General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The World Trade Organization’s (WTO) World Trade Report 2025 found that Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to boost global trade by up to nearly 40 per cent over the next 15 years, provided critical policy and infrastructure gaps are plugged.

AI as a Driver of Trade-Led Growth

• Trade facilitation: AI in logistics and customs can reduce trade costs by up to 15%, according to WTO simulations.
• Productivity boost: AI-driven automation enhances efficiency across manufacturing and services, expanding competitiveness.
• Digitally deliverable services: Legal-tech, AI-driven coding, telemedicine, and e-learning are projected to grow by over 40% by 2040.
• AI-enabling goods: Trade in chips, servers, and sensors forms the backbone of the AI economy, valued at USD 2.3 trillion (2023).

Harnessing AI for India’s Trade Transformation

• Strengthening Services Exports: India exported USD 250+ billion worth of IT and IT-enabled services in 2023-24, making it a global leader in digitally deliverable services.
  • AI can enhance India’s dominance by boosting exports in software solutions, AI-powered healthcare (telemedicine), fintech, e-learning, and legal-tech services.
• Enhancing Manufacturing Competitiveness: AI in predictive maintenance, quality control, and supply chain optimisation can help Indian manufacturers compete globally.
  • Integration with Make in India and PLI schemes can enable India to capture more of the global value chains (GVCs).
• Boosting Agricultural Trade: AI-enabled precision farming, yield forecasting, and logistics can reduce wastage and increase export competitiveness in agri-products.
• Empowering SMEs and Startups: AI tools for translation, compliance, and market intelligence can help Indian SMEs overcome entry barriers in international trade.
  • With 63 million MSMEs in India, AI adoption could significantly expand their participation in exports.

Initiatives taken by India

• NITI Aayog’s “#AIforAll” (2018) laid out India’s first comprehensive strategy on AI, focusing on healthcare, agriculture, education, smart cities, and smart mobility.
• The India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), approved in 2021 with a ₹76,000 crore outlay, aims to develop a robust domestic semiconductor ecosystem by providing financial incentives for chip fabrication, display manufacturing, and design.
• The IndiaAI mission with an outlay of Rs.10,371.92 crore, established a comprehensive ecosystem catalyzing AI innovation through strategic programs and partnerships across the public and private sectors.

What are the Challenges?

• Digital divide: Only 41% of small firms globally use AI, compared to over 60% of large firms. In low- and lower-middle-income countries, AI adoption is below 33%.
• Inequality in income gains: Without catch-up, high-income economies could see income growth of ~14%, while low-income economies would gain only ~8% by 2040.
• Regulatory fragmentation: Divergent AI rules across jurisdictions increase compliance costs and may splinter global trade flows.
• Risks of Concentration: A few large firms dominate AI development and infrastructure, raising concerns about monopolistic dependencies and control over trade benefits.

Way Ahead

• Domestic measures:
  • Invest in broadband, cloud infrastructure, and affordable AI hardware.
  • Implement national skilling programmes to prepare workers for AI-integrated industries.
  • Ensure competition policy prevents monopolistic dominance.
• Global cooperation:
  • Harmonise AI standards, ethical rules, and data governance frameworks.
  • Expand WTO’s capacity-building for poorer economies.
  • Promote multilateral consensus to avoid digital fragmentation.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The UN Gender Snapshot 2025, released by UN Women and UN DESA, highlights that without urgent action more than 351 million women and girls could remain in extreme poverty by 2030.

Key Findings

• Persistent Poverty: Female poverty has remained stuck at 10% since 2020. Climate change and conflict are worsening vulnerabilities.
• Work and Representation: Women spend 2.5 times more hours on unpaid domestic and care work than men. They hold less than one-third of parliamentary seats worldwide.
  • 102 countries have never had a woman head of state or government.
• Digital Divide: In 2024, 70% of men used the internet compared to 65% of women.
  • Closing this gap could lift 30 million women from poverty, benefit 343 million women and girls, and add $1.5 trillion to global GDP by 2030.
• Food Insecurity and Violence: 64 million more women than men were food insecure in 2024.
  • 1 in 8 women between 15–49 years faced intimate partner violence in the past year.
  • 6% of young women were married before 18 (down from 22% in 2014).
  • In 2024, 676 million women and girls lived within 50 km of deadly conflict, the highest since the 1990s.
• Climate Change: Worst-case climate change scenarios could push 158 million more women into poverty by 2050.

