General Studies Paper -2

Context: US President-elect Donald Trump warned the BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) with 100% tariffs if they create a new BRICS currency or replace the US dollar as the global reserve currency.

BRICS Currency and US Dollar Dominance:

• The BRICS nations, in light of rising geopolitical tensions and the shortage of US dollars, are exploring alternatives to the US dollar for global trade.
• Diverging economic structures, different monetary and trade policies, and other complexities make the creation of a common BRICS currency a long-term goal.

India’s Approach:

• India is exploring integration into the recently launched BRICS Pay Card, designed to facilitate token retail payments, enhance tourism, and promote financial integration.
• India does not aim to displace the US dollar but seeks to address practical challenges like trade partners’ currency shortages, blocked financial channels, and issues related to “weaponized” currencies.
• Focus on Economic Diplomacy: India advocates for practical solutions such as settling trade payments in rupees, especially with countries facing dollar liquidity issues or sanctions.
• India acknowledges the stability provided by the US dollar and does not seek immediate de-dollarization.
• India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi stressed that BRICS should not aim to replace global institutions.

Initiatives for Rupee Internationalisation

• Special Vostro Accounts: To facilitate rupee-based trade settlements, India has introduced special vostro accounts to mitigate exchange rate risk, reduce transaction costs, and bolster forex reserves.
• Targeting Global South: India aims to support countries with dollar shortages (e.g., Sri Lanka, Maldives) and those facing Western sanctions (e.g., Russia, Venezuela).
• Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC): India is advancing its CBDC initiative to streamline cross-border payments, enhance security and transparency, reduce reliance on intermediary banks, and keep pace with the global digital economy.

Approach on US Dollar

• India’s External Affairs Minister Jaishankar stated that avoiding the US dollar is not part of India’s policy but efforts are made to find alternatives in specific cases due to US policies complicating trade with some countries.
• India does not have malicious intent towards the dollar, but supports a multipolar world reflected in currencies and economic dealings.

Challenges in Bilateral Trade with Russia

• Despite efforts, India’s trade with Russia in rupees remains low due to Indian banks’ fear of US sanctions and an imbalanced trade relationship with Russia.
• Russia has large reserves of rupees but uses them for investment in Indian stocks and bonds instead of settling trade.
• China’s angle: Trade between Russia and China in domestic currencies (rouble and yuan) has surged, with over 90% of trade now settled in these currencies.

Future of BRICS Currency and Global Financial Landscape:

• China might dominate BRICS currency initiatives, which could shift the power balance within the bloc.
• India should diplomatically engage with the US to explain its position and promote multipolarity.
• India should support financial reforms within BRICS but maintain strong ties with the US to balance its strategic and economic priorities.
• Efforts to promote digital currencies (CBDCs) and platforms like UPI could position India as a leader in the BRICS currency initiatives.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India’s strategic geographical location, coupled with its burgeoning economy, has made its ports crucial gateways for global trade.

• The Sagarmala Project, a flagship initiative of the Government of India, has played a pivotal role in transforming India’s maritime landscape.
• Post-Sagarmala there is a growing divergence between the performing and lagging ports. This gap needs to be bridged.

India’s Port Sector

• Ports are the lifeline of the Indian economy, with more than 80 per cent of India’s merchandise trade (by volume) transported via ocean routes.
• India, with its vast coastline stretching over 7,500 km, is strategically positioned to play a significant role in global maritime trade.
• At the time of independence, India was left with five major ports, and today India has 13 major and over 200 notified non-major ports, which are the key nodes in global supply chains and also crucial to the growth of the economy.
• Major ports in India are managed by the Union Government. They fall under the Union List of the Indian Constitution, meaning the Union Government has the primary responsibility for regulating and managing them.
• Minor ports are managed by the State Governments through their respective State Maritime Boards. States like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu have their own boards to govern the non-major ports. These ports fall under the Concurrent List

Current State of Port Performance

• The nine ports of India have made it to the global top 100 rankings in the latest edition of Container Port Performance Index (CPPI), developed by the World Bank and S&P Global Market Intelligence, for 2023.
• These nine ports are: Visakhapatnam (19), Mundra (27), Pipavav (41), Kamarajar (47), Cochin (63), Hazira (68), Krishnapatnam (71), Chennai (80) and Jawaharlal Nehru (96).
• The ranks in CPPI tell us that there has been a significant improvement via operational efficiency and service delivery in the efficient handling of ships and cargo.
• Indian ports, as reflected in the CPPI, have witnessed notable improvements in operational efficiency, cargo handling, and service delivery. However, despite these achievements, a growing gap remains between the best-performing ports and those that lag behind.
• Ports such as Mundra, Pipavav, and Jawaharlal Nehru Port have also made it into the global top 100 rankings, but there are several ports, particularly in the East and some in the South, that have not seen similar improvements in efficiency.

