General Studies Paper-1

Context: Prime Minister Modi paid homage to the martyrs of Jallianwala Bagh.

What was the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar massacre, occurred on 13th April 1919 and marked one of the darkest chapters in India’s colonial history.
• To celebrate the Baisakhi festival and protest the arrest of prominent nationalist leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal under the Rowlatt Act, a large crowd of men, women, and children had gathered at the Jallianwala Bagh.
• Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered British Indian Army troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering of thousands, without issuing any warning or order to disperse.
• According to official British records, at least 379 people were killed and many wounded.

The Rowlatt Act

• The Rowlatt Act, officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, was passed on March 10, 1919.
• It gave the British government extraordinary powers to detain individuals suspected of sedition without trial.
• This act was based on the recommendations of the Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt and was modelled on the wartime Defence of India Act of 1915.

British response to Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• Martial Law: The shooting was followed by the proclamation of martial law in Punjab.
• The Hunter Commission, also called the Disorders Inquiry Committee, was set up by the British government in October 1919 to investigate the massacre.
• The Commission criticized Colonel Reginald Dyer for his actions at Jallianwala Bagh.
  • It censured Dyer but did not impose any significant penalties. It did, however, recommend his resignation from the military.

Nationalist Response

• Rabindranath Tagore, the Nobel laureate poet, renounced his knighthood in protest against the brutality of the British actions.
• Mahatma Gandhi, launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920, urging Indians to boycott British goods and institutions.
  • He also gave up the title of Kaiser-i-Hind, bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War.
• This movement marked a significant phase in India’s struggle for independence.

The Jallianwala Bagh Memorial

• Jallianwala Bagh is a memorial site maintained by the Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial Trust.
• The site includes several structures like a memorial flame, bullet-marked walls, and a well where many people had jumped to escape the bullets.
• The memorial also houses a museum and gallery that showcases the events of the massacre and the larger context of India’s fight for freedom.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: Recently, India celebrated the legacy of Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar on Ambedkar Jayanti, a towering figure in India’s fight against caste-based discrimination.

BR Ambedkar & ‘Annihilation of Caste’

• Origins of Annihilation of Caste: Originally written as a speech for a 1936 meeting of progressive Hindus under the Jat-Pat Todak Mandal, the address was never delivered due to its provocative content.
  • Instead, Ambedkar published it himself, making it a foundational text for anti-caste thought in India.

Core Arguments of the ‘Annihilation of Caste’

• Caste as Social Tyranny: Ambedkar rejected the view that caste is merely a division of labor; instead, he saw it as a division of laborers — deeply hierarchical and oppressive.
• Critique of Hindu Scriptures: He directly attacked the sanctity of Hindu shastras, including Manusmriti, for legitimizing caste discrimination and inequality.
• Rejection of Gandhi’s Approach: Ambedkar openly criticized Mahatma Gandhi’s views on caste, especially his defense of varna (the four-fold division of society), and reforming Hinduism without discarding its texts.
• Religion as a Social Force: Ambedkar emphasized that for any real reform, Hinduism must undergo a radicaltransformation.
  • He provocatively argued that Hindu society must ‘burn the scriptures that preach inequality’.
• Appeal for Rationality and Justice: Drawing from liberal and Enlightenment ideals, he urged Indians to abandon traditions that violate human dignity and embrace rationality, human rights, and constitutional morality.

Vision of an Ideal Society

• Liberty: It encompasses both freedom from social norms that limit one’s options and freedom from physical tyranny.
• Equality: Ambedkar pushed for the adoption of perfect equality as he thought that in order to maximize society potential, equal chances must be given from birth.
• Fraternity: Ambedkar promoted ‘social endosmosis’ or the free exchange of information across all groups, and saw brotherhood as the foundation of democracy.

Influence on Later Movements

• Dalit Panthers (1970s): It emphasized cultural assertion and resistance inspired by Ambedkar’s radicalism.
• Bahujan Samaj Party: It emerged with an explicitly Ambedkarite ideology aimed at political representation for Dalits and backward classes.

About Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956)

• Born: April 14, 1891; Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, in Hindu Mahar Family.
• He was the 14th child of Subedar Ramji Maloji Sakpal, a respected figure in the British Army and a follower of Sant Kabir.

Education

• A. in Economics and Political Science from Bombay University.
• A. and Ph.D. in Economics (Thesis work: National dividend for India — A Historic and Analytical Study) from Columbia University, and furthered studies at the London School of Economics.

1. His thesis was published as ‘Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India’.

Architect of the Indian Constitution

• Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly
• He emphasized the importance of equality, liberty, and fraternity.
• He was India’s first Minister of Law and Justice

1. He resigned his ministership in 1951, expressing his differences on the Kashmir issue, India’s Foreign Policy and Nehru’s Policy towards the Hindu Code Bill.

• He was conferred with the title of ‘Bodhisattva’ by the Buddhist monks at ‘Jagatik Buddhism Council’ in 1954 in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Major Writings and Publications

• Mooknayak (fortnightly newspaper, in 1920)
• The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution (1923)
• The Bahiskrit Bharat (newspaper, 1927)
• Annihilation of Caste (1936)
• The Untouchables: Who Are They?
• Who Were the Shudras? (1942)
• Thoughts on Linguistic States (1955)

Economic Contributions

• Ambedkar’s recommendations to the Hilton Young Commission contributed to the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India.

Legal Advocacy

• In 1934, he defended the All India Textile Workers Conference, highlighting flaws in the Trade Disputes Act of 1929
• His vision established a democratic framework with checks and balances among the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary.
• He considered the ‘Right to Constitutional Remedies’, enshrined in Article 32, as the ‘heart and soul’ of the Indian Constitution.

Others

• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (aka Outcastes Welfare Association) in 1924
• Led the Mahad Satyagraha (1927)
• Kalaram Satyagraha in Nashik (1930), a temple entry movement for the untouchables.
• Formation of Independent Labour Party (1936)
• Foundation of Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha (1955)

Award

• In 1990, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna (highest civilian honour of India).

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India and Russia have agreed on six new strategic projects during the 8th Session of the India-Russia Working Group on Priority Investment Projects (IRWG-PIP) held in New Delhi.

Background

• The “Declaration on the India-Russia Strategic Partnership” was signed in October 2000 during President Vladimir Putin’s visit to India.
• In 2010, the partnership was elevated to a “Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership,” reflecting increased cooperation across key sectors: defense, politics, economics, and culture.
• India-Russia ties are characterized by high-level engagements, institutional dialogue mechanisms, and cooperation in multilateral forums like BRICS, SCO, and the UN.

Key Points of the 8th IRWG-PIP Session

• Six New Strategic Projects: India and Russia have agreed to collaborate on six new strategic projects with the goal of boosting bilateral investment.
  • Sectors involved include trade, technological innovation, and economic development.
• Framework: The IRWG-PIP operates under the India-Russia Intergovernmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technological and Cultural Cooperation.

Significance of the Agreement

• Strengthens Economic Resilience: Diversifies India’s trade portfolio amid shifting global dynamics.
• Reduces Overdependence on the West: Reinforces strategic autonomy by balancing relations with major powers.
• Boosts ‘Make in India’ & Atmanirbhar Bharat: Encourages technology transfer, localization of production, and industrial growth.
• Geopolitical Leverage: Enhances India’s role in a multipolar world and Eurasian regional dynamics.