Global Efforts for Gender Equality

• United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5: Aims to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
  • Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action is a landmark UN resolution adopted in 1995 at the Fourth World Conference on Women, which provides a comprehensive global blueprint for achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls.
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): Encourages policy reforms and legal protection against gender discrimination.

India’s Initiative Towards Gender Equality

• Poshan Abhiyaan: This mission aims to improve nutrition outcomes for children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers.
• Digital Literacy Programme for Women: It is part of Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) and empowers women to access e-governance services and financial platforms, helping them participate in the digital economy.
  • One Stop Centre Scheme (Sakhi Centres), aims to facilitate women affected by violence with a range of integrated services under one roof such as Police facilitation, medical aid, legal aid and legal counseling, psycho-social counseling, temporary shelter, etc.
  • The Women in Science and Engineering-KIRAN (WISE KIRAN) program has supported nearly 1,962 women scientists from 2018 to 2023.
• Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017: Provides for 26 weeks of paid maternity leave for women working in the private sector and government.
  • Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023, seeks to reserve one-third of the total number of seats for women in Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies and Delhi Assembly.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, Pakistan signed a mutual defence agreement with Saudi Arabia, India has said that it was aware of the development and reiterated its commitment to “comprehensive national security”.

About

• Background of Meeting: The agreement was signed in the aftermath of an emergency summit of Arab and Muslim nations hosted by Qatar following Israel’s military strikes against Hamas leaders.
• The meeting brought together almost 60 countries that are members of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
• The Pact: Called the “Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement” states that “any aggression against either country shall be considered an aggression against both”.
  • It aims to develop aspects of defence cooperation between the two countries and strengthen joint deterrence against any aggression.

Rationale Behind the Pact

• Timing of the agreement: The pact is seen as a message to Israel, coming after Israel attacked Qatar targeting Hamas leadership.
• Regional alarm: Israel’s expanding operations across Iran, Lebanon, Syria, Yemen, and now Qatar have worried Arab nations.
• US credibility questioned: The attack, allegedly backed by the U.S.A, made Gulf states doubt the US as a reliable security guarantor.
• Nuclear Weapon Fear: Gulf states are aware that Israel is the only nuclear-armed nation in the Middle East, increasing their sense of vulnerability.
• Islamic solidarity: The Saudi–Pakistan pact projects unity within the broader Islamic bloc.

India’s Reaction

• The Ministry of External Affairs said that it was aware that Pakistan and Saudi Arabia had been considering such a pact.
• India responded by saying that it will study the implications of this development for national security as well as for regional and global stability.
• The government remains committed to protecting India’s national interests and ensuring comprehensive national security in all domains.

Major Geopolitical Implication

• Historic move: It is Pakistan’s most consequential defence pact in decades, also offering both strategic and economic benefits to it.
• Impact on India ties: The pact may affect India–Saudi Arabia’s growing strategic and economic relations.
  • Institutional role: It formalizes Pakistan’s position in West Asia’s security architecture, giving it more strategic weight.
• Arms acquisition: Pakistan can access US weapons using Saudi funding, as Washington seems willing to sell.
• Conflict entanglement: Instead of benefiting Pakistan, the pact may drag it into prolonged Middle Eastern wars.

Conclusion

• The defence agreement seems a posturing exercise, and more about Israel than India.
• Thus, in reality, the agreement may bind Pakistan more closely to Saudi Arabia’s regional battles in the Middle East rather than providing it a guaranteed shield against any bilateral escalation.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• PM Modi has urged Indians to buy made in India products, to build a developed India by 2047.
  • The Prime Minister laid the foundation for the country’s first PM Mega Integrated Textile Region and Apparel (PM MITRA) park in Madhya Pradesh’s Dhar district.

