General Studies Paper-3

Context: Solar Energy Corporation of India Ltd (SECI), under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, signed a MoU with H2Global Stiftung to establish a collaborative framework to promote Green Hydrogen initiatives.

About MoU: Key Points

• Aim:
• To enhance knowledge exchange on market-based mechanisms,
• Foster cooperation between india and importing countries,
• Eventually contributing to the global advancement of the green hydrogen economy.
• This collaboration offers India the opportunity to structure joint tenders that aligns with India’s ambition to become export hub of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives.
• India has announced a target of energy independence by 2047 and a net-zero by 2070.
• Green Hydrogen is expected to play a substantial role towards achieving these goals.

Hydrogen Element

• Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1.
• Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant chemical substance in the universe, constituting roughly 75% of all normal matter.
• It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, and highly combustible gas.

Extraction of Hydrogen

• Hydrogen exists in combination with other elements.
• Hence, for using it as a source of energy, it has to be extracted from naturally occurring compounds like water (which is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom).
• Green hydrogen refers to hydrogen that is produced using renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, or hydropower, through a process called electrolysis.
• Electrolysis involves splitting water (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) using an electric current.
• When this electricity comes from renewable sources, the hydrogen produced is considered “green” because the overall process has a minimal environmental impact.
• Grey Hydrogen: It involves extracting hydrogen from natural gas through a process called steam methane reforming (SMR).
• This process releases carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions.
• Blue Hydrogen: It involves capturing and storing the CO2 emissions generated during the production of hydrogen from natural gas.

Significance of Green Hydrogen

• Zero Emissions: The production emits no greenhouse gases or pollutants, making it a zero-emission energy carrier.
• Energy Storage: Green hydrogen can serve as a means of storing excess renewable energy generated during periods of low demand for later use, helping to balance the grid and enhance energy security.
• Versatile Applications: Hydrogen can be used as a fuel in various sectors including transportation, industry, and heating.
• Economic Opportunities: The transition to green hydrogen presents significant economic opportunities, including job creation, investment in new infrastructure, and the growth of related industries such as electrolyzer manufacturing and hydrogen fuel cell technology.
• Climate Mitigation: Replacing fossil fuels with green hydrogen can reduce carbon emissions and contribute to global efforts to mitigate climate change.

India’s Progress and Goals Towards Green hydrogen

• India’s commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 includes a strong focus on green hydrogen.
• The country aims to produce 5 million metric tons of green hydrogen by 2030, requiring a $100 billion investment and 125 gigawatts of new renewable energy capacity. This aligns with the Prime Minister’s Panchamrit plan, which also targets 500 GW of non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
• Hydrogen demand in India is expected to grow to 29 million metric tons per year by 2050.
• Demand: Green hydrogen demand in India is projected to exceed 27.2 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) by 2050, primarily led by industries such as steel, fertilisers, refineries and road transportation applications.
• Employment Generation: According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the green sector employed 11 million people in 2018, with projections of over 42 million jobs by 2050, highlighting its potential to create new industries and jobs.

Factors Contributing to India’s Vision of to be a Export Hub

• Easy to Transport: Green hydrogen is easier to transport than gaseous hydrogen, and offers a practical solution for longdistance energy trade.
• Ports: The strategic location of hydrogen production facilities along India’s coastline — in states like Odisha, Maharashtra, and Gujarat — facilitates this export-oriented approach.
• These facilities are advantageously near port infrastructure, simplifying the logistics of international trade while serving sizable domestic markets within the same geographic regions.
• This dual focus supports India’s broader energy independence goals and integrates with global hydrogen supply chains.

 Challenges

• Risks associated with the transportation: Hydrogen in gaseous form is highly inflammable and difficult to transport, thereby making safety a primary concern.
• Higher Cost: Green hydrogen production is currently more expensive than conventional methods, primarily due to the high cost of renewable energy sources and electrolysis technology.
• Lack of fuel station infrastructure: India will need to compete with around 500 operational hydrogen stations in the world today which are mostly in Europe, followed by Japan and South Korea.

Green Hydrogen Initiatives

• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), under the Union Ministry of Power, has been appointed as the nodal authority for accrediting blending operations.
• The Global Biofuel Alliance seeks to establish global standards for hydrogen from biomass.
• It is an initiative by India as the G20 Chair, bringing together the biggest consumers and producers of biofuels to drive development and deployment of biofuels.
• National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM): It was launched in 2023, it aims to increase production of green hydrogen to 5 million metric tonnes by 2030, meeting 40% of domestic demand.
• National Hydrogen Energy Mission (NHEM): NGHM is a part of National Hydrogen Mission (NHM).
• Objective: To make India a global hub for the production and export of green hydrogen.
• Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Green Hydrogen: It aims to boost the production of green hydrogen in India and attract investments in the sector.
• Green Hydrogen Policy: Several states in India have been working on formulating green hydrogen policies to attract investments and promote the development of green hydrogen projects.
• Hydrogen Energy Roadmap: India’s Hydrogen Energy Roadmap was developed by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) and approved in 2021.
• Objective: The roadmap aims to accelerate hydrogen production from renewable sources and make India a key player in the global hydrogen market.
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Several PSUs (Public Sector Undertakings) like NTPC, Indian Oil Corporation (IOCL), and Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) have been tasked with leading green hydrogen pilot projects and scaling up production.
• International Collaboration: Collaborations with countries and organizations that have advanced in hydrogen technologies aim to facilitate knowledge transfer and technology adoption.

