Swamitva Yojana” use satellite mapping for land record management.
  • This initiative simplifies land verification and promotes transparency in land ownership.
• Environmental Monitoring: Bhuvan an Indian web-based application developed by ISRO provides satellite data for various environmental and land-use applications.
  • Satellites like the Oceansat series provide data on sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, and coastal erosion.
• Security and Defense: Satellites help in remote sensing for border surveillance.
• Administrative Efficiency: Satellite data helps in the implementation of the Digital India initiative by enabling access to e-governance services.

Challenges

• High Costs: The development, maintenance, and launch of satellites are expensive.
• Technical and Infrastructure Gaps: Lack of adequate ground infrastructure, technical expertise, and trained personnel in remote areas.
• Data Interpretation and Accuracy: Space-based data requires accurate interpretation and analysis, and errors in data processing can lead to wrong decisions in governance.
• Privacy Concerns: Increased surveillance and monitoring through space technology raise privacy and security concerns among citizens.
• Environmental Impact: Increased space missions and satellite launches can contribute to space debris and environmental pollution.

Way Ahead

• Develop and upgrade ground infrastructure, data centers, and communication systems to support space-based services effectively.
• Encourage collaboration between the government and private sector to reduce costs, foster innovation, and improve the application of space technology.
• Increase the number and diversity of satellites for better coverage, particularly in remote and underserved regions of the country.
• Encourage research in space technology and its applications to address emerging governance challenges, including climate change and urban planning.
• Adopt sustainable practices for satellite launches and space missions to minimize environmental impacts and manage space debris effectively.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recent data reveals that bad loans under the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme have surged by 42% over the past four years, highlighting the financial stress in the agricultural sector.

Understanding Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme (1998)

• About: It is designed to provide short-term credit to farmers for agricultural and allied activities, based on the recommendations of the R.V. Gupta Committee.
• Features:
• Issued by commercial banks, cooperative banks, and regional rural banks.
• Covers crop production needs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.).
• Includes working capital for allied activities like dairy, poultry, and fisheries.
• Can be used for farm machinery, irrigation, and post-harvest expenses.
• A KCC loan is classified as NPA if unpaid within three years of disbursal.
• Working of KCC Scheme:

Current Trends in Agricultural NPAs

• According to data from the RBI, the outstanding NPAs in KCC accounts of scheduled commercial banks (excluding regional rural banks) increased from ₹68,547 crore at the end of March 2021 to ₹97,543 crore by December 2024.
• It underscores the growing challenges faced by farmers in repaying their loans.

Major Causes of Rising NPAs in Agriculture

• Unpredictable Weather and Climate Change: Erratic rainfall, frequent droughts, floods, and changing weather patterns directly impact crop yields, making it difficult for farmers to repay loans.
  • With limited insurance coverage, crop failures lead to defaults on agricultural credit.
• Low Farm Income and Market Volatility: Despite government support, farmers often struggle with low productivity and unremunerative prices.
  • Market price fluctuations, lack of assured MSP for all crops, and inadequate procurement mechanisms contribute to financial distress.
• Loan Waiver Schemes and Moral Hazard: State and central governments frequently announce loan waivers as a relief measure, encouraging willful defaults.
  • Farmers often anticipate future waivers, leading to poor repayment discipline.
• Inadequate Risk Management by Banks: Banks are sanctioning loans without sound risk assessment.
• Structural Weakness in Agricultural Finance: Small and marginal farmers, who form 86% of India’s farming community, have limited access to institutional credit.
  • Dependence on informal moneylenders results in debt traps and an inability to repay formal loans.
• Delay in Crop Insurance Settlements: Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) has faced delays in claim settlements, leaving farmers unable to repay loans.

Implications of Rising Agricultural NPAs

• Stress on Banking System: High NPAs reduce the ability of banks to extend fresh loans, impacting overall agricultural credit growth.
  • RRBs and Cooperative Banks, which primarily cater to farmers, suffer from financial instability.
• Increased Fiscal Burden: The government often compensates banks for loan waivers, straining fiscal resources and diverting funds from productive rural investments.
• Economic and Social Distress: Indebtedness is a key reason behind farmer suicides, particularly in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Punjab.
  • Rising NPAs lead to rural distress, impacting employment and food security.
• Credit Crunch for Genuine Farmers: Due to higher default rates, banks tighten credit norms, making it difficult for genuine, creditworthy farmers to access loans.