About

• The PM MITRA Park in Dhar is one of seven such establishments approved by the Union Ministry of Textiles.
  • The other sites are Tamil Nadu’s Virudhnagar, Telangana’s Warangal, Gujarat’s Navasari, Karnataka’s Kalaburagi, Uttar Pradesh’s Lucknow, and Maharashtra’s Amravati.
• Based on the 5F theme: Farm to Fibre to Factory to Fashion to Foreign – the initiative aims to boost India’s textile manufacturing and exports.

Manufacturing Sector of India

• India’s manufacturing sector is currently contributing 17% to India’s GDP.
• India has a goal to achieve the target of 25% GDP share for the manufacturing sector.
• India is focussing on 14 identified sunrise sectors like semiconductors, renewable energy components, medical devices, batteries and labour-intensive industries, including leather and textile, to enhance the share of manufacturing in GDP
• Growth and Performance: According to the Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) for 2022-23, the manufacturing sector registered a robust growth rate of 21.5% in output, with a Gross Value Added (GVA) growth of 7.3%.
  • Key sectors such as basic metal manufacturing, coke and refined petroleum products, food products, chemicals, and motor vehicles collectively contributed 58% to the total manufacturing output.
• Employment Generation: The manufacturing sector has also been a significant source of employment, adding approximately 22 lakh jobs in 2022-23.
  • Major states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh have been leading contributors to the sector’s GVA and employment.

Challenges Faced by India’s Manufacturing Sector

• Infrastructure Bottlenecks: High logistics cost, poor port connectivity, and power shortages leads to low output.
• Low R&D and Innovation: India invests less than 1% of GDP in R&D, limiting high-tech manufacturing.
• Import Dependence: Heavy reliance on imports for semiconductors, electronics components, and defence equipment.
• Skill Gaps: There is a major Mismatch between workforce skills and industry requirements.
• Low Productivity: Due to the outdated machinery, small-scale fragmented units, and limited automation productivity remains low.
• Global Competition: Countries like Vietnam, Bangladesh, and China offer cheaper production and better ecosystems making Indian products less competitive.
• Environmental Concerns: Rising pressure for sustainable and green manufacturing with high compliance costs.

Major Initiatives Taken to Enable Make in India

Recent Achievements of Manufacturing Sector of India

• Ease of Doing Business: In the World Bank’s Doing Business Report (DBR) 2020 India was ranked 63rd up from 142nd rank in 2014.
• Production of Vaccine: India achieved COVID-19 vaccination coverage in record time but also became a major exporter to many developing and underdeveloped countries across the world.
  • India supplies nearly 60% of the world’s vaccines, meaning every second vaccine globally is proudly made in India.
• Vande Bharat Trains: It is India’s first indigenous semi-high-speed trains, and are a shining example of the success of the ‘Make in India’ initiative.
  • As of now, 102 Vande Bharat train services (51 trains) are operational across Indian Railways.
• INS Vikrant: It is the first domestically made aircraft carrier.
  • In 2023-24, defence production soared to ₹1.27 lakh crore, with exports reaching over 90 countries, showcasing India’s growing strength and capability in this critical area.
• Electronics: Production nearly doubled from USD 48 billion in FY17 to USD 101 billion in FY23, driven primarily by mobile phones, which now constitute 43% of total electronics production.
  • India is the second-largest mobile manufacturer in the world and now manufactures 99% domestically.
• Indian bicycles have gained international acclaim, with exports to the UK, Germany, and the Netherlands soaring.
• Made in Bihar’ boots are now part of the Russian Army’s equipment, marking a significant milestone for Indian products in the global defence market.
• Amul has expanded its presence by launching its dairy products in the US promoting Indian dairy on the world stage.
• The textile industry has created a staggering 14.5 crore jobs across the country, significantly contributing to India’s employment landscape.

Conclusion

• The ‘Make in India’ initiative has had a transformative impact on the heavy industries and engineering sector.
• By fostering technological advancements, increasing domestic production, enhancing competitiveness, and generating employment, the initiative has played a pivotal role in strengthening India’s industrial base.
• With sustained policy support and continued investment, the sector is poised for further growth in the coming years.