Sagarmala Project

• The Sagarmala Project, launched in 2014, aims to modernize India’s ports, improve connectivity, and enhance logistics efficiency. Key components of this ambitious initiative include:
• Port Modernization: Upgrading port infrastructure, including berths, terminals, and cargo handling equipment.
• Coastal Shipping: Promoting coastal shipping to reduce road and rail congestion.
• Inland Waterways: Developing inland waterways to transport goods efficiently.
• Logistics Efficiency: Implementing measures to streamline logistics processes and reduce costs.

Key Achievements of Sagarmala

• Port Capacity: India’s key ports had a combined capacity of 1,598 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) in FY22. This capacity is expected to grow significantly in the coming years.
• Turnaround Time Reduction: Turnaround time has improved from 82.32 hours in FY17 to 62.16 hours in FY21, showcasing better cargo handling and operational efficiency.
• Non-Major Ports Growth: The role of non-major ports has increased, with these ports accounting for 45% of the total cargo traffic in FY22.

Key Challenges and Areas of Improvement

• Despite the significant progress made through the Sagarmala project, several challenges persist in India’s port infrastructure:
  • High Turnaround Time: While India has reduced the turnaround time (the time taken between a ship’s arrival and departure) to 62.16 hours in FY21, it is still far behind global standards, with countries like Japan (8.16 hours), Taiwan (10.56 hours), and Hong Kong (12.48 hours) having much shorter turnaround times.
  • Productivity Gaps: Although ports like Deendayal, Paradip, and Jawaharlal Nehru have shown substantial growth in productivity, ports in the Eastern and Southern regions have lagged.
  • Complex Customs Procedures: Unlike modern ports like Singapore, where 95% of containers are cleared without physical examination, Indian ports still require 10% of containers to be physically examined, leading to delays and higher transportation costs.
  • Underutilized Capacity: Some ports still operate below their full capacity due to lack of efficient cargo handling systems and outdated equipment.
  • Environmental Challenges: Port activities such as oil spills, ballast water discharge, and dredging operations for port development are harmful to the marine environment.
  • Regulatory Barriers: The governance of Indian ports is fragmented, with major ports governed by the Central Government and minor ports overseen by state governments. The World Bank has highlighted the lack of a unified regulatory body.
  • Social Impacts of Port Development: Port development often leads to the displacement of indigenous coastal populations. Ports like Gangavaram Port in Andhra Pradesh and Mundra Port in Gujarat have faced social resistance due to the displacement of local communities.

Strategic and Economic Impact

• The improvement in port performance has wide-reaching implications for India’s economy:
  • Boost to Trade: In FY24, all key ports in India handled 817.97 million tonnes (MT) of cargo traffic, a 4.45% increase from 784.305 million tonnes in FY23.
  • Job Creation: Port development and modernization generate millions of direct and indirect jobs in the transportation, logistics, and manufacturing sectors.
  • Foreign Investment: Improved port facilities attract foreign investments and promote global trade linkages.
  • Economic Growth: Efficient ports support the growth of other sectors, such as manufacturing, agriculture, and energy, which rely on smooth logistics for exports and imports.
  • Boost to Blue Economy: India is one of the world’s top five producers of fish, and developed port infrastructure can help boost the export of marine products. Ports play a central role in the blue economy.
  • Strengthening National Security: Well-developed ports are crucial for the security of strategic installations near ports, including naval bases, nuclear power plants, and satellite and missile launching ranges.
  • India as a Net Security Provider in the Indian Ocean Region: With the development of Indian ports, India can serve as a maritime hub for the South Asian region, offering its ports as part of a hub and spoke model for coastal development.

Future Prospects and Expansion Plans

• India’s maritime vision for 2030 and beyond is defined by two key initiatives:
  • Maritime India Vision (MIV) 2030: This vision aims to increase India’s port capacity to 3,000 million tonnes per annum, reduce logistics costs, and improve the overall efficiency of the sector.
  • Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision (MAKV) 2047: Envisions India becoming a global maritime hub with enhanced digitalization, automation, and green practices.
  • India has plans to invest US$ 82 billion in port projects by 2035.
• The Draft Indian Ports Bill 2021, which was circulated in July 2021, aims to centralize the administration of minor ports that are currently managed by state governments.
• In July 2021, the Marine Aids to Navigation Bill 2021 was passed by the Parliament, incorporating global best practices, technological developments, and India’s international obligations in this field.