Future Prospects

• Looking forward, India’s approach to integrating green hydrogen into its energy system is multi-faceted.
• It involves enhancing production capabilities, building out infrastructure, establishing robust regulatory frameworks and market incentives to encourage adoption.
• By aligning these elements, India can effectively transition to a low-carbon economy, reducing its dependence on fossil fuels and positioning itself as a leader in the emerging global hydrogen economy.
• India’s green hydrogen venture holds promising potential for energy transformation, both domestically and globally

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Urbanization presents opportunities for skill development and employment creation, particularly in a rapidly urbanizing country like India.

Status of Urbanisation in India

• India is witnessing rapid urbanization. Every minute, 30 people migrate from rural to urban India
• According to the 2011 Census, India’s urban population increased from 27.7% in 2001 to 31.1% in 2011, at a rate of 2.76% per year.
• India is rapidly urbanizing and is estimated to host 50 percent of its population in cities by 2050.
• India has 6 mega cities (population over 10 million) as per the 2011 Census: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Chennai, and Hyderabad.

Opportunities of Urbanisation

• Diverse Employment Options: Urban areas host various industries, including manufacturing, IT, retail, and services, creating jobs across skill levels.
• Skill Enhancement Ecosystem: Urban centers serve as hubs for education and training institutes, fostering access to skill development programs.
• Support for Entrepreneurship: Cities offer infrastructure, financial services, and market access that nurture entrepreneurial ventures.
• Technology-driven Growth: With rapid technological advancements, urban centers are pivotal for digital skilling, fostering job creation in IT, AI, and e-commerce sectors.

What are the Challenges?

• Unplanned Urbanization: The lack of adequate planning results in inadequate infrastructure and slum proliferation.
• According to Census 2011, approximately 24% of urban households live in slums, reflecting challenges in housing and urban infrastructure.
• Mismatch of Skills: Many workers migrating to cities lack the technical or soft skills required for urban jobs, resulting in underemployment.
• Pressure on Resources: Overcrowding in cities strains housing, healthcare, and public utilities, impacting the quality of life and worker productivity.
• According to NFHS-5, 2019-21, over 40% of the urban population lacks access to adequate sanitation facilities.
• Vulnerability in Informal Jobs: Workers in informal sectors face low wages, job insecurity, and lack of social security benefits.
• Gender Disparities: Women face barriers to skill development and employment due to safety concerns, limited mobility, and societal norms.
• Environmental Stress: According to a report by TERI, Urban centers contribute nearly 75% of India’s total greenhouse gas emissions.

Government initiatives

• Skill India Mission: Focused on creating a skilled workforce through programs like Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)
• Smart Cities Mission: Aims to develop 100 smart cities with efficient infrastructure and governance.
• AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation): Improving urban infrastructure to support economic activities and better living standards.
• Startup India Initiative: Fostering innovation and entrepreneurship by providing financial and regulatory support.
• DAY-NULM (Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission): Enhancing the employment and skill levels of the urban poor.
• Digital India Program: Promoting digital literacy and e-governance to support technology-driven employment.

Suggestions

• Integrated Urban Planning: Develop well-planned urban centers with a focus on affordable housing, public transport, and access to training institutes.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Leverage private sector expertise in skill development and employment generation initiatives.
• Future-ready Skills: Emphasize digital, green, and soft skills to align with emerging industries and technologies.
• Support for Informal Sector: Introduce policies to formalize and enhance the working conditions of informal sector employees.
• Empowering Women: Ensure women’s participation in urban job markets through safe and inclusive workspaces and focused training programs.

Concluding remark

• Urbanization, if managed strategically, can serve as a catalyst for enhancing skills and employment opportunities, paving the way for sustained economic growth and inclusive development in India.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The U.S. plans to impose up to 60% tariffs on Chinese imports to reduce its trade deficit and counter China’s industry subsidies.

Impact of Tariffs on Chinese Imports

• Higher Domestic Prices: Tariffs increase the cost of Chinese goods in the U.S., pushing up prices for consumers. This could lead to domestic inflation.
• Boost to Domestic Production: By making imported goods more expensive, tariffs incentivize consumers to shift to domestically produced alternatives, potentially increasing domestic industrial output and employment.
• Effect on Trade Deficit: Reduced reliance on Chinese goods may help narrow the U.S. trade deficit, potentially strengthening the dollar and moderating inflation in the long run.

