General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recent developments indicate that the Indian government may be losing momentum in its disinvestment drive, raising concerns about its long-term economic implications.

About the Disinvestment Strategy in India

• Disinvestment refers to the process through which the government sells or liquidates its ownership stake in public sector enterprises (PSEs).
• It aims at promoting efficiency, enhancing competitiveness, and generating non-tax revenue.
• In India, disinvestment began during the Economic Reforms of 1991, aimed to reduce the fiscal burden and bring in managerial efficiency.
• It is spearheaded by the Department of Investment and Public Asset Management (DIPAM), Ministry of Finance.
• As per DIPAM, the objectives include:
  • Reducing the fiscal burden on the exchequer;
  • Improving public finance;
  • Encouraging wider shareholding in public enterprises;
  • Introducing private sector efficiency into PSEs;
  • Unlocking value from underperforming assets;
  • DIPAM manages government equity in CPSEs and ensures transparency in the sale of shares or assets.

Types of Disinvestment

• Minority Disinvestment: Government retains control.
• Majority Disinvestment: Transfer of management control.
• Strategic Disinvestment: Complete transfer of ownership and control.

Changing Approach to Disinvestment 

• Policy Evolution: The 2021-22 Budget introduced a new public sector policy, emphasizing minimal government presence in CPSEs.
  • It proposed to have a minimal presence in strategic sectors.
  • In non-strategic sectors, the CPSEs will be either privatised or closed down.
• Shift Toward Value Creation: Officials have reiterated that the focus remains on value creation rather than explicit disinvestment targets.
  • The government raised only ₹10,000 crore through disinvestment in 2024-25, despite a vibrant equity market.
  • It is important to note that the overall fundraising in the equity market in 2024-25 stood at over ~3.7 trillion, which was about 90% higher than in the previous year.

Challenges in Disinvestment 

• Implementation Gaps: Despite integrating the DPE into the Ministry of Finance in 2021, progress on the new policy has been slow.
  • Disinvestment has often been driven by the need to reduce fiscal deficits rather than as a sustained policy objective.
• Political Resistance: Disinvestment has faced opposition, often portrayed as ‘selling the family silver’.
  • A lack of political consensus has hindered the aggressive pursuit of disinvestment programs.
• Economic Implications: CAG Report (2022) revealed that 198 government companies had accumulated losses exceeding ₹2 trillion, eroding the net worth of 88 companies.
  • These losses continue to burden the exchequer, underscoring the need for decisive action.
• Flexibility vs. Neglect: While the absence of explicit disinvestment targets allows flexibility, it risks neglecting this critical revenue stream.

Key Government Steps

• Merging of Related Departments: The Union government is in the process of merging two departments — the Department of Public Enterprises (DPE) and DIPAM in the Ministry of Finance. The idea is to improve the efficiency and performance of CPSEs.
• Union Budget (2021-22): A Public Sector Policy stated that the government would minimise its presence in CPSEs.
  • It proposed to have a minimal presence in strategic sectors. Strategic sectors include atomic energy, space, defense, transport, telecommunications, power, petroleum, coal, and banking.
  • In non-strategic sectors, the CPSEs will be either privatised or closed down.

Other Important Initiatives

• Monetization of Idle Assets: The government has introduced a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) to monetize surplus land and other non-core assets of CPSEs.
  • It aims to unlock the value of idle assets and generate additional revenue.
• Incentives for States: The government has proposed an incentive package of central funds to encourage states to disinvest their public sector enterprises.
• Initial Public Offerings (IPOs) and Strategic Sales: The government has utilized methods like IPOs, Offer for Sale (OFS), and strategic sales to divest its stake in CPSEs.
  • Key examples include the privatization of Air India and the proposed IPO of Life Insurance Corporation (LIC).
• National Investment Fund (NIF): It was established in 2005, that channels proceeds from disinvestment into developmental projects and social sector programs.

Way Forward 

• Targeted Approach: The government should prioritize disinvestment in non-strategic sectors while retaining control in areas critical to national security and public welfare.
• Stakeholder Engagement: Transparent communication with employees, unions, and the public can help address concerns and build consensus.
• Strengthening DIPAM: DIPAM must streamline processes and ensure timely execution of disinvestment plans.

Conclusion

• The merger of DPE and Dipam marks a significant step in redefining the government’s approach to CPSEs.
• While the focus on value creation is commendable, the merits of an aggressive disinvestment program cannot be overlooked.
• Achieving a balance between managing CPSEs and pursuing disinvestment will require political will, strategic planning, and efficient execution.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: In India, the government has been working to transform primary health care through innovative policies and programs, addressing challenges such as accessibility, affordability, and visibility.