Conclusion

• By 2030, India’s annual port capacity is likely to exceed 3,000 million tonnes. In order to achieve this target, involvement of the private sector is important, besides government’s active guidance and engagement.
• Greater Centre-State coordination in the maritime sector will pave the way for a comprehensive and inclusive development.
• Strengthening the Maritime State Development Council (MSDC) and launching the Maritime Development Fund (MDF) are some low-hanging fruits that can be implemented immediately.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The 16th session of the UNCCD Conference of Parties (COP16) is going to be held from December 2-13, 2024, marking the convention’s 30th anniversary.

• The theme is “Our Land and Our Future.

About the Desertification

• Desertification is a type of land degradation in which an already relatively dry land area becomes increasingly arid, degrading productive soil and losing its bodies of water, biodiversity and vegetation cover.

Causes

• Every year, 100 million hectares of healthy land are degraded due to drought and desertification, largely driven by climate change and poor land management.
• Desertification occurs mainly in dry areas due to climate variations and human activities like over-farming and deforestation.
• Extreme weather events, including droughts and floods, worsen land degradation.
• Agriculture contributes to 23% of greenhouse gas emissions, 80% of deforestation, and 70% of freshwater use.

Impacts

• Healthy land is crucial for life, providing food, shelter, jobs, regulating climate, and supporting biodiversity.
• Up to 40% of the world’s land is degraded, affecting 3.2 billion people.
• Desertification and droughts are worsening, contributing to forced migration. By 2050, 216 million people will be displaced by climate change, with droughts increasing by 29% since 2000.
• Desertification affects 3.2 billion people and leads to $11 trillion in losses. Immediate action is required to restore 1.5 billion hectares of land by 2030.
• Impact on Agriculture: Groundwater depletion due to poor rainfall and land management forces farmers to migrate to cities, threatening food security and livelihoods.
• Land degradation impacts several other planetary boundaries, including climate change, biosphere integrity, and freshwater systems, worsening environmental pressures.
• Land degradation undermines Earth’s ability to sustain human life, and failing to reverse it will create challenges for future generations.
• Deforestation and degraded soils drive hunger, migration, and conflicts.

Steps of India

• The National Action Plan to Combat Desertification, 2023 aims to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land in India by 2030, in line with the country’s commitments under the UNCCD.
• It focuses on South-South Cooperation to share sustainable land management strategies and create additional carbon sinks of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through enhanced forest and tree cover by 2030.
• It outlines remedial and preventive models for combating land degradation and desertification.

Solutions

• It is possible to restore land by implementing sustainable practices. UNCCD aims to restore 1.5 billion hectares of degraded land by 2030, with ongoing efforts in places like Burkina Faso and the Philippines.
• UNCCD stresses the need for urgent action to prevent further land degradation, as failure to do so will create long-term consequences for future generations.
• COP16 Goals in Riyadh:
• Accelerate land restoration by 2030
• Build resilience to droughts, sand, and dust storms
• Restore soil health and increase nature-positive food production
• Secure land rights and promote equity in land stewardship
• Ensure land continues to provide climate and biodiversity solutions
• Unlock economic opportunities, including decent land-based jobs for youth.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The government said that the number of gig workers and platform workers in the country is expected to rise to 23.5 million by 2029-30.

What Are Gig Workers?

• Gig workers are individuals who engage in temporary or flexible jobs, often through online platforms.
• They are part of the gig economy, which is characterized by freelance, short-term, or on-demand work rather than traditional, full-time employment.
• The gig economy in India has seen significant growth in recent years, driven by the widespread adoption of digital technologies and the proliferation of online platforms.
• The gig and platform economy is an emerging sector with significant growth and employment potential.

Status in India

• As per NITI Aayog’s report “India’s Booming Gig and Platform Economy” (June 2022), there were 7.7 million gig and platform workers in India in 2020-21, including women.
• According to the Economic Survey 2020-21, India has become one of the world’s largest countries for flexi-staffing (gig and platform work). This form of work is expected to continue growing, particularly with the expansion of e-commerce platforms.