General Studies Paper-3

In News

• A recent global study has found that artificial light at night is significantly altering bird behaviour, causing many species to stay active for up to an hour longer after sunset.

What Is Light Pollution?

• Light pollution refers to the excessive or inappropriate use of artificial outdoor lighting, which disrupts natural darkness.
• It disrupts ecosystems, obscures the night sky, and affects human health and energy efficiency.

Causes

• Urbanisation: Expansion of cities leads to more streetlights, billboards, and building illumination.
• Over use: Use of artificial lighting beyond what is necessary, especially in commercial zones and residential areas.
• Increase in commercial Activity: Bright signage and lighting in malls, petrol stations, and industrial zones contribute significantly.
• Unregulated Use of LEDs: While energy-efficient, high-intensity LEDs often emit blue light, which scatters more in the atmosphere.

Impacts

• Environmental and Ecological: Nocturnal animals, migratory birds, and insects rely on natural light cycles.
  • Birds living in brightly lit areas tend to sing earlier at dawn and later at dusk, disrupting their natural rhythms and negatively impacting migration, feeding, and breeding patterns.
  • Similar effects occur in species like fireflies, whose communication suffers. Artificial lighting confuses navigation and feeding patterns.
  • Altered light exposure affects flowering and photosynthesis cycles of Plant Growth.
• Human Health: Exposure to artificial light at night suppresses melatonin production, leading to insomnia and other health issues.
  • Chronic exposure to light pollution has been linked to increased stress and reduced cognitive performance.
• Astronomy and Scientific Research: Brightening of the night sky hampers astronomical observations, especially near urban centers.
• Energy Waste: Billions of units of electricity are wasted annually due to poorly directed lighting, increasing carbon emissions.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• Light pollution is a rising issue that harms health, environment, and connection to the night sky.
• In urban planning, adopting Dark Sky-compliant lighting and enforcing zoning regulations can reduce unnecessary illumination, especially in residential and ecologically sensitive areas.
• Governments should strengthen the implementation of national lighting codes and incentivize smart lighting systems like motion sensors and timers.
• Public engagement through citizen science initiatives and integrating light pollution topics into educational curricula can raise awareness.

General Studies Paper-2/3

Context

• NITI Aayog launched two transformative initiatives, AI for Viksit Bharat Roadmap: Opportunity for Accelerated Economic Growth and NITI Frontier Tech Repository under its Frontier Tech Hub.

AI for Viksit Bharat Roadmap

• The roadmap lays out a practical action plan to translate AI’s promise into outcomes, highlighting two major levers:
  • Accelerating adoption of AI across industries to enhance productivity and efficiency;
  • Transforming R&D with generative AI to help India leapfrog into innovation-driven opportunities.
• Vision: Mainstream AI-assisted technologies across all districts to foster inclusive development and ensure India does not lag in the global tech race.

NITI Frontier Tech Repository

• The Frontier Tech Repository showcases 200+ impact stories from across India in four sectors – Agriculture, Healthcare, Education, and National Security.
• It brings to life how states and startups are deploying technology with the purpose to transform livelihoods.
• Supporting Initiatives:
  • Frontier 50 Initiative wherein NITI Aayog will support 50 Aspirational Districts / Blocks to pick use cases from the Repository and deploy those frontier technologies that have potential to accelerate saturation of services across ADP/ABP themes.
  • NITI Frontier Tech Impact Awards for States recognizing three states excelling in use of tech to improve governance, education, healthcare, livelihood etc., and supporting them to scale measurable, transformative outcomes.

How AI Can Transform Key Sectors?

• Banking and Finance: Artificial Intelligence has the potential to add $50–55 billion to India’s banking sector by 2035.
  • It can strengthen fraud detection, ensure regulatory compliance, and make back-office operations more efficient.
• Manufacturing and Industry: AI-driven automation in manufacturing is expected to generate $85–100 billion in productivity gains by 2035. Generative AI can help design innovative products and optimize factory operations.
• Pharmaceuticals and Biotech: AI has the power to transform India’s pharmaceutical industry from a generics-based market to an innovation-driven hub.
  • Generative AI and computational biology can reduce drug discovery timelines by 60–80% and lower costs by 20–30%.
• Automotive: By 2035, around 40–50% of vehicles sold in India could be software-enabled, adding $6–8 billion in value.
  • AI can also transform the auto-components industry, creating an additional $25–30 billion through faster and cheaper design processes.