About the Primary Healthcare in India

• According to WHO, Primary Health Care (PHC) is a whole-of-society approach to effectively organize and strengthen national health systems to bring services for health and wellbeing closer to communities.
• It aims to provide accessible, affordable, and comprehensive services to all citizens.
• It focuses on promotive, preventive, curative, rehabilitative, and palliative care, ensuring equitable access to essential health services.
• Alma-Ata Declaration of 1978 identified PHC as essential health care based on scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods.

Key Concerns in Primary Healthcare

• Urban vs. Rural Divide: Urban slums, while geographically closer to tertiary care centers, still face issues of affordability and overcrowding.
  • Rural areas house over 65% of the population but suffer from shortage of PHCs and trained medical personnel, along with poor transport connectivity.
• Human Resource Shortages (2023–24):
  • Shortfall of 77% surgeons, 69% obstetricians, 70% physicians at Community Health Centres.
  • 10–25% staff nurse vacancies in many states.
• Burden of NCDs and Mental Health: PHCs are now expected to manage lifestyle diseases and mental health concerns.
• However, limited staff training and infrastructure often hinder effective response.

Key Government Initiatives

• National Health Mission: India has a vast network of Sub-Centres (SCs), Primary Health Centres (PHCs), and Community Health Centres (CHCs).
  • These facilities serve as the first point of contact for individuals seeking healthcare services.
  • According to the National Health Mission, there are 1.6 lakh sub-centres, 26,636 PHCs, and 6,155 CHCs across the country.
• Ayushman Bharat Program (2018): It aims to transform primary healthcare through Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs).
  • HWCs provide services related to non-communicable diseases, maternal and child health, mental health, and geriatric care.
• Comprehensive Primary Health Care (CPHC): The National Health Policy 2017 emphasizes universal health coverage through CPHC.
  • It integrates traditional medicine systems like Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy (AYUSH) with modern healthcare.
• Focus on Underserved Areas: Initiatives like the Aspirational District Program (ADP) and Aspirational Block Program (ABP) aim to improve healthcare in underdeveloped regions.
• Pradhan Mantri Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM): It focuses on equipping India’s health system with the necessary infrastructure, with an outlay of ₹64,180 crore.
• Women Led Initiatives:
  • Role of Self Help Groups (SHGs): Over 1.9 crore women are empowered through SHGs that promote awareness on PHC services.

Global Initiatives

• Universal Health Coverage (UHC): It aims to ensure that all individuals have access to quality health services without financial hardship.
  • Scaling up primary healthcare interventions in low- and middle-income countries could save 60 million lives and increase average life expectancy by 3.7 years by 2030.
• Global Health Programs: Programs like the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria focus on integrating primary healthcare with disease-specific interventions.
  • The Gavi Alliance supports immunization efforts, strengthening primary healthcare systems in developing countries.

Way Forward 

• Strengthening Infrastructure: Expanding the network of HWCs and ensuring their functionality in underserved areas is crucial.
  • Investments in telemedicine can bridge the gap between urban and rural healthcare access.
• Enhancing Awareness: Community outreach programs and health education campaigns can improve visibility and utilization of health services.
• Ensuring Affordability: Continued efforts to reduce out-of-pocket expenses and provide financial protection through schemes like PM-JAY are essential.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Union Minister of Commerce and Industry emphasized the potential of India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) as a modern-day Silk Route aimed at connecting Asia with Europe through the Middle East.

About India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC)

• Establishment: The MoU signed by leaders from India, the European Union, France, Germany, Italy, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and the US at the G20 Summit (2023) in New Delhi directly points to the official announcement and initial steps for the IMEC.
• Aim: The description of a multi-modal connectivity project involving ports, railways, roads, sea lines, and pipelines to enhance trade between India, the Arabian Peninsula, the Mediterranean region, and Europe perfectly aligns with the stated goals of the IMEC.
• Corridors: The division into an Eastern corridor (India to the Gulf) and a Northern corridor (the Gulf to Europe) is a key structural element of the IMEC.