Impacts

• Macro: The gig economy has had a substantial impact on India’s economy.
• It has provided employment opportunities to millions of people, particularly in urban areas
• Micro: Gig work offers several benefits for workers, including flexibility, independence, and the ability to earn additional income.
• Many gig workers appreciate the freedom to set their own schedules and work on multiple projects simultaneously.

Challenges

• Gig workers in India have protested over issues like revenue sharing, working hours, and employment conditions.
• These issues are hard to address within the current legal framework, which is designed for traditional employer-employee relationships.
• Lack of Legal Protection: Without recognizing employment relations, gig workers lack access to labor law protections, such as Occupational safety and health standards etc.
• Income Instability: There is no guaranteed minimum earnings, and workers may not earn consistently, even if available for long hours.
• Unregulated Working Hours: Gig workers, like app-cab drivers, often work late into the night or early mornings, leading to safety concerns, including accidents.

Measures

• For the first time, the Code on Social Security, 2020 provides definitions for ‘gig workers’ and ‘platform workers’ and outlines provisions related to them.
• The Code on Social Security, 2020 includes the provision for framing social security measures for gig and platform workers, covering areas like:
• Life and disability cover
• Accident insurance
• Health and maternity benefits
• Old-age protection

Conclusion and Way Forward

• The gig economy in India is a dynamic and growing sector that offers numerous opportunities for workers and businesses alike.
• However, to fully harness its potential, it is essential to address the challenges faced by gig workers and create a supportive regulatory framework.
• With the right policies and initiatives, the gig economy can contribute significantly to India’s economic growth and provide sustainable employment for millions of people.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), The Worker Population Ratio for women has increased from 22% in 2017-18 to 40.3% in 2023-24.

About

• The Labour Force Participation Rate for women has risen from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 41.7% in 2023-24.
• It indicates that 39.6% of women with post-graduate education and above are employed in 2023-24, up from 34.5% in 2017-18.
• 9% of women with a higher secondary education are part of the workforce in 2023-24, compared to 11.4 per cent in 2017-18.

Recent Trends as per the State of Working India Report 2023

• Older women with lower levels of education are exiting the workforce and younger women with higher levels of education are entering it.
• The number of women in salaried employment is increasing, while women in informal wage work are decreasing.
• The share of women working in agriculture is decreasing. The proportion of women entering the services sector is increasing.
• Impact:
• As the number of women in salaried employment increases, it has a positive impact on the gender gap in earnings, which decreases with more women leaving casual wage work.
• These shifts in the female workforce imply a longer-term impact on women’s economic participation in the country.

Significance of Women Participation

• India is seeking to harness its demographic dividend, with the largest working-age population in the world—expected to touch nearly 70 percent by 2030.
• India is poised to become the biggest contributor to global growth.
• A recent report has forecast that the next five years are crucial for the country to achieve a GDP growth rate of 8 percent.
• To ensure that growth, women must account for more than half of the new workforce which will be created by 2030.

Challenges

• Pay Gap: Despite entering the workforce in larger numbers, women often face a significant gender pay gap.
• Sexual Harassment: Women in the workplace, particularly in male-dominated sectors, face a high risk of sexual harassment.
• Unpaid Domestic Work: Even though women are increasingly participating in the workforce, they still bear the primary responsibility for unpaid domestic labor, such as cooking, cleaning, and childcare.
• Lack of Supportive Infrastructure: There is insufficient support infrastructure such as childcare facilities, flexible working hours, and work-from-home options that could ease the burden of balancing work and family duties.
• Resistance from Family: Families often resist the idea of women working, especially in rural areas or conservative households.

Government Initiatives to Increase women Participation in Labour Force

• Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY): Under PMMY, women can avail of micro-credit loans without collateral to set up small enterprises, helping women overcome barriers related to accessing capital.
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme: The scheme works to prevent gender-based discrimination and violence, focusing on changing societal attitudes towards girls.
• It promotes education, health, and empowerment, which indirectly increases women’s participation in the labor force.
• Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017: The Act extended the maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks for women working in establishments with more than 10 employees.
• Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) by NITI Aayog: The platform offers mentorship, networking, funding, and skill development opportunities for women in business.
• Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM): The NRLM, through its SHG component, encourages women in rural areas to form collectives that can access credit, entrepreneurship training, and marketing opportunities.
• National Creche Scheme: This scheme supports working mothers, especially those in the unorganized sector, by setting up daycares in nearby locations where they can leave their children while they work.
• Mission Shakti is a women empowerment programme launched by the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) for the period 2021-2025.
• It aims to strengthen interventions for women’s welfare, safety, and empowerment, making women equal partners in nation-building.
• The Women in Science and Engineering-KIRAN (WISE KIRAN) program has supported nearly 1,962 women scientists from 2018 to 2023.