India and Russia Relations

• They share a long-standing relationship, with bilateral trade and investment ties dating back to the Soviet era.
• Over the years, their cooperation has strengthened, with trade growing from USD 1.4 billion in 1995 to USD 65.7 billion in FY 2023-24.
• Key exports from India include agri-products, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and machinery, while Russia primarily exports oil, fertilizers, and mineral fuels.
• Both countries aim to reach a bilateral trade target of USD 100 billion by 2030.
• Bilateral cooperation is supported by key forums like the India-Russia Inter-governmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technological and Cultural Cooperation (IRIGC-TEC), which includes 15 Working Groups and 6 Sub-Groups.
• The India-Russia Strategic Economic Dialogue (IRSED) also plays a vital role.
• Multilateral engagement: India & Russia cooperate closely at several multilateral platforms such as the UN, G20, BRICS & SCO.
  • India’s Presidency of the G20 & SCO in 2023 afforded the opportunity for officials and ministers of both countries to meet on the sidelines of various events in India
• Defence: Bilateral projects include the supply of S-400, licensed production of T-90 tanks and Su-30 MKI, supply of MiG-29 and Kamov helicopters, INS Vikramaditya (formerly Admiral Gorshkov), production of AK-203 rifles in India and BrahMos missiles.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Union Information and Technology Minister said that personal details that are subject to disclosure under various laws will continue to be disclosed under the RTI Act after the implementation of the new data protection rule.

About

• Amendment to RTI Act (2005) will come into effect once Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Rules are notified in the coming weeks.
• Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act now includes a blanket prohibition on disclosing personal information, even if it serves the public interest.
• Concerns Raised:
  • The change makes it harder to access information vital for social audits and uncovering misuse of public funds or corruption.
  • RTI requests have been critical in verifying government programs and ensuring accountability, e.g., checking food ration distribution.
  • The original RTI Act balanced privacy and transparency; they reject the argument that the changes align with the Supreme Court’s privacy ruling.
  • The Union Minister stated the amendment won’t restrict transparency or disclosure of personal information when legally required.
  • He cited the 2017 Supreme Court judgement affirming the right to privacy under Article 21 to justify the amendment.

Right to Information Act (RTI), 2005

• Aim: It was designed to promote transparency in the functioning of the government by giving citizens the right to access information from public authorities.
• Scope: The Act applies to public authorities, which include government departments, ministries, and organizations that are substantially funded by the government.
• Information Accessible to the Public: Citizens have the right to request information from public authorities. This includes the right to access records, documents, and other information.
• Exclusions: Information that may compromise national security, breach confidentiality, or harm the integrity of ongoing investigations.
• Timeframe for Response: Public authorities are required to respond to information requests within 30 days. In certain cases, this period can be extended to 45 days.
• Penalties: The Act provides for penalties against officials who withhold information without reasonable cause or provide false information.

Significance of the Act

• Empowers Citizens: By accessing information from public authorities, promoting transparency and accountability in government.
• Holds Government Accountable: Helps in holding public authorities accountable for their actions, preventing corruption.
• RTI helped uncover misuse of funds in the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS).
• Promotes Good Governance: It strengthens democratic processes by ensuring that the government operates transparently, fostering public trust.
• Enables Social Audits: Activists and NGOs use RTI to perform social audits of government schemes and services.
• RTI was used to check if food rations were correctly distributed under the Public Distribution System (PDS).
• Access to Public Records: RTI requests have been used to obtain details of government contracts, exposing corruption or inefficiencies.
• Strengthens Democracy: Provides a tool for citizens to actively participate in the decision-making process, enhancing democracy.

Criticism of the Act

• Overburdening Public Authorities: It has led to an overload of information requests, putting a strain on public authorities and diverting attention from their primary duties.
• Misuse of the Act: Some individuals or groups use RTI requests as a tool for harassment or to settle personal or political scores.
• Delay in Processing Requests: Despite the stipulated time frames for response, some public authorities struggle to adhere to these deadlines, causing frustration among information seekers.
• Capacity and Training Issues: Some public authorities lack the necessary infrastructure, manpower, and training to effectively implement the RTI Act.
• Exemptions and Ambiguities: The Act’s provisions regarding exemptions are sometimes vaguely defined, this ambiguity can be exploited to withhold information that should ideally be in the public domain.

Way Ahead

• The RTI Act has played a significant role in promoting transparency, reducing corruption, and empowering citizens to actively participate in the democratic process by holding government institutions accountable.
• It is a powerful tool for promoting good governance and ensuring that citizens have access to information that affects their lives.
• The amendment has not yet come into effect, as the rules for implementing the DPDP Act (Digital Personal Data Protection Act) are still in draft form.
• Civil society organizations are calling for these draft rules to be revised so that the changes to the RTI Act are not finalized.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency (MUDRA) Ltd and Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) completed 10 years on April 8, 2025.