Significance IMEC for India

• Strategic Geopolitical Influence:
  • Counter to China’s BRI: IMEC is viewed as a Western-backed alternative to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), giving India a key role in shaping global connectivity.
  • Strengthens ties with West Asia and Europe: It enhances India’s diplomatic and trade engagement with countries like UAE, Saudi Arabia, Israel, and EU nations.
• Trade and Economic Boost:
  • Faster, cheaper trade routes: IMEC offers an efficient corridor for Indian exports to reach European markets through the Middle East, reducing transit time and cost.
  • Economic integration: Encourages foreign investment in India’s ports, railways, and logistics sectors, boosting employment and GDP.
• Energy Security:
  • Facilitates better energy cooperation, especially in green hydrogen, natural gas, and renewable energy, aligning with India’s transition to clean energy.
  • Enhances connectivity to Gulf energy hubs like Saudi Arabia and UAE.
• Digital Infrastructure and Technology:
  • Includes plans for digital connectivity (like fiber-optic cables) between India, Middle East, and Europe—critical for tech partnerships and cyber cooperation.
• Infrastructure and Maritime Development:
  • Boosts India’s port-led development under the Sagarmala Project by integrating Indian ports into global logistics chains. Logistics cost can be reduced up to 30%.
• Multilateral Cooperation:
  • Reinforces India’s image as a responsible global player and a vital link between Global South and Global North.
  • Encourages triangular cooperation with the US, EU, and Gulf nations.

Challenges

• Geopolitical Instability:
  • Ongoing conflicts like the Israel-Palestine crisis, the friction between Iran and Gulf nations, and general regional unrest can impact corridor planning and operations.
  • Issues like piracy, naval skirmishes, or blockades in these crucial chokepoints can seriously jeopardize smooth trade flow.
• Infrastructure and Funding Hurdles:
  • Setting up multimodal logistics points like ports, railways, energy systems, and digital networks requires a hefty investment from both public and private sectors.
  • Challenges such as land acquisition, getting regulatory approvals, and navigating bureaucratic red tape across various countries can slow down infrastructure development.
• Multinational Coordination:
  • IMEC brings together several sovereign nations (India, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, and EU countries), each with its own set of priorities, policies, and political landscapes.
• Technological and Digital Standardization:
  • The corridor features digital and energy elements, including data cables and green energy grids and ensures that everything works seamlessly while checking other technological challenges.
• Competition from Existing Routes:
  • Current maritime routes through the Suez Canal or even China’s BRI corridors might still be more affordable. India needs to make sure that IMEC is not only cost-effective but also logistically superior to draw in global businesses.

Key Outcomes of the Meeting

• PM Modi was conferred ‘Mithra Vibhushana’ the country’s highest civilian honour medal by the Government of Sri Lanka.
• Energy Cooperation: Both the nations inked an agreement to develop Trincomalee as an energy hub and jointly inaugurated the Sampur solar power project, aimed at boosting Sri Lanka’s clean energy capacity.
  • A grid interconnectivity deal was also signed, opening the door for Sri Lanka to potentially export electricity to India in the future.
• Railway Connectivity: An upgraded northern railway line between Maho and Omanthai, enhancing connectivity between the North Central and Northern Provinces was jointly inaugurated, along with an upgraded railway signalling system at Anuradhapura railway station.
• Comprehensive MoU on defence cooperation: The umbrella agreement consolidates various existing defence-related understandings into a coherent framework, enabling structured dialogue.

India and Sri Lanka Relations

• Trade Relations: India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) in 2000 contributed significantly towards the expansion of trade between the two countries.
  • India has traditionally been among Sri Lanka’s largest trade partners and Sri Lanka remains among the largest trade partners of India in the SAARC.
  • India is also one of the largest contributors to Foreign Direct Investment in Sri Lanka.
• Cultural relations: The Cultural Cooperation Agreement signed in 1977 forms the basis for periodic Cultural Exchange Programmes between the two countries.
  • The Buddhist and Tamil links enhance people-to-people connect and soft power.
• Tourism: India has traditionally been Sri Lanka’s top inbound tourism market, followed by China.
  • As per latest data from the Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, India is the largest source for tourists in 2023.
• Maritime Security and Defence Cooperation: In 2011, a decision was taken to establish the Colombo Security Conclave which aims to further promote maritime security in the Indian Ocean Region.
  • India and Sri Lanka conduct a joint Military exercise named ‘Mitra Shakti’, Trilateral Maritime Exercise “Dosti”, and a Naval exercise named SLINEX.
• Multilateral Forum Collaboration: India and Sri Lanka are member nations of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, South Asian Economic Union and BIMSTEC, working to enhance cultural and commercial ties.

Areas of Concern

• The Fishermen Issue: Sri Lanka’s proximity to Indian territorial waters has often blurred the line for fishermen on both sides in pursuit of fish stock.
• Rise of China: China’s increasing strategic investments in vital maritime ports in the IOR has been an area of concern.
  • Strategic infrastructure projects like Hambantota Port, leased to China for 99 years.
• Trade and Economic Imbalances: CEPA (Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement) talks stalled.
• Slow Progress in Development Projects: Indian-funded projects like Jaffna Cultural Centre, Trincomalee Oil Tank Farm, and housing schemes face bureaucratic delays.
• Internal Instability in Sri Lanka: 2022 economic crisis led to massive unrest which caused a spillover effect on the Tamil Nadu coast and refugee inflow.