Global Impact

• Retaliatory Tariffs: If China or other affected nations impose counter-tariffs on U.S. goods, it could escalate into a global trade war.
• Global Inflation: Trade wars could raise global commodity prices, worsening inflation in both developed and developing economies.
• Shift in Trade Patterns: Rising costs of Chinese goods might encourage nations to diversify supply chains, benefiting emerging economies.

Opportunities for India

• Boost to Exports: Indian manufacturers could gain market share in sectors like textiles, pharmaceuticals, and electronics as global buyers seek alternatives to Chinese goods.
• Geopolitical Leverage: India’s neutral stance in global trade conflicts can strengthen its position in multilateral forums and enhance its trade ties with both the U.S. and China.
• Attracting Investments: Trade tensions between the U.S. and China could push global manufacturers to relocate supply chains to India.

Concerns for India

• Impact on Inflation: Higher global commodity prices due to trade wars can lead to imported inflation in India, increasing costs for essential goods like crude oil and fertilizers.
• Supply Chain Disruptions: India’s heavy reliance on Chinese imports for components and machinery could face challenges if tariffs raise costs or restrict availability.

Way Forward

• Diversification of Imports: India must reduce dependency on Chinese imports by fostering domestic production under initiatives like Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
• Trade Agreements: Strengthening regional trade partnerships like the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF) and signing bilateral agreements can secure alternative supply chains.
• Strengthening Infrastructure: Enhancing port connectivity, logistics, and digital infrastructure to make India an attractive destination for global supply chains.

Concluding remarks

• While imposing tariffs on Chinese imports may address short-term trade imbalances for countries like the U.S., it risks global trade disruptions and inflationary pressures.
• By strategically positioning itself as a reliable manufacturing hub and fostering domestic capabilities, India can mitigate risks and capitalize on the shifting global trade dynamics.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: UNICEF recently released The State of the World’s Children (SOWC) report.

About report

• It was first published in 1980, has significantly contributed to global child welfare
• Each SOWC report examines critical issues impacting children, such as disabilities, conflict, child labour, urbanization, and early childhood development.
• It provides a comprehensive analysis of global trends affecting children.
• The latest flagship report examines three major global forces impacting children’s lives — population shifts, the climate crisis and disruptive technologies .

Key findings

• Climate and Environmental Hazards: Nearly 1 billion children live in countries facing high climate and environmental risks.
  • Children are particularly vulnerable to pollution, extreme weather, rising temperatures, and diseases (e.g., malaria, dengue, and Zika).
  • Climate change impacts include contaminated water supplies, food insecurity, and mental health issues like trauma and anxiety.
• Projections for 2050s: Global newborn survival rates expected to rise to over 98%.
  • The probability of surviving to age 5 increases to 99.5%.
  • Life expectancy increases, with girls expected to live to 81 years and boys to 76 years.
• Impact of Extreme Weather: 400 million students have faced school closures due to extreme weather since 2022, disrupting learning and economic growth.
  • Climate and environmental hazards are also leading to the displacement of children from their homes.
• Global Child Population Trends: By the 2050s, the global child population is projected to stabilize at around 2.3 billion.
  • Significant increases in child populations in South Asia, Eastern and Southern Africa, and West and Central Africa, regions facing climate risks and limited digital infrastructure.
• Technological Advancements: Artificial intelligence, neurotechnology, renewable energy, and vaccine breakthroughs could improve childhoods.
  • Digitalization can empower children but also exposes them to online risks, including sexual exploitation.
• Socio-Economic Conditions: 23% of the world’s children will live in low-income countries by the 2050s, more than double the proportion in the 2000s.
  • GDP per capita is projected to more than double in East Asia, the Pacific, and South Asia by the 2050s.
• Urbanization: By the 2050s, nearly 60% of children will live in urban settings, up from 44% in the 2000s.
  • Ensuring healthier and secure urban areas is crucial for future generations.
• Digital Divide: Over 95% of people in high-income countries have internet access, compared to only 26% in low-income countries.
  • This digital exclusion exacerbates existing inequalities, especially in regions with rapidly growing child populations.

Recommendations

• UNICEF emphasizes that decisions made by world leaders today will shape the future children inherit.
• The report stresses that child rights must remain central to all strategies, policies, and actions to meet future challenges and ensure continued progress.
• There is a need to
• Increase investment in education, health, and sustainable urban development.
• Strengthen climate resilience in infrastructure and essential services.
• Ensure connectivity and the safe use of technology for all children.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi and his Italian counterpart unveiled the Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025-29 as they met on the sidelines of the G20 Summit.