Challenges

• Data fragmentation and weak privacy protections.
• Old IT systems in banks and industries.
• Shortage of AI experts in robotics, chip design, and bioinformatics.
• Slow approval processes for new drugs and technologies.
• Cybersecurity risks and ethical issues like algorithmic bias.

Strategic factors necessary for AI Roadmap

• Digital Infrastructure: Expansion of AI computing power, cloud services, 5G networks, and robotics test zones under the India AI Mission.
• Data Governance: Secure and consent-based data sharing, building sector-specific data grids, and strengthening AI Kosh as a national data platform.
• Skilling and Talent: AI education at school and university levels, industry certifications, AI Open University, and fellowships to bring back diaspora talent.
• Regulation: Clear ethical guidelines, audit systems, regulatory sandboxes, and alignment with international standards.

Concluding remarks

• India’s goal of 8% sustained growth requires a major boost in productivity and innovation, and AI is the key enabler.
• To achieve the goal of Viksit Bharat by 2047, the country must not only adopt AI but also lead globally in setting standards, driving innovation, and building collaborative ecosystems.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The Supreme Court has upheld the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 while striking down few provisions and balancing state regulation with minority rights.

Key Amendments of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025

• Composition of the Central Waqf Council: The Union Minister in-charge of waqf is the ex-officio chairperson.
• Council members include:
  • Members of Parliament (MPs).
  • Persons of national eminence.
  • Retired Supreme Court/High Court judges.
  • Eminent scholars in Muslim law.
  • Removes the Muslim requirement for MPs, former judges, and eminent persons.
  • It mandates two non-Muslim members in the Council.
• Composition of Waqf Boards:
  • Empowers state governments to nominate one person from each group.
  • Non-Muslim members required: two.
  • Must include at least one member each from Shias, Sunnis, and Backward Muslim classes.
  • Requires two Muslim women members.
• Composition of Tribunals:
  • Removes the expert in Muslim law.
  • District Court judge (Chairman).
  • Joint Secretary rank officer.
• Appeals Against Tribunal Orders:
  • Act: Decisions of Tribunals are final, with no appeals allowed in courts.
  • Amendment: Allows appeals against Tribunal decisions to the High Court within 90 days.
  • Survey of Properties: The Act replaces the Survey Commissioner with the District Collector or other senior officers to oversee the survey of Waqf properties.
• Government property as waqf: It states that any government property identified as waqf will cease to be so.
  • The Collector of the area will determine ownership in case of uncertainty, if deemed a government property, he will update the revenue records.
  • Audits: Waqf institutions earning over ₹1 lakh will undergo audits by state-sponsored auditors.
  • Centralized Portal: A centralized portal will be created for automating Waqf property management, enhancing efficiency and transparency.
  • Property Dedication: Practicing Muslims (for at least five years) can dedicate property to the Waqf, restoring pre-2013 rules.
  • Women’s Inheritance: Women must receive inheritance before the Waqf declaration, with special provisions for widows, divorced women, and orphans.

Key changes SC has incorporated into the Act

• Practicing Islam: The Court’s most significant intervention concerns Section 3(r), which requires anyone creating a waqf to demonstrate they have been practising Islam for at least five years.
  • The court stayed the provision until the government frames rules for determining religious practice.
• Collector’s Power Over Waqf Properties: Section 3C empowers the district collectors to determine whether properties claimed as waqf actually belong to the government.
• Court’s ruling: Stayed provision that allowed stripping waqf status before inquiry is complete, calling it “prima facie arbitrary”.
  • Directed that waqf properties cannot be dispossessed or altered until final decision by Waqf Tribunal and any subsequent appeals.
• Representation in Waqf Administration: Its amended Act allowed up to 12 non-Muslims on the Central Waqf Council (22 members) and 7 non-Muslims on state boards (11 members).
  • The Court’s ruling has capped this at 4 (Central) and 3 (State).
  • CEOs of Waqf Boards should, “as far as possible”, be Muslims (not mandatory).
  • This balance sought transparency & inclusivity vs. minority autonomy in religious affairs.
• “Waqf by User” Deletion: Earlier law allowed declaring property as waqf based on longstanding religious use without formal documents.
• Court’s ruling: It upheld deletion, clarified that this change applies only prospectively—existing waqf-by-user properties registered before April 8, 2025, remain protected.
• Protected Monuments: The court declined to interfere with provisions declaring waqf status void for properties that are protected monuments or belong to Scheduled Tribes.