Way Ahead

• India–Sri Lanka relations, rooted in geography and history, must now evolve through shared economic prosperity, strategic cooperation, and people-centric development.
• The strengthened ties between both the nations will ensure mutual growth and regional stability in line with India’s Neighbourhood First and SAGAR visions.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar highlighted the growing relevance of the Northeast – as a gateway to Southeast Asia.

About

• EAM was virtually addressing a meeting of ambassadors for the upcoming North East Investors Summit 2025.
• It was organised by the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER).
• He said the northeast region is at the heart of many key Indian policies — Neighbourhood First, Act East or the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC).

North Eastern Region (NER)

• The NER comprises eight States viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura.
• This region is culturally and ethnically diverse having more than 200 ethnic groups which have distinct languages, dialects and socio-cultural identities.
• The Region covers 7.97% of the country’s geographical area and 3.78% of its population.
• It has 5,484 km of international border viz. Bangladesh (1,880 km), Myanmar (1,643 km), China (1,346 km), Bhutan (516 km) and Nepal (99 km).

How is it a gateway to South East Asia?

• NER has the potential to become a vibrant link between India and East/Southeast Asia.
  • BIMSTEC, especially countries like Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, and Bhutan, can facilitate cross-border connectivity.
• Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project: It is aimed at connecting the port of Kolkata with the port of Sittwe in Rakhine which would then be connected to Mizoram by road and the Kaladan river which flows by Paletwa.
  • Sea route: Kolkata – Sittwe (Myanmar).
  • River route: Sittwe – Paletwa.
  • Road route: Paletwa – Zorinpui (Mizoram border).
• India-Myanmar-Thailand highway: The 1,400-km-long highway that connects the three nations is nearly 70% completed, but the rest of the work has been affected at several places due to political changes in Myanmar since the military coup in 2021.
• Motor Vehicles Agreements (MVA): Crucial for seamless cross-border movement of goods and people. Two MVAs in progress:
  • BBIN MVA (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal)
  • India-Myanmar-Thailand MVA.
• Modern investments come via Japan’s Overseas Development Assistance (ODA):
  • India-Japan Act East Forum (established 2017).
  • Facilitates infrastructure and cultural connectivity projects in the NER.

Concerns

• Connectivity corridors (road and rail) are key to integrating India with Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and ASEAN countries.
  • Mountainous terrain makes railway construction challenging in the NER.
• Insurgent groups disrupt progress, including abductions of Indian workers.
• Myanmar’s ongoing political turmoil hampers project completion and cooperation.
• Motor Vehicles Agreements (MVA): Bhutan withdrew from BBIN MVA over environmental concerns.
  • Thailand is hesitant due to potential disadvantages for local businesses.

Way Ahead

• Historically neglected, the northeast has gained prominence in recent decades.
• Its strategic value has increased due to India’s ‘Act East’ Policy and evolving Indo-Pacific geopolitical dynamics.
• The region is now seen as a vital gateway for India’s regional connectivity initiatives.
• Ongoing connectivity efforts require capacity-building for rail and road projects and improved border infrastructure.
• The overarching goal is to maximise the multi-dimensional potential of the northeast and cement its role as a regional connectivity hub.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India is witnessing rapid adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) across sectors like healthcare, education, agriculture, and governance. AI is expected to contribute up to $15.7 trillion to the global economy by 2030.

• However, the absence of a formal national strategy or legal framework raises serious concerns regarding ethical deployment, accountability, and inclusive growth.

Global Trends in AI Governance

• In the past year, countries have shifted their focus on AI governance, from mainly protecting human rights and safety to also promoting innovation and boosting the economy.
• Legislative Frameworks: Countries like the European Union (EU), China, Canada, South Korea, Peru, and the United States have introduced formal laws to regulate AI.
• Draft Legislations: Nations such as the United Kingdom, Japan, Brazil, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Pakistan have proposed AI bills awaiting approval.
• Strategic Documents: Over 85 countries and the African Union have released national AI strategy documents outlining policy goals, ethical principles, budget allocations, and sectoral priorities.

Need For Regulating AI

• Preventing Misinformation: Public opinion can be manipulated by deepfakes and disinformation created by Artificial Intelligence.
• Protecting Privacy: Mass surveillance technologies without regulation will undermine civil liberties.
• Preventing Algorithmic Bias: Artificial Intelligence can also reproduce discriminatory attitudes towards marginalized groups.
• Preventing Job & Labour Displacement: Job automation is threatening jobs in traditional industries.
• Preventing Concentration of Power: A handful of companies with AI pose monopolistic risk and social imbalance.
• Protecting from Existential Risk: Advanced Artificial Intelligence might become superior to human control if left uncontrolled.
• Ethical Concerns: Unethical and improper use of AI systems could impede the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – 2030, weakening ongoing efforts across social, environmental, and economic dimensions.