Key Highlights of the Plan

• It is a five-year strategic action plan outlining their vision for collaboration in a range of key sectors.
• Defence:
  • Holding Joint Defence Consultative meetings, Joint Staff Talks on a yearly basis.
  • Interactions in the framework of Italy’s growing interest in Indo-Pacific region, aimed at increasing interoperability and cooperation.
  • Enhanced partnerships among public and private stakeholders on technology collaboration.
  • Negotiate a Defence Industrial Roadmap between the two Nations.
• Economic:
  • Leverage the work of the Joint Commission for Economic Cooperation and of the Italy-India Joint Working Group on Food Processing, to increase bilateral trade.
  • Promote industrial partnerships, technological centres and mutual investment, also in automotive, semiconductors, infrastructure and advanced manufacturing.
• Connectivity: Enhancing collaboration in maritime and land infrastructure also in the framework of the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor.
• Science & Innovation: Expanding cooperation on critical and emerging technologies, forging technology value chain partnerships in both countries in sectors such as telecom, artificial intelligence, and digitalization of services.
• Space: Expanding cooperation between the Italian Space Agency and ISRO to include projects of common interest in Earth observation, heliophysics and space exploration with emphasis on lunar science.
• Energy Transition: Strengthen the Global Biofuels Alliance and International Solar Alliance.
• Migration and Mobility:
  • Promote legal migration channels, as well as fair and transparent labour training and recruitment procedures.
  • A pilot will cover training of health professionals in India and their subsequent employment in Italy.

India-Italy Strategic Partnership

• Diplomatic relations and Strategic : India and Italy, both ancient civilizations with rich cultural heritage, established diplomatic relations in 1947.
• India and Italy elevated their Relations into Strategic Partnership in 2023.
• Indo-Pacific Region: Italy is the next country in Europe after France, Germany and The Netherlands, to be taking a keen interest in engagements in the Indo-Pacific region.
  • The gradual upswing in its ties with India is an important part of its recent Indo-Pacific pivot.
  • In 2021, the ‘India-Italy-Japan’ trilateral was launched, with an aim to work towards the security, stability, prosperity and multilateralism of the Indo-Pacific region.
  • It is the second trilateral that India has, in the Indo-Pacific region, involving a European country, after the ‘India-France-Australia’ trilateral.
• Global Forums: Italy joined both the significant initiatives, launched on the margins of the G20 Summit, the ‘Global Biofuel Alliance’ and the ‘India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor’.
• Italy has also joined the ‘International Solar Alliance’ (ISA), in 2021, which was the year of the Italian Presidency of G20 and co-Presidency of COP26.
• Economic: Italy is India’s 4th largest trading partner in the EU, with bilateral trade reaching $14.253 billion in 2022-23, including $8.691 billion in Indian exports. Italy ranks 17th for FDI inflows into India between April 2000 and March 2023,
• Key sectors attracting FDI include automobiles (29.8%), trading (17.1%), industrial machinery (5.6%), services (5.1%), and electrical equipment (4.6%).
• The two countries are looking forward to strengthening cooperation in defence technology, maritime security and space, with similar concerns in the maritime domain.
• Relations with China: There is Italy’s growing concern about China in the broader European and Indo-Pacific region.
  • Italy has also withdrawn from the China’s Belt and Road Initiative, showing a significant policy shift.
  • Geopolitical necessities are resulting in Italian policy makers, shaping and reshaping their relationships in Asia.
• Future outlook: Recent developments show that there is a renewed interest in the relationship from both sides.
• India and Italy can leverage their strategic positions in the Indian Ocean and in the Mediterranean, respectively, to promote connectivity, stability, energy security, freedom of navigation in the two maritime geographies, and therefore in the wider Indo-Pacific region.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Prime Minister of India and the Prime Minister of Australia held the second India-Australia Annual Summit on the sidelines of the Group of 20 (G20) Summit in Rio de Janeiro