Way Ahead

• Women-led development remains at the core of announcements made by the Finance Minister (FM) in this year’s Budget.
• There has been a remarkable 218.8 percent rise in the budget allocation for women’s welfare from FY14 to FY25.
• Shifting societal norms about women’s roles through awareness campaigns can encourage more women to join the workforce.
• Encouraging women’s entrepreneurship through easier access to credit, business training, and financial support will foster economic independence.

Ensuring safe work environments, addressing workplace harassment, and offering flexible work options will help women balance work and family responsibilities.

General Studies Paper -1

Context: India’s urban infrastructure is at a critical juncture, facing numerous challenges as the country continues to urbanize rapidly.

• With the urban population expected to double from 400 million to 800 million over the next three decades, addressing these challenges is crucial for sustainable urban development.

Current Financial Landscape of India’s Urban Infrastructure

• A recent World Bank report estimates that India aims to require approximately ₹70 lakh crore by 2036 to meet its urban infrastructure needs.
• Currently, the government invests around ₹3 lakh crore annually in urban infrastructure, which is just over one-fourth of the required ₹4.6 lakh crore per year.
• This significant gap highlights the urgent need for innovative financing strategies.

Major Challenges

Issues With Municipal Finances:

• Municipal finances are a critical component of urban infrastructure funding but have remained stagnant at just 1% of GDP since 2002.
• Nationwide, property tax collection stands at a mere ₹25,000 crore, which is only 0.15% of GDP.
• Municipal bodies contribute 45% of urban investments, with the remainder managed by parastatal agencies.
• Despite an increase in central and state transfers, the financial health of municipalities remains precarious.
• Collection inefficiencies further exacerbate the problem. For instance, urban local bodies (ULBs) in cities like Bengaluru and Jaipur collect only 5%-20% of their potential tax revenue.
• Additionally, cost recovery for services ranges from 20% to 50%, highlighting the significant gap between the costs of urban services and the revenues generated from them.

Structural Challenges: Issues of Absorptive Capacity and Utilisation:

• Indian cities struggle with low absorptive capacity, complicating the urban infrastructure landscape.
• According to the Fifteenth Finance Commission report, about 23% of total municipal revenue remains unspent, indicating a surplus in the municipal system that is not being effectively utilised.
• Even major cities such as Hyderabad and Chennai only managed to spend 50% of their capital expenditure budgets in 2018-19.
• The utilisation of central scheme funds also leaves much to be desired, with the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) achieving 80% utilization and the Smart Cities Mission reaching 70%.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) and Technological Integration:

• PPPs have been identified as a crucial avenue for urban infrastructure financing. However, there has been a marked decline in PPP projects over the past decade.
• It underscores the need for a more conducive environment for private investment in urban infrastructure.
• Additionally, the potential of digital technology to transform urban infrastructure remains underutilized.

Governance and Planning Issues:

• Urban planning in India faces several challenges, including outdated spatial and temporal plans that fail to accommodate population growth.
• Many urban planning agencies focus more on capital growth rather than addressing the needs of the population, leading to a lack of local ownership and engagement.
• Additionally, the governance structure of ULBs is often inefficient, with significant gaps in tax collection and cost recovery for services.

Climate Change and Environmental Concerns:

• Climate change poses a significant threat to urban areas, exacerbating issues such as flooding, heatwaves, and water scarcity.
• Indian cities are particularly vulnerable due to inadequate infrastructure and poor planning.
• The rapid pace of urbanisation has led to environmental degradation, with increased pollution and loss of green spaces further impacting the quality of life in urban areas.

Social and Economic Inequality:

• Urbanisation in India has often been driven by economic distress, resulting in ‘poverty-driven urbanisation’.
• It has led to the proliferation of slums and informal settlements, where living conditions are poor and access to basic services is limited.
• Growing inequality and social segregation are major challenges, with a significant portion of the urban population lacking access to adequate housing, clean water, and sanitation.