India’s Current Approach

• Lack of Formal Strategy: India currently does not have an officially approved national AI strategy or dedicated legislation. The only strategic document available is a 2018 discussion paper released by NITI Aayog which was not officially adopted.
• The IT Act (2000) and Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 offer indirect governance of AI systems, primarily through data protection.
• IndiaAI Mission: In the absence of a formal law, the government has launched the IndiaAI Mission through the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). The mission is built upon seven pillars aimed at fostering a responsible and innovation-driven AI ecosystem.
• Expert Advisory Group: An advisory group has been established to develop recommendations for AI governance. However, the timeline and certainty of formal adoption remain unclear.

Key Initiatives and Strategies

• National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (NSAI): It was released by NITI Aayog in 2018 to guide the responsible development of AI across key sectors like healthcare, agriculture, education, smart mobility, and smart cities.
• However, it is non-binding and not followed up with enforceable regulations.
• AI Task Force (2018): It is set-up by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry to suggest frameworks to leverage AI in India’s economic transformation.
• However, recommendations acknowledged but not formally codified.
• Responsible AI for Social Empowerment (RAISE 2020): It was organized by MeitY and NITI Aayog, that focused on AI governance, Ethics and inclusivity, Public-private partnerships etc.
• Parliamentary Standing Committee on IT (2021 & 2023 Reports): These reports recommended a dedicated AI regulatory framework, and establishment of an AI regulatory authority.

Way Forward

• Draft a National AI Policy: A policy document should outline India’s vision for AI, identify priority sectors (e.g., health, education, agriculture), lay down ethical principles, and specify institutional responsibilities.
• Encourage Public Consultation and Awareness: Structured dialogues with academia, industry, and civil society are essential to enhance transparency and ensure accountability in AI deployment.
• Pilot Regulatory Mechanisms: India should implement pilot-level regulatory tools—such as algorithmic audits or risk classification systems—before enacting a full-fledged AI law.
• Invest in Institutional Capacity: This includes support for AI research labs, open datasets, skill development initiatives, independent ethics committees, and sectoral oversight bodies.

Conclusion

• India’s approach to AI regulation prioritizes development and adoption over strict legal frameworks. While this allows flexibility, it also leaves gaps in transparency, accountability, and ethical AI deployment.
• As AI adoption accelerates, India must consider a structured governance model to ensure responsible and inclusive AI growth.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to an analysis by ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (ICAR-NIAP), India’s aggregate food demand is projected to exceed twice the current demand by 2047.

Major Findings

• Increase in Population: By the 100th year of its independence in 2047, India aims to attain the status of a developed nation.
• By this time, of the projected 1.6 billion population, approximately half may reside in urban areas.
• Increase in Demand: By 2047, India’s demand for nutrient-rich foods, including horticultural and animal products, is expected to increase three to four times.
• Land Shrinking: Agricultural land needed to meet this increased food demand is expected to shrink to 176 million hectares (mha) from the current 180 mha.
• The cropping intensity is likely to increase to 170% from the current 156%.
• Structural Changes in Agriculture: By 2047, Agriculture’s contribution to the national income may decrease to 8% from the current 18%.
• The average landholding size is expected to decrease significantly to 0.6 hectares from approximately one hectare now.
• Farmers would increasingly diversify their production portfolios towards less land-intensive activities such as animal husbandry and fisheries.
• Projections indicate an increase in the contribution of livestock to the gross value of agricultural output to 39% from the current 31%, and of fisheries to 10% from 7%.
• Impact of climate change on agriculture: Over the past five decades, extreme climate events such as droughts, heat waves, and floods have reduced India’s agricultural productivity growth by approximately 25%.
• India’ water use efficiency is also low at 35-40%, which is roughly one-third to one-half of the efficiency levels observed in China, Brazil, and the United States.
• Agriculture is a major consumer of water (83 per cent), and by 2047, its demand will be approximately 18 per cent higher than its current use.