Outcomes of India -Australia Summit

• Bilateral Progress: Both Prime Ministers acknowledged significant progress in strengthening ties across sectors like climate change, renewable energy, trade, investment, defence, education, and people-to-people relations.
• Economic Cooperation:
  • India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) is boosting trade and market access.
  • Work toward a more comprehensive Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) is underway.
  • The Australia-India Business Exchange (AIBX) programme extended for another four years to strengthen business connections.
• Energy and Environment: Launch of the India-Australia Renewable Energy Partnership (REP) for cooperation in solar PV, green hydrogen, energy storage, and renewable energy workforce development.
  • Progress on the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between India’s Khanij Bidesh Ltd. and Australia’s Critical Minerals Office to advance critical minerals for clean energy.
• Space Cooperation: Growing space partnership with joint projects, such as support for Gaganyaan missions and the launch of Australian satellites on Indian vehicles in 2026.
• Defence and Security: Renewal of Joint Declaration on Defence and Security in 2025, focusing on stronger collaboration.
  • Increased defence exercises and interoperability under the Mutual Logistics Support Arrangement.
  • Maritime security and reciprocal information-sharing agreements to ensure regional peace and stability.
  • Indian and Australian defence industries to collaborate further, with participation in defense expos and industry visits.
• Parliamentary Cooperation: Emphasis on continued inter-parliamentary cooperation as part of the strategic partnership.
• Education, People-to-People and Mobility: Working Holiday Maker visa programme and MATES mobility scheme to enhance people-to-people ties and mobility of professionals.
  • Opening of new consulates in Bengaluru and Brisbane to strengthen trade and cultural links.
  • Collaboration in education and sports, including Australian universities establishing campuses in India and joint initiatives for sports science and event management.
• Regional and Multilateral Cooperation: Commitment to a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific, with shared interests in regional peace, stability, and sovereignty.
  • Support for Quad initiatives in health, security, infrastructure, and climate change.
  • Reinforcement of ASEAN centrality and cooperation under regional frameworks like the East Asia Summit and Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative.
  • Commitment to Indian Ocean cooperation, including Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), and support for Pacific Island countries on climate, health, and education.
• Counter-Terrorism and Global Issues: Both leaders reaffirmed their commitment to combating terrorism and explored cooperation on terrorism financing and Financial Action Task Force (FATF) initiatives.
• Looking Ahead: Both leaders expressed commitment to deepening bilateral ties further and welcomed the 2025 commemoration of the fifth anniversary of the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership.
  • They looked forward to the next India-Australia Annual Summit in 2025.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: In a rapidly warming world, the need for effective cooling solutions has become more critical than ever. International cooperation on clean energy and cooling solutions is essential to address the dual challenges of climate change and energy efficiency.

Current State of Global Warming

• According to UNEP, global temperatures have already risen by approximately 1°C since pre-industrial times.
• It has led to more frequent and severe weather events, including heatwaves, floods, and wildfires.
• The UNEP’s Emissions Gap Report underscores that current efforts are insufficient to meet the targets set by the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C.

Urgency of Sustainable Cooling

• As global temperatures rise and experiencing extreme heat waves episodes globally, the demand for cooling is expected to surge, and expected to triple by 2050.
• Traditional cooling methods, which rely heavily on hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.
• By 2050, India alone may have the world’s highest cooling demand, with over 1.14 billion air conditioners in use, making it imperative to adopt sustainable and energy-efficient solutions.
• India, as the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases, plays a crucial role in global efforts to combat climate change.

Key Concerns For Clean Energy and Cooling Solutions

• Energy Efficiency and Emissions: Inefficient air-conditioning and refrigeration systems not only consume excessive amounts of energy but also contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.
• Harmful Refrigerants: Another major concern is the use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in cooling appliances that can contribute significantly to global warming if left unchecked.
• Access to Sustainable Cooling: Access to sustainable cooling is a pressing issue, particularly in climate-vulnerable regions.
• Around 1.12 billion people are at high risk due to a lack of access to cooling, with the most acute gaps in poor rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa and growing cities in high-temperature regions of the Global South.
• Technological Gaps: There is a persistent digital divide and a lack of access to advanced technologies in many parts of the world.
• It hinders the deployment of clean energy solutions and efficient cooling systems, which are crucial for mitigating climate change and addressing energy poverty.
• Policy and Regulatory Barriers: Inconsistent policies and regulatory frameworks across countries can impede the adoption of sustainable technologies.
• The lack of integrated energy efficiency and refrigerant standards, for example, slows down the transition to cleaner cooling solutions.
• Coordination and Collaboration: Effective global partnerships require seamless coordination among various stakeholders, including governments, private sector, and civil society.
• However, differing priorities and interests can make collaboration challenging.
• Adaptation Gap: The UNEP’s Adaptation Gap Report reveals that the costs of adaptation are likely to be between $140-300 billion per year by 2030 and $280-500 billion per year by 2050 for developing countries alone.

Addressing Climate Change and Energy Poverty

• Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): PPPs offer a viable mechanism for creating sustainable and resilient infrastructure.
• By leveraging the strengths of both public and private sectors, PPPs can drive the development and deployment of clean energy technologies.
• Innovative Financing Mechanisms: New financial instruments, such as green bonds and climate funds, can help mobilise the necessary resources for climate action.
• These mechanisms can attract private investment and provide the financial support needed for large-scale projects.
• Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: Sharing technologies and building local capacities are essential for sustainable development. International cooperation can facilitate the transfer of advanced technologies to developing countries, helping them leapfrog to cleaner and more efficient energy systems.
• Community Engagement: Involving local communities in the planning and implementation of clean energy projects can enhance their effectiveness and sustainability.
• Community-driven approaches ensure that solutions are tailored to local needs and contexts.