Measures to Address Rising Agricultural NPAs

• Strengthening Crop Insurance and Risk Mitigation: Faster claim settlements under PMFBY and expansion of insurance coverage can reduce financial distress.
  • Promoting climate-resilient farming and crop diversification can mitigate weather-related risks.
• Improving Credit Discipline: Restricting loan waivers to genuinely distressed farmers and ensuring targeted relief can prevent willful defaults.
  • Encouraging timely repayment incentives, such as interest rate discounts, can improve repayment behavior.
• Enhancing Institutional Credit Access: Expanding Kisan Credit Card (KCC) coverage to all small and marginal farmers.
  • Strengthening Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) to ensure collective bargaining for better credit access.
  • Online application through banks’ websites & Common Service Centers (CSCs).
  • Integration with PM-KISAN and Aadhar for easier verification.
• Strengthening Bank Supervision and Credit Monitoring: Implementing technology-driven loan tracking to identify early signs of distress.
  • Increasing financial literacy programs to educate farmers on loan management and risk mitigation.
• Encouraging Diversification and Value-Addition: Promoting agribusiness, food processing, and non-farm activitie
  • Strengthening supply chains and storage infrastructure to minimize post-harvest losses.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The US has withdrawn from the board of the Loss and Damage Fund.

Loss and Damage Fund (LDF)

• It was established at the 2022 UNFCCC Conference (COP27) in Egypt to provide financial support to regions suffering both economic and non-economic losses caused by climate change.
• These include extreme weather events and slow-onset processes, such as rising sea levels.
• The LDF is overseen by a Governing Board that determines how the Fund’s resources are disbursed, with the World Bank serving as the interim trustee.

Objectives

• The purpose of the Fund is to assist developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change in responding to economic and non-economic loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, including extreme weather events and slow onset events.

Concerns

• Climate funds are often too slow to be accessible immediately after a disaster, particularly for local communities at the sub-national level.
  • It is anticipated that the LDF may face similar challenges.
• Without drastic emissions reductions, more countries will suffer from climate change’s devastating effects, making additional resources for mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage critical to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.
• The US withdrawal undermines global climate justice and must be held accountable for its role in climate damage and reparations.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• The effectiveness of the Loss and Damage Fund depends on addressing gaps left by existing climate finance institutions like the Green Climate Fund.
• However, for the fund to truly be effective, the root cause of climate change—emissions—must be tackled.
• India needs a clear legal and policy framework to streamline climate finance for adaptation and loss and damage, in line with locally led adaptation principles crucial for vulnerable communities.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, the Vice-President of India called for a national debate on the shift from ‘Democracy to Emocracy’, emphasizing that emotion-driven policies and debates threaten the foundational principles of democracy.

Understanding Emocracy: From Rational Debate to Emotional Influence

• Traditionally, democracy is built upon logical reasoning, debate, and informed citizenry.
• In an ideal democratic setup, policies are formulated and debated based on evidence, expert insights, and rational decision-making.
• However, in an emocracy (fusion of ‘emotion’ and ‘democracy’), decision-making is increasingly dictated by public emotions, viral narratives, and psychological persuasion tactics.
• It is visible worldwide—from the rise of leaders like Donald Trump in the U.S. to Brexit in the U.K. and the nationalist surge in several European nations.

Drivers of the Shift from Democracy to Emocracy

• Digital Revolution and Social Media Influence: Social Media Platforms amplify sensationalism over substance, allowing emotionally charged narratives to go viral.
  • In contrast to traditional media, where journalistic ethics ensured some degree of fact-checking, social media allows unchecked misinformation to spread rapidly.
• Role of Political Messaging and Propaganda: Political parties across the spectrum have adopted emotionally charged rhetoric to mobilize voters.
  • Whether it’s invoking nationalism, religious sentiments, or historical grievances, political campaigns are now designed to elicit strong emotional responses rather than engage in logical debates.
• Identity Politics and Group-Based Mobilization: Political leaders have realized that appealing to group identities—religion, caste, region, and ethnicity—can secure mass support.
  • It led to a governance model where policies are often framed to appease emotional constituencies rather than being based on broader economic and developmental priorities.
• Affirmative Action vs. Appeasement: Provisions for marginalized communities, as outlined in Articles 14, 15, and 16 of the Constitution, are justifiable and necessary for social equity.