Policy Recommendations

• Efficient Management of Water Resources: Rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge are essential for sustainable water resource management.
• Water use efficiency currently stands at 35–40%; a 10% improvement could irrigate an additional 14 million hectares.
• Power Sector Reforms: Phasing out universal electricity subsidies and targeting only needy farmers can help curb the overuse of electricity and groundwater.
• Fertilizer Sector Reforms: Current subsidy system favors nitrogenous fertilizers, disrupting NPK balance.
• Linking subsidies to Soil Health Cards can optimize fertilizer use and restore soil health.
• Emerging tech like nano-fertilizers and drone-based precision fertilization can enhance efficiency and reduce environmental harm.
• Climate Change Mitigation: Single risk mitigation strategies are inadequate; integrated climate-smart practices are more effective (resilient varieties, efficient irrigation, etc.).
• Digital tools (remote sensing, drones) can improve risk assessment and enable region-specific insurance.
• Investment in Agricultural R&D: India spends only 0.43% of AgGDP on R&D (vs. global average of 0.93%); private sector share is low (7%).
• Need sustained public investment and private/philanthropic partnerships.
• Crop Planning and Diversification: Must align cropping with resource endowments and climate, but profitability is key for farmer adoption.
• High-value crops (fruits, vegetables) require strong market infrastructure, cold storage, and financial support.
• De-stress Agriculture Employment: Agriculture faces excessive labor pressure due to slow rural industrialization.
• Promote agri-startups and MSMEs to create jobs and add value to farm produce.
• Strengthening Market Infrastructure & Value Chains: Market infrastructure has not matched growing commercialization in agriculture.
• Strengthen FPOs, cooperatives, and contract farming to improve market access and reduce risks.

Conclusion

• The challenges facing the agri-food system are multifaceted and interconnected, and their management requires a comprehensive approach encompassing technological and institutional innovations, investments in infrastructure, and reforms in incentive structures.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Telangana government has notified the implementation of the Telangana Scheduled Castes (Rationalisation of Reservations) Act 2025 for categorisation of Scheduled Castes (SC) into three groups.

About

• Telangana has become the first Stateto operationalise the classification of the Scheduled Castes after the Supreme Court’s landmark judgment.
• The judgement upheld the constitutionality of sub-classifying the SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to grant separate quotas for the most marginalised groups within these communities.
• Methodology Used for Categorisation: As per the SC’s verdict, empirical data, social, economic, educational, employment and political status of the SC communities was considered.
• Categorisation: 59 SC communities in the state will be divided into three categories – Group I, II and III.
• Group I: 15 sub-castes categorised as most backward have been classified as Group-I with 1 per cent reservation, these groups constitute just 0.5% of the population.
• Group II: 18 sub-castes of the total 59 which received marginal benefits have been placed under Group-II with 9 per cent reservation.
• Group III: 26 sub-castes that were relatively better placed in Group III in terms of opportunities with 5 per cent reservation.

Supreme Court’s Judgement in State of Punjab v Davinder Singh case (2024)

• In the 2024 State of Punjab v Davinder Singh case, a seven-judge bench upheld the constitutional validity of sub-classification within SC/ST categories.
• This judgment has overruled the earlier decision in the EV Chinnaiah v. State of Andhra Pradesh case (2004), which held that ‘Scheduled Castes’ notified under Article 341 form one homogeneous group and that sub-categorization is not permissible.
• Sub-classification within the Scheduled Castes does not violate Article 341(2) because the castes are not per se included in or excluded from the List.
• Historical and empirical evidence demonstrates that Scheduled Castes are a socially heterogeneous class. Thus, the State, in the exercise of its power under Articles 15(4) and 16(4), can further classify Scheduled Castes if (a) there is a rational principle for differentiation; and (b) the rational principle has a nexus with the purpose of sub-classification.

Arguments in Favour

• Unequal Backwardness Within SCs: Some castes within the SC communities are more socially and educationally backward than others and have been consistently underrepresented.
• Treating unequals equally perpetuates inequality, defeating the purpose of reservation.
• Constitutional Mandate allows it: Articles 15(4) and 16(4) empower the state to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward class.
• Promotes Effective Representation, Not Just Numerical: The goal is effective representation, not mere numbers, sub-classification can help achieve meaningful inclusion.
• Backed by Empirical Data: Allows the government to target affirmative action where it’s needed the most.

Arguments Against

• Article 341: Article 341 allows only the President to modify the SC list.
• State-led sub-classification is seen as indirect interference with the list and beyond state powers.
• Fragmentation Within Community: Sub-quotas can lead to increased caste-based divisions among SCs.
• It may undermine collective political strength and social solidarity of SC communities.
• Defining Criteria: Establishing objective, empirical measures of disadvantage within SCs is challenging.

Risk of inaccurate classification and legal challenges.

• Opens the ‘Creamy Layer’ Debate: Introducing the ‘creamy layer’ concept for SCs (as some judges suggest) could dilute the protection provided to SCs as a whole.
• Reservation for SCs is not just about economic backwardness, but historical discrimination and stigma, which persists across income groups.

Way Ahead

• States can now create sub-quotas within SC/ST reservations.
• It gives greater autonomy for states to address internal disparities within the SC/ST groups.
• However, stringent requirements of evidence and data may make implementation complex.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, the Russian Embassy in India witnessed a vibrant cycle rally commemorating the 78th anniversary of India-Russia diplomatic relations.