International Efforts and Commitments

• Quad’s Wilmington Declaration: Recently, the Quad nations (Australia, India, Japan, and the United States) issued the Wilmington Declaration, emphasising their commitment to sustainable energy solutions, particularly high-efficiency cooling systems.
• It aligns with the earlier joint statement by India and the United States, which outlined a roadmap for building resilient and secure global clean energy supply chains, with a special focus on clean cooling technologies.
• Global Cooling Pledge: Launched by the COP28 Presidency and supported by UNEP, it aims to enhance voluntary commitments to climate mitigation, adaptation, and resilience through sustainable cooling.
• It calls for progress on nature-based solutions, super-efficient appliances, and National Cooling Action Plans.
• India’s Leadership: As part of the Quad’s clean energy initiatives, India has pledged significant investments in solar and cooling infrastructure across the Indo-Pacific region.
• Additionally, India and the U.S. have collaborated to expand manufacturing capacities for high-efficiency air-conditioners and ceiling fans, which could significantly reduce the climate impact of cooling systems.

Kigali Amendment and Its Impact

• The broader relevance of these international efforts can be seen through the lens of the Montreal Protocol and its Kigali Amendment (2016), which set a precedent for collective global action on cooling-related emissions.
• The Kigali Amendment targets HFCs, potent greenhouse gases used in cooling appliances.
• HFCs could contribute to 0.52°C of warming by 2100, if left unchecked.
• Aligning the HFC phase-down with energy efficiency improvements could deliver about two-thirds of total greenhouse gas reductions by cutting electricity consumption.

Conclusion

• Climate change has heightened two critical threats related to cooling: the indirect emissions from inefficient air-conditioning and refrigeration systems powered by fossil fuels, and the direct emissions from harmful refrigerants.
• Addressing these challenges requires a concerted global effort to deploy affordable and energy-efficient cooling systems in climate-vulnerable regions while advancing global climate goals.
• International cooperation, as demonstrated by the Quad nations and the commitments under the Kigali Amendment, is essential for a sustainable and cooler future.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Despite the noble objectives of the Public Distribution System (PDS), it has been plagued by significant leakages and corruption, undermining its effectiveness and the food security of millions of Indians.

Public Distribution System in India

• Brief:
• It is a critical component of the country’s food security framework, aimed at providing subsidised food grains to the poor.
• It has evolved over the decades to address the challenges of food scarcity and ensure equitable distribution of essential commodities.
• Historical Context and Evolution:
• The PDS was initially established during the inter-war period, but it gained prominence in the 1960s due to severe food shortages.
• It was designed to distribute food grains at affordable prices, primarily in urban scarcity areas.
• Over time, the scope of the PDS expanded to include rural areas, especially those with high poverty rates, through initiatives like the Revamped Public Distribution System (RPDS) launched in 1992.
• Structure and Functioning:
• The PDS operates under the joint responsibility of the Central and State Governments.
• The Central Government, through the Food Corporation of India (FCI), handles procurement, storage, transportation, and bulk allocation of food grains.
• State Governments are responsible for distributing these grains to eligible families through a network of Fair Price Shops (FPS).
• The commodities distributed include wheat, rice, sugar, and kerosene, with some states also providing additional items like pulses and edible oils.
• According to the World Bank, the PDS provides subsidised grain to nearly 800 million people through over halfa million fair price shops.
  • It helps protect poor households from food price shocks and alleviates poverty during times of economic distress.

Key Issues with the Current PDS

• High Leakage: According to recent data, approximately 28% of the food grains intended for beneficiaries do not reach them, which translates into a significant financial loss, estimated at around ₹69,108 crore annually, and a failure to achieve the program’s primary goal of alleviating hunger and malnutrition.
• Reasons highlighted for the leakage in the system are Corruption and Bureaucratic Inefficiencies; Inadequate Monitoring and Supervision; Poor Infrastructure; and Identification and Targeting Issues.
• High Coverage with Inefficiencies: The PDS currently covers about 57% of the population under schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY). However, a substantial portion of the food grains is lost due to systemic inefficiencies.
• Impact on Food Security: The leakages in the PDS reduce the availability of subsidised food grains for the intended beneficiaries, exacerbating hunger and malnutrition among the economically disadvantaged.
• According to recent data, a significant portion of the population still lives below the poverty line, with many households unable to meet their basic nutritional needs.
• Nutritional Security: The current system does not adequately address nutritional security, especially for children under five years of age. Free rice and wheat alone are insufficient to meet the diverse nutritional needs of the population.
• Corruption and Inefficiency: Efforts to curb leakage have included the introduction of Point-of-Sale (PoS) systems at Fair Price Shops (FPS) and the use of Aadhaar-based biometric authentication.
• While these measures have reduced leakage to some extent, the problem persists, particularly in states with higher rates of corruption and inefficiency.

