General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Recently, the Union Government approved the Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme to support employment generation. However, it raises concerns regarding its design, target population, and its potential to reinforce, rather than reduce, existing labour market inequalities.

Brief About Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme

• Target: Creation of over 3.5 crore jobs across sectors, with a special focus on manufacturing.
• Total Outlay: ₹99,446 crore;
  • It is part of a broader ₹2 lakh crore package announced in the Union Budget 2024–25 to support employment, skilling, and entrepreneurship for over 4.1 crore youth.
  • It is administered by the Ministry of Labour & Employment and coordinated with EPFO for tracking and disbursement.
• Objectives of the ELI Scheme:
  • Boost employment generation across all sectors;
  • Enhance employability of youth;
  • Extend social security coverage;
  • Incentivize formal job creation, especially in manufacturing;

Structure of the ELI Scheme

• Part A: Incentives for First-Time Employees:
• Eligibility: First-time employees registered with EPFO;
• Benefit: One month’s EPF wage (up to ₹15,000), paid in two installments:
  • 1st installment after 6 months of service;
  • 2nd installment after 12 months and completion of a financial literacy program;
• Savings Component: A portion of the incentive will be deposited in a savings instrument, accessible after a fixed period;
• Target Beneficiaries:92 crore youth entering the workforce for the first time.
• Part B: Incentives for Employers:
• Eligibility: Employers hiring additional employees with salaries up to ₹1 lakh;
• Benefit: Up to ₹3,000 per month per employee for 2 years;
• Extended Incentives: For the manufacturing sector, benefits continue for 3rd and 4th years;
• Condition: Employment must be sustained for at least 6 months;

Expected Outcome

• Formalization of Workforce: Encourages EPFO registration and social security coverage;
• Youth Empowerment: Supports financial literacy and savings habits;
• Sectoral Growth: Prioritizes manufacturing to stimulate industrial employment

Key Criticisms / Problems in ELI Scheme

• Employer-Centric Approach: ELI Scheme channels fiscal incentives to employers — particularly in manufacturing — without adequately addressing the skill mismatch between available workers and industry demands.
  • It risks strengthening employer bargaining power and widening wage gaps, especially for low-skilled and informal workers.
• Capital-Labour Asymmetry: ELI scheme may reinforce existing capital-labour imbalances, prioritising firm-level growth over equitable labour market outcomes, by mimicking capital subsidies.
• Skill Mismatch: India’s labour market problem extends beyond job scarcity to acute employability gaps:
  • Only 8.25% of graduates work in jobs matching their qualifications.
  • Over 53% of graduates and 36% of postgraduates are underemployed.
  • Only 4.9% of youth (15–29 years) have formal vocational training.
• Wage Disparities:
  • Just 4.2% of graduates in specialized roles earn ₹4–8 lakh annually.
  • Nearly 46% in low-skill jobs earn less than ₹1 lakh per year.
• Exclusion of the Informal Sector: The scheme favours firms registered with the EPFO, thereby excluding 90% of the workforce employed in the informal sector.
  • It sidelines the majority of workers from benefits and risks deepening the formal-informal divide.
• Risk of Disguised Unemployment: The subsidy design may incentivise enterprises to reclassify existing jobs as ‘new’ to claim benefits, fostering disguised unemployment and low productivity—particularly in agriculture and informal services.
• Sectoral Blind Spots: Manufacturing receives disproportionate focus, despite its declining employment elasticity due to automation and capital intensity.
  • With manufacturing contributing less than 13% of total employment, this bias neglects the 70% of workers in agriculture and services — sectors where women, rural youth, and informal workers are concentrated.

Way Forward

• Strengthen Skills and Education: Investment in vocational training, education reform, and industry-relevant skilling is essential to bridge the employability gap and improve job quality.
• Inclusive Policy Design: Employment incentives must extend to informal sector workers, with mechanisms for social security, formal contracts, and rights protection.
• Focus on Sustainable Employment: Policies should shift from short-term job headcounts to long-term strategies that enhance productivity, preserve labour rights, and reduce inequalities.

Conclusion

• The ELI Scheme, while well-intentioned, risks entrenching structural labour market inequalities if it continues to privilege employers and formal sector firms without addressing skill deficits, sectoral realities, and the informal economy’s needs.
• A balanced, inclusive, and skill-focused strategy is critical for genuine and sustainable employment generation in India.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Technological advancements, such as the complete switchover to digital systems, reveal the unintended consequences of over-reliance on artificial intelligence (AI) and digital tools.