About PM Mudra Yojana

• Mudra Vision: PMMY was initiated with the vision to ‘Fund the Unfunded’ – aiming to empower micro and small enterprises (MSEs) by facilitating access to collateral-free institutional credit of up to ₹10 lakh.
• The loans are disbursed through three products:
  • Shishu: Loans up to ₹50,000 for budding entrepreneurs.
  • Kishore: Loans between ₹50,000 and ₹5 lakh for growing businesses.
  • Tarun: Loans between ₹5 lakh and ₹10 lakh for established enterprises.
  • Target: Small businesses in manufacturing, trading, processing, and services—a major employment segment after agriculture.
• Collateral-free credit up to ₹20 lakh is provided by Member Lending Institutions (MLIs) i.e. Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) and Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs).

MUDRA Scheme: Decade of Impacts

• Credit Flow: Around ₹57,000 crore in 2013 (Before MUDRA)
  • ₹32 lakh crore in 2014-15 and ₹5.41 lakh crore in the last nine years.
• Financial Inclusion: Over 52 crore loans worth ₹61 lakh crore have been sanctioned since its inception.
  • Around 30% of units financed under MUDRA were new or fresh to financing.
• Focus on Women and Marginalized Groups: Approximately 68% of loan accounts under the scheme belong to women, and 50% are loans to SC/ST and OBC entrepreneurs.
  • About 70% of the borrowers were women in the first year.
• Wide Accessibility: Loans are provided through a network of banks, NBFCs, MFIs, and other financial institutions, ensuring broad coverage across urban and rural areas.
• Economic Empowerment: The scheme has supported small businesses across sectors like retail, food processing, and services, fostering self-employment and job creation.
  • States like Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and Karnataka have seen significant disbursals, contributing to regional economic growth.
• Some Major Achievements:
  • Empowerment of Nano Entrepreneurs: A significant chunk of beneficiaries are street vendors, artisans, and small service providers.
  • Women-Led Enterprises: More than 29 crore loans have been granted to women, boosting female entrepreneurship.
  • Digital Integration: PMMY integrated with platforms like Jan Dhan accounts and Aadhaar, ensuring transparency and efficiency in credit delivery.

Case Studies of Transformation

• Renu Devi from Bihar, who started a tailoring business with a ₹40,000 Shishu loan, now employs 3 others and runs a boutique.
• Naveen from Karnataka used a Tarun loan to set up a vehicle repair shop and expanded into auto parts retail.

Challenges

• Rising NPAs: Public Sector Banks have reported rising Non-Performing Assets (NPAs) under Mudra loans (NPA in these loans are around 2.2%).
• Lack of Impact Evaluation: There is insufficient third-party auditing or impact assessment of PMMY at scale.
• Success claims are mostly based on disbursement volumes rather than actual outcomes.
• Over-leveraging and Misutilization: Instances of borrowers using loans for consumption rather than productive use have raised concerns about loan effectiveness.
• Limited Tarun Loans: While most disbursements are under the Shishu category (low-ticket), Tarun loans have remained relatively underutilized—undermining high-growth potential entrepreneurs.

Future Roadmap

• Deepen Credit + Capability Linkages: Integrate MUDRA with Skill India, Start-Up India, and Livelihood Missions to offer a comprehensive entrepreneurial ecosystem.
• Promote Financial Literacy: Embed credit counselling and digital literacy modules during loan disbursal to reduce defaults and enhance productive utilization.
• Encourage Tarun Category Lending: Design interest subvention, risk-sharing frameworks, or credit guarantee mechanisms to incentivize higher-value lending.
• Digitize Microcredit Processes: Expand UPI-linked MUDRA cards, mobile-based applications, and e-verification for faster processing, real-time tracking, and reduced transaction costs.
• Institutionalize Mentorship Networks: Facilitate local mentorship cells under the aegis of District Industries Centres (DICs) or MSME clusters for handholding new entrepreneurs.