Government Policies to Overcome Issues in India’s Urban Infrastructure

• Smart Cities Mission (2015): It aims to develop 100 smart cities across India by leveraging technology, data, and citizen participation, by focusing on improving urban infrastructure and services through smart solutions, such as intelligent traffic management, efficient waste management, and enhanced public safety.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) (2015): It focuses on providing basic urban infrastructure in cities, including water supply, sewerage, urban transport, and green spaces, aiming to ensure that every household has access to a tap with assured water supply and a sewerage connection.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) – PMAY(U): It aims to provide affordable housing to all urban poor by focusing on slum rehabilitation, affordable housing through credit-linked subsidies, and the promotion of affordable housing projects in partnership with public and private sectors.
• National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP): It emphasises the development of sustainable urban transport systems.
• It promotes the use of public transport, non-motorized transport, and the integration of land use and transport planning to reduce traffic congestion and pollution.
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban) (2014): It aims to make urban areas open defecation-free and improve solid waste management.
• It focuses on constructing toilets, promoting behavioral change, and ensuring efficient waste collection and disposal.
• Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): It aims to preserve and revitalize the heritage cities of India.
• It focuses on improving infrastructure, enhancing tourism, and promoting heritage conservation in these cities.
• Digital Public Infrastructure: The government is focusing on digital infrastructure to support urban development. Initiatives like the India Urban Data Exchange (IUDX) facilitate data sharing among various stakeholders to improve urban planning and service delivery.

Strategic Initiatives

• The National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP), introduced in 2019, emphasises social and infrastructure projects worth INR 102 lakh crores, with significant contributions from both the public and private sectors.
• Additionally, the PM GatiShakti Master Plan aims to enhance India’s logistics network, further supporting urban infrastructure development.
• The Urban Infrastructure Development Fund (UIDF), established through priority sector lending shortfalls, aims to create urban infrastructure in Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities with an annual outlay of INR 10,000 crore.
• It encourages state governments to utilize resources from the 15th Finance Commission and existing schemes to adopt appropriate user charges while accessing the UIDF.

Technological Integration

• Technological advancements play a pivotal role in transforming urban infrastructure. The Smart Cities Mission, focusing on sustainable and efficient urban planning, leverages technologies like 5G, Internet of Things (IoT), and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to create intelligent infrastructure.
• These technologies enhance service delivery, improve resource management, and ensure the sustainability of urban environments.

Sustainable Development

• Sustainability is a cornerstone of India’s urban infrastructure strategy. The India Infrastructure Report 2023 emphasises the need for sustainable urban planning and development.
• It includes integrating green initiatives, promoting renewable energy, and ensuring environmental sustainability in urban projects. It also highlights the importance of public-private partnerships and financial sustainability of urban bodies.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• Addressing the challenges of urban infrastructure in India requires a multi-faceted approach, involving increased financial investment, efficient governance, and innovative solutions.
• By focusing on sustainable development and leveraging technology, India can transform its urban landscape to meet the needs of its growing population.
• Strengthening municipal finances through better tax collection and revenue generation, improving the absorptive capacity of cities, and fostering a more favorable environment for PPPs are essential steps.
• Additionally, innovative financing mechanisms, such as municipal bonds and leveraging commercial debt, can play a crucial role in bridging the financing gap.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India has proposed setting up a dedicated multilateral fund to support developing countries in tackling plastic pollution at 5th Intergovernmental Negotiations Committee (INC).

About

• INC is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the talks are scheduled to conclude on December 1.
• More than 170 countries in the Republic of Korea are negotiating the global treaty to end plastic pollution, including marine pollution.
• Aim: The treaty aims to have countries cut the production of plastic and plastic polymers.
• The negotiations are whether to agree to binding limits on certain classes of chemicals and on plastic production, or to settle on a package of funding aimed at improving trash collection and recycling.

Background

• In 2022, the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) adopted a resolution to tackle plastic pollution on a global scale.
• 175 nations voted to adopt a global treaty for plastic pollution—agreeing on an accelerated timeline so that the treaty could be implemented as soon as 2025.
• This led to the creation of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) tasked with developing a legally binding international agreement on plastic pollution by 2024.
• Since 2022, the INC has held four sessions in Uruguay, France, Canada, and Kenya.

New Multilateral Fund

• Objective: The fund would provide grants (not loans) to developing countries to make it easier for them to transition to eco-friendly technologies and practices.
• Governance: It would be governed by a duly constituted subsidiary body.
• It will have equal representation from developed and developing countries.
• It will oversee the fund’s operations, including creating policies, managing resources, and ensuring fair distribution of funds.
• The subsidiary body would also handle technology transfers.
• Grant Based: The fund will provide grant-based finance to developing countries, and the developed countries will be mandated to replenish the fund on a periodic basis.
• Private Funding: It should also provide flexibility of accepting private funds based upon agreed modalities.