Threats to Good Governance from Emotionally Driven Policies

• Populism and Fiscal Prudence: Populist leaders appeal to mass emotions rather than policy-based governance.
  • For example: Farm Loan Waivers: Several Indian states, including Punjab and Maharashtra, have announced large-scale farm loan waivers in response to farmers’ protests. Data from RBI (2023) shows that less than 30% of small farmers actually benefit from such waivers, while they create long-term financial burdens on state budgets.
• Legal and Constitutional Conflicts: Emotionally driven policies often bypass due process, leading to poorly drafted laws with constitutional or legal loopholes.
  • Example: Demonetization (2016): Announced as a move to curb black money, demonetization created short-term economic distress without effectively reducing illicit wealth.
    • NSSO Data (2018):5 million jobs were lost in the informal sector due to cash shortages. The Supreme Court of India (2023) upheld demonetization’s legality but acknowledged its flawed implementation.
  • Economic Disruptions and Resource Misallocation: Policies based on emotions often ignore economic feasibility, leading to wasteful expenditure.
    • Disrupts market confidence and investment climate.
    • Example: Free Electricity and Water Schemes: Many governments announce free utilities as an emotional appeal to voters.
      • CAG Report (2021): Free electricity schemes in Delhi and Punjab have led to rising power sector debts, affecting infrastructure investments.
    • Social Polarization and Policy Paralysis: Policies framed under emotional pressure often lead to divisive politics. Lack of consensus among stakeholders results in implementation failures.
      • Example: Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) (2019): Passed amidst heated political debates, the CAA led to nationwide protests due to concerns over religious discrimination which further delayed the NRC process.
    • Reactionary vs. Long-Term Policy Making: Crisis-driven policies often lack long-term vision. Immediate measures overshadow structural reforms.
      • Example: COVID-19 Lockdown (2020): The nationwide lockdown was implemented abruptly, leaving millions of migrant workers stranded.
        • CMIE Data (2021): 75 million people lost jobs due to lack of planning for economic disruptions.
        • Countries like Germany and South Korea adopted phased lockdowns with social security support, minimizing economic shocks.

Why Emotionally Driven Policies Are Still Important?

• Social Justice and Correcting Historical Wrongs: Some policies need to be emotionally driven to address past injustices and ensure equity.
  • Policies aimed at marginalized groups are often motivated by ethical and emotional considerations.
  • Example: Reservation for SCs, STs, and OBCs.
  • Despite criticism, affirmative action policies have played a key role in social mobility.
  • NITI Aayog Report (2023): The literacy rate among SCs and STs has improved significantly due to reservation policies in education.
• Quick Decision-Making During Crises: Emotional responses are often necessary in times of disaster or war to ensure rapid government intervention.
  • Bureaucratic delays can worsen humanitarian crises if policies are overly rationalized without urgency.
• For example: 80 million people benefited from Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY) in the pandemic period.
• Strengthening National Unity & Identity: Some emotionally driven policies are designed to foster national unity and reinforce common identity.
  • Policies promoting patriotism, culture, and heritage may not always be economically or legally necessary but serve long-term social cohesion.
  • Example: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: While critics argued it focused more on symbolism than structural sanitation reforms, it significantly improved rural sanitation awareness.
  • UNICEF Study (2021): Open defecation reduced by 60% in rural India due to behavioral changes.

Way Forward

• Strengthening Data-Driven Governance: Policies should be framed by economic, scientific, and social research rather than sentiment.
  • Example: Kerala’s Nava Keralam Mission focuses on health and education reforms based on real-time data analysis.
• Regulating Social Media Narratives: While free speech must be protected, platforms must adopt stricter regulations to prevent misinformation and hate speech.
• Reviving Rational Public Debates: Institutions like universities, think tanks, and civil society groups should take the lead in restoring logic-based discussions in public forums.
• Institutional Reforms: Fiscal policies should undergo rigorous scrutiny by parliamentary committees to assess long-term impact.
  • Example: The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act helps prevent reckless public spending.
  • 2nd ARC Recommendation: Institutionalize Impact Assessment Committees before rolling out major policies to avoid reactionary decision-making.