Conclusion

• The PM Mudra Yojana has emerged as a silent revolution — empowering millions to dream big, act bold, and build their livelihoods.
• As India strides towards a $5 trillion economy, the scheme remains crucial in democratising capital, energising local enterprise, and scripting grassroots success stories across its villages and cities.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Supreme Court invoked Article 142 to pass 10 Bills pending with Tamil Nadu Governor effectively granting assent to them.

About

• The Court exercised its rare powers to do “complete justice,” bypassing the Governor’s role in the lawmaking process.
• The Supreme Court ruled that Governors cannot delay or withhold assent to Bills indefinitely once they are passed or re-passed by the state Assembly.
• The ruling set a timeline for the Governor to act on Bills:
  • One month for re-passed Bills.
  • Three months if the Bill is withheld contrary to Cabinet advice.
• Significance: The ruling redefines the relationship between the Centre and states, curbing the power of Governors and reinforcing the authority of state legislatures.

What is Article 142?

• Article 142 of the Indian constitution is a provision that empowers the Supreme Court to pass any decree or order necessary for doing complete justice in any case or matter pending before it.
  • It also makes such decree or order enforceable throughout the territory of India.
• The importance of Article 142 lies in the following aspects:
  • It enables the Supreme Court to exercise executive and legislative functions in certain situations, such as issuing guidelines, directions, or orders to the government or other authorities.
  • It allows the Supreme Court to intervene in matters of public interest, human rights, constitutional values, or fundamental rights, and to protect them from any violation or infringement.
  • It enhances the Supreme Court’s role as the guardian of the constitution and the final arbiter of the law.
• Criticism: It may encroach upon the principle of separation of powers and the domain of the executive and the legislature, and may invite criticism of judicial overreach or activism.

How are the Bills Passed by the Governor?

• Article 200 provides that when a Bill passed by the State Legislature, is presented to the Governor, the Governor shall declare:
  • that he assents to the Bill;
  • or that he withholds assent there from;
  • or that he reserves the Bill for the President’s consideration;
  • or the Governor may return the Bill (other than a Money Bill) with a message for re-consideration by the State Legislature.
• Reconsidered Bill: If the bill is returned by the Governor for reconsideration and the Legislature passes it again without any change, the Governor is constitutionally bound to give assent.
• The Governor cannot then reserve it for the President’s consideration under Article 200.
• Reserving the Bill: If the Governor reserves a Bill for President’s consideration, the enactment of the Bill then depends on the assent or refusal of assent by the President.
• Article 201: The President shall, under Article 201—, either declare his assent or withhold his assent thereto.
  • Instead of following either of these courses, the President may (if the Bill is not a Money Bill) direct the Governor to return the Bill together with a message to the State Legislature for reconsideration.
  • The State Legislature shall then reconsider the Bill within 6 months of its receipt and, if it is again passed, it shall be presented again to the President for his consideration.
• In contrast with the power of the Governor regarding a reconsidered Bill, it is not obligatory for the President to give his assent to a reconsidered Bill.

Concerns of the States

• Interference in State Autonomy: States argue that the Governor’s role in reserving bills for the President undermines the autonomy of state legislatures, especially when the bills are in the State List.
  • Misuse of Discretion: There are concerns that Governors reserve bills contrary to the advice of the State Council of Ministers, leading to misuse of discretionary powers.
  • Subordination to Union Executive: States view the Governor’s ability to refer bills to the President as subordinating state legislative authority to the Union Executive.
  • Delays in Decision-Making: Many states complain of delays in the President’s decision on reserved bills, which affects the timely enactment of laws.
  • Lack of Clear Guidelines: States suggest that there should be clear guidelines for the Governor and Union Government to prevent arbitrary use of discretion.
  • Impact on Federalism: Some states believe that Articles 200 and 201, which allow the Governor to reserve bills, are inconsistent with the true federal structure of India.