Conclusion

• The Global Plastics Treaty is a step in the right direction, but it needs to go beyond just addressing the issue of plastic pollution.
• It is time to eliminate unnecessary plastic, redesign products so they can be reused, repurposed, repaired and recycled, switch to non-plastic substitutes and strengthen systems for sound waste management.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Indian government has approved ISRO’s Venus Orbiting Satellite mission, named Shukrayaan.

Shukrayaan Mission (Venus Orbiting Satellite)

• Launch Details: Set to launch in March 2028.
• Estimated cost of the mission is Rs 1,236 crore.
• LVM-3 launch vehicle has been identified to place the spacecraft in an Elliptical Parking Orbit (EPO)
• Objectives:
  • Atmospheric Studies: Analyze the composition of Venus’s thick, carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere. Study the extreme greenhouse effect and its impact on the planet’s climate.
  • Surface Mapping: Utilize advanced radar technology to map the planet’s surface, revealing hidden geological features.
  • Ionospheric Studies: Explore the upper atmosphere of Venus, including the ionosphere, to understand its interaction with solar radiation and the solar wind.
• Scientific Payload:
  • Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR): To penetrate the thick clouds and map the surface features.
  • Infrared Spectrometer: To study the composition of the atmosphere and surface.
  • Ultraviolet Spectrometer: To analyze the upper atmosphere and ionosphere.

Challenges of the Mission

• Extreme Environment: Venus’s harsh environment, characterized by high temperatures and acidic atmosphere, poses significant challenges to spacecraft design and operation.
• Technical Complexity: The mission requires precise navigation and control to achieve its scientific objectives.
• Data Transmission: Reliable communication between the spacecraft and Earth over long distances is essential.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: On Constitution Day (November 26), President Droupadi Murmu recalled the role women members played in the Constituent Assembly.

About

• The 299-member Assembly had 15 women members, including prominent figures such as Sarojini Naidu, Sucheta Kripalani, and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.
• But it also had lesser-known women from diverse backgrounds who participated in debates on gender, caste and reservations.

Contribution by Women in the Constituent Assembly

• Ammu Swaminathan (1894-1978): She contested Central Legislative Assembly elections on a Congress ticket from Madras in 1945 and then became a member of the Constituent Assembly.
• She strongly opposed the restrictions imposed on widows, such as shaving the head and renouncing jewellery, after seeing her mother’s experience.
• Annie Mascarene (1902-1963): She was born in Trivandrum (now Thiruvananthapuram) in a Latin Christian family, considered to be at the lowest rung of the caste system. Despite her social status, she went on to study and teach law.
• She actively campaigned for a government based on a universal adult franchise.
• Begum Qudsia Aizaz Rasul (1909-2001): Despite being part of the Muslim League, she was among the few members opposing separate electorates based on religion. Her views on the idea of Pakistan were more complex.
• Dakshayani Velayudhan (1912-1978): She was the first Dalit woman to graduate in science in Cochin (now Kochi) and the first Dalit woman in the Cochin Legislative Council.
• She disagreed with Ambedkar on the need for separate electorates, saying the provision went against nationalism.
• Renuka Ray (1904-1997): A meeting with Gandhi in 1920 led her to quit college and join the freedom struggle, where she went door-to-door to raise awareness.
• She represented women’s organisations in the Central Legislative Assembly in 1943 and then became a member of the Constituent Assembly.
• Rajkumari Amrit Kaur: The first Health Minister of independent India, she was also a member of the Constituent Assembly.
• She was deeply involved in the discussions on social welfare, healthcare, and education, with a focus on women’s health and social issues.
• Kamla Devi: A noted social reformer and freedom fighter, also participated in the Constituent Assembly.
• She was an advocate for women’s rights, particularly in areas of education, social reform, and the empowerment of women.
• Muthulakshmi Reddi: She worked on issues related to the rights of women, including the legal reforms concerning marriage and divorce.

Significance of Women Participation in Constituent Assembly

• The inclusion of women in the Constituent Assembly signaled the recognition of women as equal partners in the democratic process and nation-building.
• They advocated for Women’s Rights and Social Justice.
• Advocated for the inclusion of gender equality in the Constitution with the Article 14, 15 and 42.
• The Hindu Code Bill, which sought to provide equal rights to women in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and property, was influenced by the ongoing discussions and activism by women leaders.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The 26th November, 2024, marked the 75th anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of India called Constitution Day, or ‘Samvidhan Divas,’.