The rally marked the 80th anniversary of Russia’s victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.

About the India-Russia Relations

Historical Overview:

• 1947: India and the USSR established diplomatic relations just months before India gained independence in August 1947.
• Cold War Period (1947-1991): The USSR emerged as a reliable ally for India, especially during times of Western hostility.
• Both signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation (1971) that laid the foundation for a strategic partnership.
• 1991: India recognised the Russian Federation after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
• 1993: Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
• 2000: Declaration of Strategic Partnership
• Multi-Dimensional Cooperation Framework: India and Russia are bound by a Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership (2010).
• Over the years, it has expanded far beyond traditional military ties, integrating economic, energy, space, and educational cooperation.

Key Areas of Cooperation

Trade and Economic Relations:

• Bilateral Trade: Over US$60 Billion in 2024-25; ($50 Billion in 2023–24).
• Main Imports from Russia: Crude oil, coal, fertilizers, and defense equipment.
• Main Exports to Russia: Pharmaceuticals, electronics, iron & steel, tea, and coffee.
• Strategic and Defense Cooperation: It includes INS Tushil, S-400 Triumf missile systems, INS Vikramaditya, production of AK-203 Rifle, BrahMos Missile, submarines, tanks, and aircraft.
• India-Russia Inter-Governmental Commission on Military-Technical Cooperation (IRIGC-MTC): It continues to coordinate procurement, servicing, and joint R&D programs.

Political Support and Multilateral Forums:

• Support on Global Platforms: Russia reiterated its support for India’s permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
• Both countries coordinate in BRICS, SCO, and G20 to push for a multipolar global order.
• Russia is supportive of India’s Act Far East Policy and Indo-Pacific engagement.

Energy Security and Nuclear Cooperation:

• Nuclear Energy: Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, Tamil Nadu.
• In 2023-24, Russia was the India’s fourth-largest trade partner, largely driven by discounted oil imports (over 35% of India’s crude oil basket).
• It is expected to exceed imports from Saudi Arabia and Iraq.

Space and Technology Partnerships:

• Space Cooperation: Both are exploring partnerships in satellite navigation and human spaceflight.
• Satellite Navigation: India and Russia have agreed to cooperate on GLONASS and NavIC interoperability.
• Cybersecurity & AI: Emerging areas of cooperation include digital transformation, AI-based surveillance, and defense tech R&D.

Concerns & Challenges

• Geopolitical Pressures: Russia’s growing alignment with China, India’s regional rival, has raised concerns in India.
• India’s strategic partnerships with Western nations, particularly the US, have added layers of complexity to its ties with Russia.
• Payment mechanisms are a challenge due to Western sanctions on Russia, which restrict banking channels.
• Delay in Defense Equipment: Russia’s delayed delivery of the S-400 Triumf air defense system, largely due to the Ukraine conflict and related sanctions, has raised concerns in Indian defence circles.
• India’s efforts to diversify its defense procurement sources could impact its reliance on Russian arms.
• Ukraine Conflict: India’s neutral stance on the Ukraine war has been criticized by Western allies, while Russia expects stronger support from India.
• The conflict has also disrupted global supply chains, affecting bilateral trade.

Conclusion

• As India and Russia mark 78 years of diplomatic engagement, their relationship stands as a resilient example of strategic pragmatism.
• From being Cold War-era allies to 21st-century strategic partners, the journey reflects adaptability, trust, and mutual benefit.
• Despite shifting global dynamics, India-Russia ties are poised to remain strong, with new frontiers in trade, technology, and defense cooperation.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Deputy Prime Minister of Italy Antonio Tajani, visited India to bolster bilateral cooperation between both the nations.

• Both the nations discussed how to boost cooperation in trade, defence, clean energy, and technology, focusing on the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC).
• Focus should be on deepening India-Italy cooperation under the framework of Joint Strategic Action Plan (JSAP) 2025-29.

India–Italy Relations

• Historical Connect: Italy’s port cities once served as crucial nodes on the ancient spice trade route, linking the East and the Mediterranean.
• The Venetian merchant Marco Polo’s 13th-century travels to India exemplify the long-standing civilizational contact between the two regions.
• Diplomatic Ties: India and Italy established diplomatic relations in 1947, founded on historical connections and shared cultural values.

India and Italy elevated their Relations into Strategic Partnership in 2023.