Conclusion

• There were demands to establish clear, uniform guidelines for the Governor’s discretion in reserving bills, ensuring transparency and consistency in decision-making.
• Introducing time-limits on the duration of passage of bills will ensure timely formation and implementation of policy and will also strengthen the federal structure of India.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India and Israel signed a Comprehensive Agriculture Agreement to boost bilateral cooperation in agriculture, food security, and the modernization of farming practices.

About

• Key Focus Areas:
• The agreement explicitly mentions areas like soil and water management, horticultural and agricultural production, post-harvest and processing technology, agriculture mechanisation, animal husbandry, and research and development.
• Centres of Excellence Recognition: India praises the 43 Centres of Excellence and highlights their pivotal role in the success of the agricultural projects.
• Five-Year Seed Improvement Plan: The discussion between both nations on a five-year seed improvement plan marks a significant new development.
• Global Commitments and Future Prospects:
• India reaffirmed commitment to Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (“the world is one family”) underlining India’s commitment to:
  • Global agricultural partnerships
  • Climate-smart solutions
  • Israeli delegation invited to World Food India 2025

Background

• India and Israel share a deep-rooted partnership in agriculture, formalized through various Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) and Joint Working Groups over the past two decades.
• Indo-Israel Agricultural Project (IIAP) was launched in 2006 for providing training to farmers, demonstrations of modern farming techniques & opting best practices in horticulture (e.g., drip irrigation, precision farming).

Why is Israel a Key Partner for India in Agriculture?

• Israel is globally renowned for transforming arid land into green productive zones using:
• Drip and micro-irrigation systems
• Soil-less agriculture and hydroponics
• Greenhouse and polyhouse technologies
• Advanced agro-automation and remote sensing
• These innovations align with India’s goals of:
• Enhancing water-use efficiency (under PM-Krishi Sinchayee Yojana)
• Promoting sustainable agriculture
• Supporting small and marginal farmers (who form over 85% of the farming population)

India-Israel Bilateral Cooperation

Historical Ties:

• Began during Sino-India War (1962); Israel provided India arms support again during 1965 Indo-Pak war
• Israel was among the few nations not to condemn India’s Pokhran-II nuclear tests (1998)

Economic Relations:

• Trade Volume (2024): Over $5.65 billion (excluding defence)

India is Israel’s 3rd largest trade partner in Asia

• Major trade: Major exported items from India to Israel include Gems and Jewelry (US$ 351.56 million); followed by engineering goods (US$ 241.02 million), and electronic goods (US$ 97.50 million).
• I4F Fund (Israel-India Industrial R&D and Technological Innovation Fund): Established with a joint contribution of $40 million over five years, I4F supports collaborative R&D projects.

Defence Cooperation:

• Israel is among India’s top four arms suppliers
• India imports:

1. Phalcon AWACS, Heron/Searcher drones
2. Barak missile systems, Spyder SAMs
3. Precision-guided bombs like Spice-2000, Crystal Maze

• Defence deals touch $1 billion/year

Recent Developments: In January 2025, the Indian Ministry of Defence signed a contract with Bharat Dynamics Limited for the supply of over 70 Medium-Range Surface-to-Air Missiles (MRSAM) for the Indian Navy, valued at approximately $400– million.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Prime Minister Modi, during his visit to Sri Lanka, held a significant meeting with Sri Lankan President Anura Dissanayake in Colombo.

Key Outcomes of the Meeting

• PM Modi was conferred ‘Mithra Vibhushana’ the country’s highest civilian honour medal by the Government of Sri Lanka.
• Energy Cooperation: Both the nations inked an agreement to develop Trincomalee as an energy hub and jointly inaugurated the Sampur solar power project, aimed at boosting Sri Lanka’s clean energy capacity.
• A grid interconnectivity deal was also signed, opening the door for Sri Lanka to potentially export electricity to India in the future.
• Railway Connectivity: An upgraded northern railway line between Maho and Omanthai, enhancing connectivity between the North Central and Northern Provinces was jointly inaugurated, along with an upgraded railway signalling system at Anuradhapura railway station.
• Comprehensive MoU on defence cooperation: The umbrella agreement consolidates various existing defence-related understandings into a coherent framework, enabling structured dialogue.