Conclusion

• A law made by Parliament carries a presumption of constitutionality unless a court strikes it down.
• While SC refused to stay the Waqf Act, it stayed certain provisions “to protect interest of all parties and balance equities during pendency”.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, the Governor of Andhra Pradesh emphasized a critical gap in the nation’s political landscape at the first national conference on parliamentary and legislative committees on the empowerment of women.

Women’s Political Participation: Current Landscape

• According to UN Women, only 27.2% of parliamentarians in single or lower houses are women, up from 11% in 1995.
• In India, women hold 14.7% of seats in Lok Sabha, but still far below the global average of 26.5% and ministerial representation is even lower, hovering around 10–11%.
• In State Assemblies, women’s representation varies widely, often falling below 10%.
  • Chhattisgarh leads with 19 women MLAs, while Himachal Pradesh has just one, and Mizoram has none.
• India is ranked at 148 among 193 countries, ranked 31st among 47 Asian countries, and fifth amongst eight SAARC countries.

Why Is Women’s Political Participation in India Still Low?

• Parties and Political Barriers: In the 2024 elections, only 797 women contested, and just 74 won — fewer than the 78 elected in 2019. The root causes include:
  • Low ticket allocation: Parties often court women voters but fail to field adequate women candidates.
  • Patriarchal party structures: Women face stereotypes, exclusion from leadership roles, and lack of internal democracy.
  • Weak mahila wings: These exist across parties but rarely influence ticket distribution or policymaking.
• Patriarchal Social Norms & Gender Stereotypes: Deep-rooted cultural beliefs often discourage women from pursuing political careers.
  • Politics is still perceived as a male-dominated space, and women are frequently expected to prioritize domestic responsibilities over public life.
• Safety and Mobility Concerns: Women face heightened safety risks during political campaigns, especially in rural and conflict-prone areas.
  • It restricts their mobility, public engagement, and ability to build voter bases.
• Low Female Labour Force Participation: India’s female labour force participation rate has historically been low, which often correlates with limited civic and political engagement, especially among marginalized women.

Related Government Initiatives & Policy Push

• Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (2023): It reserves 33% of parliamentary seats for women. However, this reform will not take effect before the 2029 elections.
• 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments: These mandate one-third reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies.
  • It has led to over 1.4 million elected women representatives, making India a global leader in grassroots gender inclusion.
  • At the state level, 20 states have already raised local body reservations for women from 33% to 50%.
• Nari Shakti-led Development: A policy framework that integrates women’s empowerment across education, entrepreneurship, and leadership.
• National Policy for Women (2016): It emphasizes leadership development and political empowerment.
• Training and capacity-building programs for elected women representatives through institutions like the National Institute of Rural Development.
• Digital literacy and financial inclusion schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyaan (PMGDISHA), Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), Stand-Up India, and NRLM Self-Help Groups which indirectly support women’s civic engagement.

Way Forward

• Enhance Party Democracy: Promote greater transparency and internal democracy within political parties to ensure women have a fair chance at leadership roles and ticket allocation.
• Civic Education: Expand civic education and institutional reforms to dismantle the socio-economic barriers that hinder women’s entry into politics.
• Institutional Reforms: Institutionalize gender audits within political parties and election commissions to monitor and enforce gender equality in their functioning.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• A decade after the launch of the Smart Cities Mission (SCM), which aimed to transform 100 Indian cities into models of efficiency and sustainability, the floods in several Indian cities revealed the fragile infrastructure and selective beautification, instead of resilient cities.