• The Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025–29 launched in 2024 between India and Italy marks a significant step towards deepening their bilateral relationship.
• Italy’s exit from China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2023—after being its only G7 signatory—resonates with India’s concerns over China’s growing footprint in Europe and the Indo-Pacific.
• Economic Cooperation: Bilateral trade stood at $13.220 billion in 2023–24, with Indian exports valued at $7.94 billion.
• Italy is India’s 4th largest trading partner in the EU and ranked 17th in FDI inflows into India between 2000 and 2023.
• Defence Cooperation: INS Sumedha participated in a PASSEX (Passing Exercise) with ITS Morosini off the coast of Sardinia in 2023.
• The Italian Navy participated in MILAN 2024, a multinational naval exercise hosted by India in 2024.
• Multilateral Convergence: Both nations support multilateralism, and Italy has joined key Indian-led initiatives such as the International Solar Alliance (ISA), Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA), and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC).
• Cultural Diplomacy: From yoga to Italian cuisine, the cultural exchanges between India and Italy create a unique bond.
• The Executive Programme on Cultural Cooperation for the term 2023-27 was signed in 2023.
• Indian Diaspora: The Indian community in Italy is estimated at 2 lakhs including Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs).
• The Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement (MMPA) was signed in 2023 to facilitate safe and legal migration of seasonal and non-seasonal workers, researchers, professionals and academicians.

Challenges

• Structural Trade Barriers: Non-tariff barriers, regulatory delays, and logistical constraints limit potential trade growth between both the nations.
• Italian Marines Case (2012): The case caused a diplomatic strain, with concerns over national sovereignty and legal jurisdiction impacting defence ties.
• Differing Policies on Military Sales: Italy has been selling military equipment to Pakistan which has created a perception of policy divergence in defence matters between the two countries.

Way Ahead

• Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025–29: Focused execution of this roadmap can unlock potential in areas such as trade, innovation, education, defence and sustainability.
• Boost Innovation & Start-Up Linkages: Establish joint incubation centres and tech parks focusing on AI, green energy, biotech, and space.
• Streamline FDI procedures and regulatory frameworks to foster a more predictable, investor-friendly environment for Italian investments in India and Indian businesses in Italy.
• During Italy-India Business, Science and Technology Forum, Italy emphasised deepening cooperation in AI, supercomputing, defence, innovation, and space technology.
• India also underlined new areas of synergy in fashion, luxury goods, pharmaceuticals, food processing, green tech, tourism, and manufacturing.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The United States and Iran have resumed negotiations over Iran’s nuclear program following a period of heightened tensions, signalling a potential thaw in diplomatic relations.

Earlier talks

• Iran had previously refused direct talks with the U.S. following the U.S. withdrawal from the 2015 nuclear deal (JCPOA).
• Indirect talks were held under Joe Biden but were unsuccessful, and Iran accelerated its nuclear program.

Iran’s Nuclear Programme

• Iran is a signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but it ceased cooperating with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) after the 1979 revolution.
• Allegations have existed about Iran pursuing a secret nuclear weapons program, although Iran claims its nuclear program is for peaceful purposes.
• Iran has enriched uranium to varying degrees, including 19.75% in 2010 and 60% recently, moving closer to weapons-grade uranium (90%).

The 2015 Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA)

• The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was signed between Tehran, the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, and the European Union.
• It aimed to resolve the nuclear crisis by lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for Iran limiting its nuclear activities, including reducing its centrifuges, capping uranium enrichment to 3.67%, and limiting its low-enriched uranium (LEU) stockpile to 300 kg.
• Iran complied with the deal until the U.S. withdrew in 2018 under President Trump and reimposed sanctions.
• In response, Iran accelerated its nuclear program, enriching uranium to 60%, which is a significant step towards weapons-grade uranium.

Potential for a Nuclear Weapon and Related Concerns

• It’s estimated that Iran could develop a deployable nuclear warhead within months, if it chooses to do so, given its current enrichment capabilities.
• The increasing stockpile and reduced breakout time have raised concerns.
• Israel has expressed strong concerns over Iran’s nuclear progress, threatening military action to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons.
• Trump has also suggested military action if diplomatic talks fail, with Israel playing a key role in any military operation.

Latest Developments

• Recently, Iran has faced military, political, and economic pressures, including setbacks in its regional influence and worsening economic conditions.
• Trump offered dialogue, stating that the U.S. couldn’t allow Iran to obtain a nuclear bomb, prompting Iran to engage in diplomacy.
• Iran agreed to negotiate, partially due to its weakened position.

Way Forward

• Revival of JCPOA: Requires mutual trust-building, sanctions relief, and IAEA monitoring.
• Multilateral Guarantees: Broader international consensus is essential to prevent breakout scenarios.
• Regional Dialogue: Middle Eastern security architecture must include nuclear non-proliferation commitments.
• India’s Diplomatic Role: As a responsible regional player, India can advocate for peaceful nuclear energy and non-proliferation.