About

• On November 26, 1949, the Indian Constituent Assembly formally adopted the Constitution, which came into effect on January 26, 1950, establishing India as a sovereign, democratic, republic.
• In 2015, the Government of India formally declared November 26 as Constitution Day (Samvidhan Divas) to honor the adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1949.

Evolution of the Indian Constitution

• Constituent Assembly:
• After India gained independence in 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed to draft a new constitution, consisting of elected representatives from across India.
• B.R. Ambedkar played a key role as the chairman of the drafting committee.
• The assembly took almost 3 years to draft the Constitution, from December 9, 1946, to November 26, 1949.
• Adoption of the Constitution (1950):
  • The Indian Constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950, marking the birth of the Republic of India.
  • It established India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.
• Amendments and Evolution:
  • Since its adoption, the Constitution has been amended over 100 times, responding to the changing needs of Indian society and governance.
  • Key amendments include:
    • The First Amendment (1951), which allowed for restrictions on certain fundamental rights.
    • The 42nd Amendment (1976), which made significant changes during the Emergency period, including the inclusion of the words “socialist” and “secular.”
    • The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992), which introduced constitutional recognition for local self-government (Panchayats and Municipalities).
• Judicial Interpretations and Constitutional Development:
  • The Judiciary has played a crucial role in interpreting the Constitution.
  • Landmark cases like Kesavananda Bharati (1973), Maneka Gandhi (1978), and Minerva Mills (1980) have significantly shaped the understanding of fundamental rights, the relationship between the legislature, executive, and judiciary, and the balance of powers.

Key Constitutional Values

• Sovereign: India is a sovereign nation, meaning it has full control over its internal and external affairs, without any interference from external powers.
• Democracy: India is a democratic republic, where the government is elected by the people through free and fair elections, and political power ultimately rests with the people.
• Republic: The head of state (the President) is elected, not hereditary, ensuring that political leadership is determined by merit and democratic processes.
• Secular: The Constitution ensures that all religions receive equal treatment under the law, guaranteeing freedom of religion and protection from religious discrimination.
• Social Justice: The Constitution aims to create a just society by providing for affirmative actions, reservations, and protections for marginalized groups.
• Rule of Law: Every individual, including the government, is subject to the law. This principle ensures that the legal system is fair, transparent, and consistent, providing equality before the law.
• Federalism: The Indian Constitution establishes a federal system of government with a division of powers between the central government and states, allowing both levels of government to exercise authority within their respective jurisdictions.
• Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights to protect the dignity and liberty of individuals against any arbitrary action by the state or authorities.
• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP): These are guidelines for the government to establish a welfare state, focusing on social and economic justice, and promoting the general welfare of the people.
• Unity and Integrity of the Nation: The Constitution emphasizes the importance of maintaining national unity and integrity, promoting a sense of national identity and solidarity, despite the country’s vast diversity.

Challenging Features of the Constitution

• Federalism vs. Centralization: The tension between the strong central government and the autonomy of states remains a challenge, especially in areas like the distribution of resources and political power.
• Fundamental Rights vs. Directive Principles: Balancing individual freedoms (Fundamental Rights) with the social welfare goals (Directive Principles) can be difficult, as the latter are non-justiciable.
• Affirmative Action: The reservation system for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes is a subject of debate over merit, equality, and the perpetuation of caste-based divisions.
• Judicial Overreach: The judiciary’s role in interpreting the Constitution and striking down laws can sometimes be seen as encroaching on the powers of the legislature and executive.
• Secularism vs. Religious Identity: India’s secularism is challenged by demands for religious-based laws, especially with regard to issues like the Uniform Civil Code and personal laws of different communities.
• Fundamental Rights and National Security: Restrictions on rights in the name of national security or public order (e.g., sedition laws) raise concerns about the balance between civil liberties and state control.
• Constitutional Amendments: The “basic structure” doctrine limits amendments to the Constitution, leading to debates about what constitutes fundamental features that should not be altered.

Why Celebrate Constitution Day?

• Honoring the Constitution’s Legacy: Celebrating Constitution Day honors the sacrifices and efforts of the framers of the Constitution.
• Promoting Constitutional Values: It reinforces the importance of constitutional values like democracy, liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Encouraging Civic Engagement: It encourages citizens to understand and appreciate their rights and responsibilities.

Inspiring Future Generations: It inspires future generations to uphold the values enshrined in the Constitution.