Key Government Initiatives Related to the PDS in India

• National Food Security Act (NFSA): Enacted in 2013, the NFSA aims to provide subsidised food grains to approximately 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population.
• It covers around 81 crore beneficiaries, including 16 crore women, ensuring food security for a significant portion of the population.
• It has helped reduce leakages and improve the efficiency of the PDS. For example, states like Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha have seen dramatic reductions in PDS leakages due to early adoption of reforms.
• Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY): Launched during the COVID-19 pandemic, PMGKAY provides free food grains to about 81.35 crore beneficiaries.
• It has been extended for an additional five years from January 1, 2024, to mitigate the economic hardships faced by the poor.
• PM POSHAN (POshan SHAkti Nirman) Scheme: It focuses on improving the nutritional status of children in government and government-aided schools.
• It aims to tackle hunger and enhance education by providing nutritious meals, thereby encouraging regular school attendance among disadvantaged students.
• Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY): AAY targets the most vulnerable sections of society, providing highly subsidised food grains to the poorest of the poor.
• It ensures that the most disadvantaged households have access to essential food items.

Key Reforms and Future Directions

• Technological Integration:
• Biometric Authentication: Use Aadhaar-based biometrics at FPS to reduce leakages.
• PoS Machines: Expand PoS machine use for transparency.
• Targeted Subsidies:
• Provide free food only to the most vulnerable; charge a nominal fee for others.
• Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT):
• Cash Transfers: Shift from in-kind to cash transfers for flexibility.
• Food Vouchers: Use vouchers to ensure subsidies are used for food.
• Revisiting Beneficiary Coverage:
• Charge those above the extreme poverty line half the MSP, reducing costs.
• Investing in Agriculture:
• Use PDS savings to improve rural infrastructure and sustainable farming.
• Enhancing Nutritional Security:
• Diversify PDS items to include pulses, millets, and nutrient-rich foods.
• Supply Chain Management:
• Use tech for inventory management and real-time tracking.
• Create a dedicated inspection team to reduce corruption.
• Policy Reforms:
• Revamp PDS: Make PDS need-based and reduce subsidy leakage.
• Nutritional Focus: Address both food and nutritional security.

Conclusion and Way Ahead

• Looking ahead, there is a need for continuous improvement in the PDS to ensure it meets the evolving needs of the population. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) suggests that while the PDS has been effective, exploring alternatives like Universal Basic Income (UBI) could provide more efficient support to low-income households.
• However, any such transition would require careful planning and robust implementation to avoid adverse impacts on the vulnerable sections of society.
• Reforming India’s Public Distribution System is essential to address the persistent issue of leakage and to ensure that resources are used more effectively. By targeting the most vulnerable populations and redirecting savings towards agricultural investment, India can enhance both food and nutritional security.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: As the world’s largest democracy, India stands at a pivotal moment where the inclusion of women in political spheres is not just a matter of representation but a necessity for holistic development and true democracy.

In 2024, the call for increased women’s participation in politics is louder and more urgent than ever.

Current Landscape: Women in Indian Politics

• Women’s equal participation and leadership in political and public life are essential to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.
• The percentage of women Members of Parliament (MPs) in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of India’s Parliament) remained very low — between 5% and 10% — until 2004.
• It marginally increased to 12% in 2014 and currently stands at 14% in the 18th Lok Sabha, and 11% of the Rajya Sabha.
• State Legislative Assemblies fare even worse, with a national average of around 9% women representatives.
• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments of the 1992-93, provided for one-third reservation for women in Panchayats and Municipalities.
• However, attempts between 1996 and 2008 to provide similar reservation in the Lok Sabha and assemblies were unsuccessful.

Advantages of Women in Indian Politics

• Enhanced Representation: Women’s participation in politics ensures that their perspectives and needs are represented in policy-making. This leads to more inclusive and comprehensive governance.
• Policies like the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana are examples of initiatives that have been influenced by women leaders.
• Advancing Gender Equality: Women’s participation in politics is crucial for advancing gender equality. It ensures that the issues affecting women are adequately addressed and that policies are inclusive and equitable.
• Diverse Perspectives: Women bring diverse perspectives and solutions to the table. Their involvement can lead to more comprehensive and effective policies that benefit all sections of society.
• Economic Growth: Studies have shown that gender diversity in leadership roles can lead to better economic outcomes. Women leaders often prioritise social issues such as education, healthcare, and child welfare, which are critical for sustainable development.
• Empowerment and Role Models: Women in politics serve as role models, inspiring other women to participate in public life.
• Leaders like Indira Gandhi, Mamata Banerjee, and Sushma Swaraj have paved the way for future generations, demonstrating that women can hold the highest offices and make impactful decisions.
• Policy Focus on Social Issues: Women politicians often bring attention to social issues such as healthcare, education, and gender equality.
• Their involvement can lead to the implementation of policies that address these critical areas, benefiting society as a whole.

Challenges of Women in Indian Politics

• Patriarchal Mindset: Despite progress, a patriarchal mindset still prevails in many parts of India. Women politicians often face discrimination and are not taken as seriously as their male counterparts.
• It can hinder their effectiveness and discourage other women from entering politics.
• Safety and Security: Women in politics frequently face threats to their safety and security.
• The risk of violence and harassment can be a significant deterrent, making it challenging for women to participate fully and freely in political activities.
• Balancing Multiple Roles: Women often have to balance their political careers with family responsibilities.
• This dual burden can be overwhelming and may limit their ability to engage in politics as fully as they would like.
• Limited Access to Resources: Women candidates often have less access to financial resources and political networks compared to men.
• It can affect their ability to campaign effectively and win elections.