About Smart Cities Mission (SCM)

• It was launched in June 2015 with the aim to transform 100 cities into urban models that are citizen-friendly, sustainable, and technologically advanced.
• It is designed to align with other national initiatives like AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission, Digital India, and Housing for All, ensuring integrated urban growth.
• It has delivered impressive outcomes — smart roads, Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs), and digital infrastructure, with over ₹1.64 lakh crore sanctioned across 8,000+ projects.

Concerns & Issues Highlighted

• Urban Pressure: According to the World Bank, India’s urban population is set to nearly double from 480 million in 2020 to 951 million by 2050.
  • Megacities like Delhi and Mumbai continue to swell, while Tier-2 cities such as Bhubaneswar, Indore, and Coimbatore emerge as new growth centres.
  • Cities, because of urban pressure, are like to face the problem like choked drainage systems due to unplanned construction; housing shortages leading to informal settlements; and transport failures under surging traffic;
• Shifted Priorities: Smart Cities Mission (SCM) invested in small islands of ‘smartness’ — digitised streetlights, refurbished flyovers, and centralised command centres, instead of building resilience.
  • Core issues like flooding, drainage, and affordable housing remained unaddressed.
  • It missed the chance to create sustainable satellite towns capable of absorbing migration, by prioritising cosmetic upgrades.
• Resilience Gap: The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) was designed to complement Smart Cities Mission (SCM) by addressing issues like water supply, sewerage, stormwater drains, and green spaces.
  • Cities still face crippling monsoon paralysis, despite higher allocations in its second phase (₹2.9 lakh crore).
  • The problem lies in slow execution along with the siloed planning — with different schemes tackling isolated issues, rarely integrated into a coherent strategy.
• Overlooking Greenfield Opportunities: Most SCM efforts focused on retrofitting existing metros, while Greenfield opportunities like building new, holistic urban centres were sidelined.
  • Industrial hubs under the National Industrial Corridor Development Programme (NICDP) leaned towards finance and industry rather than inclusive, housing-led growth.
• Structural Challenges: Cities were required to set up Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) — corporate entities led by bureaucrat or private stakeholders — to execute projects.
  • It bypassed elected municipal bodies, raising concerns about democratic accountability and citizen participation.

Smart Cities Mission and Flood Management

• Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework (CSCAF): It was launched by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
  • It evaluates cities on their readiness to tackle climate change, including flood risks, through indicators like water management, urban planning, and biodiversity.
  • It includes:
• Stormwater monitoring via Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems;
• Area-based development projects that include green infrastructure and permeable surfaces;
• Knowledge products and case studies documenting scalable flood mitigation strategies

Way Forward

• Creating, Not Retrofitting: India’s urban policy needs to pivot from retrofitting to creating, and to build new, resilient, and affordable cities that attract both people and investment, like Shenzhen.
  • Progress should be measured by ease of living, affordability, and governance.
• Fiscal Incentives for Growth: To make new cities viable, governments could adopt fiscal innovations:
  • Lower property taxes and stamp duties in early years;
  • Streamlined approvals for housing and business;
  • Incentives for sustainable construction;
• Realigning Smart Cities Mission (SCM) with India’s Evolving Urban Challenges:
  • Re-centering citizen participation in planning and monitoring;
  • Expanding pan-city solutions beyond digital dashboards to include climate adaptation, affordable housing, and inclusive mobility;
  • Strengthening municipal capacity and integrating SPVs with local governance;
  • Prioritizing sustainability through nature-based solutions and green infrastructure;
  • Ensuring equitable development that reaches beyond central business districts and elite zones;

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The number of pending cases in the Supreme Court of India has surged to an all-time high, raising serious concerns about the efficiency, accessibility, and credibility of the judicial system.

Current Caseload

• According to the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG), the Supreme Court of India is witnessing an unprecedented rise in case pendency, with 88,492 matters currently awaiting disposal, that includes 69,605 civil cases and 18,887 criminal cases.
• It has grown by over 35% in the past five years, despite digitization efforts and structural reforms.