India’s Digital Push

• India’s ambitious digital transformation in education — accelerated by the pandemic and sustained by policy — has undeniably reshaped classrooms.
• India’s digital push democratizes learning from smartboards and tablets to online assessments and virtual learning platforms.

Vision and Policy Framework

• The digital education drive is anchored in the Digital India initiative and reinforced by the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which emphasizes:
• Equitable access to technology;
• Multilingual digital content;
• Teacher empowerment through ICT;
• Integration of AI and emerging tech in pedagogy;
• Role of AI and EdTech: AI is reshaping classrooms by:
  • Assisting teachers with lesson planning and assessments;
  • Offering personalized learning paths based on student performance;
• Supporting regional language content for inclusivity.
• In Bengaluru, AI-enabled voice tools like Tara are helping first-generation learners improve English skills, showing how tech can complement traditional teaching.

Key Efforts: Digital Push in Education

• Union Budget (2025): It reinforced India’s commitment to emerging technologies:
  • ₹500 crore allocated for AI in education;
  • 10,000 fellowships for deep-tech research;
• Expansion of Atal Tinkering Labs and Centres of Excellence.
• Additionally, over 56,000 smart classrooms and 2,600+ computer labs have been set up in government schools to strengthen digital infrastructure.
• Digital India: It is aimed to bridge the digital divide and make technology a tool for inclusive development, from rural villages to urban metros. It was conceived with three core objectives:
  • Digital Infrastructure as a Utility to Every Citizen;
  • Governance and Services on Demand;
  • Digital Empowerment of Citizens;
• Other efforts like PM e-Vidya Programme, DIKSHA, SWAYAM, ePathshala, NISHTHA, and Atal Tinkering Labs fuel the digital push for education in India.

Challenges and Gaps

• Digital & Access Divide: Only 32.4% of schools have functional computers; rural areas lag behind.
• Millions of students still lack access to smartphones, laptops, or reliable internet.
• ASER Survey (2021) found that nearly 30% of students in rural India had no access to a smartphone at home.
• Infrastructural Deficits: Many schools lack basic amenities like safe classrooms and toilets.
  • Erratic power supply and poor network coverage make digital learning inconsistent, even when devices are available.
• Language and Literacy Barriers: Many platforms are English-centric, leaving non-English speakers and first-generation learners struggling to engage.
• Teacher Training: Limited ICT training hampers effective tech integration.
• Data Privacy: Concerns over student data collection and AI surveillance remain

Empathy Deficit: When Tech Overshadows Human Connection

• Education is about connection, care, and understanding, along with content delivery.
• Empathy, once the cornerstone of good teaching, risks being sidelined in the race for digital efficiency.
• Teacher-Student Disconnect: Virtual platforms limit spontaneous interactions, making it harder for teachers to gauge emotional cues or offer personalized support.
• Mental Health Strain: Isolation, screen fatigue, and pressure to perform digitally have taken a toll on students’ mental well-being.
• One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Algorithms and standardized modules often ignore individual learning styles, cultural contexts, and emotional needs.

Case Study: Hidden Cost of Digital-First Approach

• Maharashtra Anganwadi Case: An Anganwadi in Maharashtra recently introduced AI-powered equipment and digital devices to aid early learning. A three years old child confidently used an interactive smart board, while another explored a virtual jungle via an AI headset
  • However, such initiatives risk detaching young children from real-world experiences vital for cognitive and emotional growth.
  • Early childhood education already suffers from low priority; replacing relational, sensory-based learning with virtual tools could erode developmental foundations.
• Impact on Teachers: From pre-school to university, digital solutions are reshaping education, often diminishing teachers’ professional autonomy.
• Limited training and systemic neglect mean that teachers are increasingly sidelined in favor of automated systems, further weakening the education ecosystem.