India and Sri Lanka Relations

• Trade Relations: India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) in 2000 contributed significantly towards the expansion of trade between the two countries.
• India has traditionally been among Sri Lanka’s largest trade partners and Sri Lanka remains among the largest trade partners of India in the SAARC.
• India is also one of the largest contributors to Foreign Direct Investment in Sri Lanka.
• Cultural relations: The Cultural Cooperation Agreement signed in 1977 forms the basis for periodic Cultural Exchange Programmes between the two countries.
• The Buddhist and Tamil links enhance people-to-people connect and soft power.
• Tourism: India has traditionally been Sri Lanka’s top inbound tourism market, followed by China.
• As per latest data from the Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, India is the largest source for tourists in 2023.
• Maritime Security and Defence Cooperation: In 2011, a decision was taken to establish the Colombo Security Conclave which aims to further promote maritime security in the Indian Ocean Region.
• India and Sri Lanka conduct a joint Military exercise named ‘Mitra Shakti’, Trilateral Maritime Exercise “Dosti”, and a Naval exercise named SLINEX.
• Multilateral Forum Collaboration: India and Sri Lanka are member nations of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, South Asian Economic Union and BIMSTEC, working to enhance cultural and commercial ties.

Areas of Concern

• The Fishermen Issue: Sri Lanka’s proximity to Indian territorial waters has often blurred the line for fishermen on both sides in pursuit of fish stock.
• Rise of China: China’s increasing strategic investments in vital maritime ports in the IOR has been an area of concern.
• Strategic infrastructure projects like Hambantota Port, leased to China for 99 years.
• Trade and Economic Imbalances: CEPA (Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement) talks stalled.
• Slow Progress in Development Projects: Indian-funded projects like Jaffna Cultural Centre, Trincomalee Oil Tank Farm, and housing schemes face bureaucratic delays.
• Internal Instability in Sri Lanka: 2022 economic crisis led to massive unrest which caused a spillover effect on the Tamil Nadu coast and refugee inflow.

Way Ahead

• India–Sri Lanka relations, rooted in geography and history, must now evolve through shared economic prosperity, strategic cooperation, and people-centric development.
• The strengthened ties between both the nations will ensure mutual growth and regional stability in line with India’s Neighbourhood First and SAGAR visions.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: On 8 April 2025, India marked 10 years of the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY).

About the Scheme

• Launched: April 2015
• Objective: To provide collateral-free institutional credit to non-corporate, non-farm micro and small enterprises.
• Tagline: Funding the Unfunded
• Implementation: Through MUDRA (Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency).
• Target: Small businesses in manufacturing, trading, processing, and services—a major employment segment after agriculture.
• Collateral-free credit up to ₹20 lakh is provided by Member Lending Institutions (MLIs) i.e. Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) and Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs).
• Loan Categories under PMMY:
• Achievements (As of FY25)
• Loans sanctioned: Over 52 crore
• Loan value: ₹61 lakh crore

Need For Funding the Unfunded (MSME)

• Micro enterprises constitute a major economic segment in India and provide large employment after agriculture. This segment includes micro units engaged in manufacturing, processing, trading and services sector.
• It provides employment to nearly 10 crore people. Many of these units are proprietary/ single ownership or Own Account enterprises and many a time referred to as the Non-Corporate Small Business sector.

International Recognition

• IMF has praised PMMY across multiple reports:
• 2017: Helped women-led businesses access credit.
• 2019: Recognized its role in refinancing MSMEs.
• 2023: Highlighted over 2.8 million women-owned MSMEs.
• 2024: Acknowledged PMMY as key to formalisation and self-employment.

Challenges

• Risk of NPAs (Non-Performing Assets) in some sectors.
• Need for better credit appraisal and training of borrowers.
• Require complementary ecosystems (e.g., market access, digital literacy).

Conclusion

• In ten years, Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana has consistently demonstrated the power of financial inclusion and the strength of grassroots innovation.