Expanding Women Participation

• 106th Constitutional Amendment: It reserves one-third of all seats for women in Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, including those reserved for SCs and STs.
• It shall come into effect based on the Delimitation Exercise after the relevant figures of the first Census conducted after the commencement of this act is published.
• Census is overdue since 2021 and should be conducted without any further delay to ensure that this reservation is implemented starting with the general elections in 2029.

Key Grassroots Movements Promoting Women’s Political Participation

• Self-Help Groups (SHGs): SHGs have been instrumental in mobilising women at the grassroots level. These groups, often formed in rural areas, focus on economic empowerment and social issues, which naturally extend to political participation.
• By fostering a sense of community and collective action, SHGs have enabled many women to take on leadership roles within their communities.
• Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs): The 73rd Amendment to the Indian Constitution, which mandates the reservation of one-third of seats in Panchayats for women, has been a game-changer.
• It has led to a significant increase in the number of women participating in local governance.
• Grassroots movements have supported these women by providing training and resources to help them succeed in their roles.
• NGOs and Civil Society Organizations: Numerous NGOs and civil society organisations work tirelessly to promote women’s political participation. These organisations conduct workshops, provide legal aid, and advocate for policy changes that support women’s involvement in politics.
• Their efforts have been crucial in creating an enabling environment for women to enter and thrive in the political arena.

Way Forward

• Quotas and Reservations: Implementing quotas for women in political parties and legislative bodies can ensure a minimum level of representation.
• Capacity Building: Providing training and resources to women candidates can help them navigate the political landscape more effectively.
• Strengthen Support Networks: Building strong support networks through SHGs, NGOs, and other community organisations can provide women with the necessary resources and encouragement to participate in politics.
• Policy Advocacy: Continued advocacy for policies that support women’s political participation is essential. This includes pushing for increased reservations, better implementation of existing laws, and creating more opportunities for women in politics.
• Public Awareness: Campaigns to raise awareness about the importance of women’s participation in politics can shift public perception and garner support for female candidates.

Conclusion

• As we move forward in 2024, it is imperative that we recognise the critical role women play in politics. Their participation is not just a matter of fairness but a cornerstone for a vibrant, inclusive, and effective democracy.
• By ensuring that women have equal opportunities to lead and make decisions, we can build a stronger, more equitable India.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India has announced plans to support the construction of up to 50 small nuclear reactors (SMRs) through public-private partnerships.

What are Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)?

• Small modular reactors (SMRs) are advanced nuclear reactors with a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit, roughly one-third the generating capacity of traditional nuclear power plants.
• Small – physically a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
• Modular – making it possible for systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location for installation.
• Reactors – harnessing nuclear fission to generate heat to produce energy.
• There are four four main types of SMR i.e., light water, high temperature gas, liquid metal, and molten salt.

Advantages of SMR

• Enhanced Safety Features: SMRs utilize passive safety mechanisms, such as natural convection and gravity-driven cooling, which help prevent overheating without relying on external power or human intervention.
• Flexibility: The modular nature of SMRs allows for incremental power additions, which is ideal for growing energy needs.
• Suitability for Remote and Off-Grid Areas: SMRs compact design makes them adaptable for smaller grid systems and applications like district heating and water desalination.
• Cost-Effective Construction: Prefabrication in controlled environments reduces on-site construction time and costs.

Concerns

• Regulatory Challenges: The current nuclear regulatory framework is primarily designed for large-scale reactors.
• The possibility of using SMRs to produce materials for nuclear warheads and co-locating them with military sites raises non-proliferation concerns.
• Legal Hurdles: India’s Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, channels operators’ liability to equipment suppliers, deterring foreign investors due to financial risk concerns.
• High Initial Costs: Although SMRs are designed to be more cost-effective in the long run, the initial capital investment is significant.
• Waste Management: Handling and disposing of nuclear waste remains a significant challenge.
• Supply Chain and Manufacturing: Developing a robust supply chain for the components of SMRs and ensuring quality manufacturing processes are critical for their success.

India’s efforts

• According to a report by NITI Aayog, SMRs are seen as a critical technology for industrial decarbonization and energy transition.
• Research and development on SMRs are ongoing at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai.
• The Bharat Small Reactor (BSR) is a notable project under this initiative which aims to re-engineer existing reactors to incorporate additional safety features and enhance their efficiency.
• India and France have launched a cooperation program focused on SMRs and advanced modular reactors (AMRs).

Way Ahead

• The increased use of renewable energy coupled with the SMRs has the potential to fill energy gaps and contribute to a cleaner, more sustainable future.
• However, careful consideration and international cooperation will be necessary to ensure that this technology is developed and deployed responsibly.