Way Forward: Rethinking the Digital Push

• Hybrid Models: Blending digital tools with traditional teaching can ensure inclusivity and preserve human connection.
• Localized Content: Platforms must offer multilingual, culturally relevant material to engage diverse learners.
• Teacher Training in Empathy: Digital literacy should go hand-in-hand with emotional intelligence training for educators.
• Community-Based Access: Shared digital hubs in villages and urban slums can democratize access where personal devices are scarce.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The Supreme Court has decided to examine a petition to introduce a “system”, similar to the creamy layer concept for the Other Backward Classes (OBC) in reservation benefits among the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

Reservation in India

• As per existing instructions, reservation is provided to Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) at the rate of 15%, 7.5% and 27%, respectively, in case of direct recruitment on an all-India basis by open competition.
  • In direct recruitment on an all-India basis, other than by open competition, the percentage fixed is 16.66% for SCs, 7.5% for STs, and 25.84% for OBCs.
• The Constitution (103rd Amendment) Act 2019 enables the State (i.e., both the Central and State Governments) to provide 10% reservation to the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) of the society.

Creamy Layer Principle

• It is a concept used to ensure that reservations in educational institutions and government jobs are extended to those who are economically and socially disadvantaged within a certain group.
  • It aims to prevent the more affluent or advantaged members of a reserved category from availing themselves of these benefits.
• Origin: The concept was first articulated by the Supreme Court of India in the Indra Sawhney case (1992), also known as the Mandal Commission case.
  • The Court’s ruling emphasized that within the OBC (Other Backward Classes) category, those who are relatively more privileged should not benefit from reservations.
• Criteria: The “creamy layer” is determined based on various criteria, including income and education levels.
• Impact: By applying the creamy layer principle, the government aims to make its affirmative action policies more effective and equitable, ensuring that those who are most in need receive the support intended for them.

Supreme Court Judgement on Sub-Categorisation of Scheduled Castes (SC)

• In 2024, the Supreme Court upheld the validity of sub-classification within Scheduled Caste categories in a 6:1 majority, overruling the five-judge bench decision in E.V. Chinaiah v State of Andhra Pradesh (2004).
  • It held that the criteria for identifying the creamy layer among SCs/STs should differ from those used for the Other Backward Castes (OBCs).
• In 2004, the Supreme Court held in the E V Chinnaiah v State of Andhra Pradesh case that the SC/ST list is a ‘homogeneous group’ and cannot be further divided.
• Argument of SC in 2024 Judgement:
  • Equality under Article 14 means treating equals equally, but allows the State to classify groups that are differently placed.
    • If a reserved category (like Scheduled Castes) is not uniform inside, the State can create smaller groups within it for fair distribution of benefits.
  • Not Homogeneous: The Presidential list is a legal fiction, used to identify disadvantaged groups, not a uniform class.
    • Inclusion in the SC list does not bar further classification for targeted benefits.
  • The SC held that the Sub-classification must be based on:
    • Quantifiable data;
    • Proof of greater disadvantage;
    • Evidence of inadequate and ineffective representation in public services.
    • States must avoid arbitrary classification — must show rationale and empirical backing.
    • Effective representation, not just numerical presence, is key.

Arguments in Favour

• Unequal Backwardness Within SCs: Some castes within the SC communities are more socially and educationally backward than others and have been consistently underrepresented.
  • Treating unequals equally perpetuates inequality, defeating the purpose of the reservation.
• Not Homogeneous: The SC list under Article 341 is a legal fiction created for affirmative action.
  • Chief Justice Chandrachud stated that inclusion in the list does not mean that castes are homogeneous, and law must recognize internal differences.
• Constitutional Mandate allows it: Articles 15(4) and 16(4) empower the state to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward class.
• Promotes Effective Representation: The goal is effective representation, not mere numbers. Sub-classification can help achieve meaningful inclusion.
• Backed by Empirical Data: Allows the government to target affirmative action where it’s needed the most.

Arguments Against

• Article 341: Article 341 allows only the President to modify the SC list.
  • State-led sub-classification is seen as indirect interference with the list and beyond state powers.
• Fragmentation Within Community: Sub-quotas can lead to increased caste-based divisions among SCs.
  • It may undermine the collective political strength and social solidarity of SC communities.
• Defining Criteria: Establishing objective, empirical measures of disadvantage within SCs is challenging.
  • Risk of inaccurate classification and legal challenges.
• Opens the ‘Creamy Layer’ Debate: Introducing the ‘creamy layer’ concept for SCs could dilute the protection provided to SCs as a whole.
  • Reservation for SCs is not just about economic backwardness, but historical discrimination and stigma, which persists across income groups.