Causes of Pendency of Cases

• Low Disposal of Cases: In August 2025 alone, the court registered 7,080 new cases, while managing to dispose of 5,667 cases, reflecting a disposal rate of 80.04%.
  • From January to August 2025, the Supreme Court saw 52,630 cases filed, with 46,309 disposed of, marking an annual disposal rate of nearly 88%.
• Limited Working Days: With court holidays and restricted working hours, the number of sittings remains insufficient to tackle the growing docket.
• Procedural Complexity: Lengthy procedures, adjournments, and appeals slow down the pace of justice.
• Low Judge-to-Population Ratio: India has one of the lowest judge-to-population ratios globally — about 21 judges per million people, far below the recommended 50.
• Overuse of Special Leave Petitions (SLPs): Article 136 allows the Supreme Court to hear appeals in exceptional cases.
  • However, SLPs are filed indiscriminately, clogging the docket with matters that could be resolved in lower courts.
• Government Litigation Overload: The government is the largest litigant, responsible for nearly 50% of pending cases, many of which are deemed frivolous or repetitive.
• Inadequate Infrastructure and Technology Adoption: Many courts lack robust case management systems, despite digitization efforts.
  • Limited use of AI and e-courts hampers scheduling, tracking, and efficient disposal.
• Legacy Cases and Long-Term Backlog: Thousands of cases have been pending for over a decade, some even dating back 30+ years.
  • Lack of prioritization and bundling of similar cases contributes to stagnation.
• Lack of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR): Mediation and arbitration are underutilized, even though they could reduce the burden on courts significantly.

Implications for Justice and Governance

• Erosion of Public Trust: Citizens lose faith in the judiciary when justice is delayed, especially in cases involving human rights, corruption, and constitutional interpretation.
• Economic Impact: Commercial disputes stuck in litigation deter investment and slow economic growth.
• Social Injustice: Vulnerable groups suffer disproportionately, as delays in criminal trials and civil disputes prolong uncertainty and hardship.
• Prison Overcrowding: According to the Indian Justice Report, 2025, over half of Indian jails are overcrowded and around 76% of prison inmates are under trials.

Reform Measures

• Differentiated Case Management (DCM): It was adopted by the Supreme Court under Unclogging the Docket Initiative, focused on identifying and fast-tracking short, infructuous, and old cases—those that had become irrelevant or remained unlisted for years.
  • It resulted in a disposal rate of 104%, setting a new benchmark for judicial efficiency.
• Arrears Committees and Monitoring Mechanisms: The Supreme Court has constituted Arrears Committees to formulate strategies for reducing backlog.
  • These committees monitor compliance with guidelines from the Malimath Committee Report, which recommends stricter timelines and procedural discipline.
• Increasing Judicial Capacity and Workdays: Recommendations from the Malimath Committee and Law Commission Reports include:
  • Increasing the number of working days for the Supreme Court;
  • Reducing vacation periods by 10–21 days;
  • Filling judicial vacancies promptly to ease workload.
• Legislative and Procedural Reforms:
  • Arbitration and Conciliation Act (2015 & 2019): Introduced timelines for dispute resolution;
  • Commercial Courts Act (2018): Mandated pre-institution mediation;
  • Negotiable Instruments Act (2018): Allowed summary trials for cheque bounce cases;
• Proposal to Split the Supreme Court: The Tenth and Eleventh Law Commissions proposed dividing the Supreme Court into:
  • A Constitutional Division for fundamental rights and constitutional matters;
  • A Legal Division for routine appeals.
• E-Courts and Digital Tools: The Supreme Court has expanded e-filing, virtual hearings, and Electronic Case Management Tools (ECMTs).
  • These platforms help judges and lawyers track case status, access documents, and reduce procedural delays.
• National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG): It offers transparency and analytics but needs stronger integration with case management systems.
• Government’s Prompt Action: Recent months have seen the government approve Collegium recommendations swiftly, often within 48 hours.
• Summer Recess Turned into Working Days: Chief Justice BR Gavai converted the traditional summer vacation into ‘partial working days’.