Way Ahead

• Respect Constitutional Boundaries: Ensure sub-classification stays within Articles 14, 15(4), 16(4), and does not alter the Presidential List under Article 341.
• Evaluate Creamy Layer Applicability Carefully: If applied to SC/ST, set separate criteria from OBCs, ensuring it does not dilute historical safeguards for these groups.
• Strengthen Social Uplift Measures Beyond Quotas: Complement reservations with targeted education, skill development, entrepreneurship support, and anti-discrimination enforcement to reduce long-term dependency on quotas.
• Promote Social Cohesion: Accompany policy changes with awareness drives to prevent divisions within SC communities and maintain the spirit of collective upliftment.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, India and Singapore, at the third edition of the India-Singapore Ministerial Roundtable (ISMR), have reaffirmed their strategic partnership with a renewed focus on collaboration across critical sectors including healthcare, digitalisation, advanced technology, and connectivity.

India & Singapore Relations: Historical Background

• India and Singapore have shared cultural and commercial ties for over a millennium, with maritime trade routes connecting the two regions.
• Singapore was governed from Kolkata until 1867 under British rule, leaving a legacy of shared institutions, legal systems, and the widespread use of English.
• India was among the first countries to recognize Singapore’s independence in 1965.

Present-Day Cooperation

• Strategic Partnership: India & Singapore elevated their ties to a Strategic Partnership during the India’s Prime Minister visit to Singapore in 2015.
• It was further upgraded to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership in 2023.
• Economic and Trade: As per the Ministry of Commerce, India’s Exports to Singapore was $14.4 billion, and India’s Imports from Singapore was $21.2 billion in 2023–24. Singapore is India’s largest trading partner in ASEAN and a top source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Key agreements include:
• Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) – signed in 2005, reviewed in 2018.
• Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA);
• FinTech Cooperation Agreement;
• Digital and Financial Connectivity: In 2023, India’s UPI was linked with Singapore’s PayNow, enabling seamless cross-border digital payments.
  • Singaporean firms are investing in India’s digital infrastructure and smart cities.
• Defence and Security: Joint military exercises and training programs are held regularly.
  • Defence Cooperation Agreement signed in 2003, enhanced in 2015.
• Geopolitical Significance: Singapore is central to India’s Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific vision.
  • Both nations are active members of forums like G20, East Asia Summit, and IORA.
• Ministerial Roundtable Mechanism (ISMR): It is a high-level dialogue platform, launched in 2022. It covers six strategic pillars like advanced manufacturing, connectivity, digitalisation, healthcare & medicine, skills development, and sustainability.
  • Its inaugural meeting was held in New Delhi in 2022 the 2nd meeting was held in Singapore in August 2024, and third edition was held in New Delhi in 2025.

Key Concerns & Challenges

• Investment Bottlenecks: Despite Singapore being India’s largest FDI source, investment levels dropped by over 30% in the past year.
  • Singaporean businesses cite regulatory complexity, bureaucratic delays, and unpredictable policy shifts as barriers to investing in India.
• Missed Trade Opportunities: India’s withdrawal from the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) was seen by Singapore as a ‘missed opportunity’ for deeper ASEAN integration.
  • Although India cited strategic concerns over China’s influence, the move created a gap in regional trade alignment.
• Infrastructure and Connectivity: Ambitious proposals like the undersea solar energy and data cable between India and Singapore face technical and regulatory hurdles.
  • Building trusted data corridors and energy pipelines requires alignment on cybersecurity, environmental standards, and cross-border protocols.
• Talent and Skilling Gaps: Singapore has expressed interest in India’s demographic dividend, but matching skills with industry needs remains a challenge.
  • Joint skilling initiatives are underway, but scaling them to meet demand in sectors like semiconductors and AI is still a work in progress.

Path Forward

• As India rises on the global stage and Singapore continues to lead in innovation and finance, their partnership is poised for even greater expansion.
• The India–Singapore Ministerial Roundtable (ISMR) provides a high-level mechanism to address concerns and chart new areas of collaboration.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The Lok Sabha has passed the Taxation Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2025 and the Income-Tax (No.2) Bill, 2025.

About The Income-Tax (No.2) Bill, 2025

• The Bill seeks to replace the Income-tax Act, 1961. It simplifies tax language, clarifies deductions, and strengthens cross-referencing across provisions.
• Tax rates and regimes for individuals and corporations remain unchanged. There are no changes in offences and penalties.
• Power to Frame Schemes: The Act provided specific provisions for a faceless mechanism in areas such as inquiries, valuations, revision of orders, and tax recovery.
• New Change: The Bill grants general powers to the central government to frame schemes for; Eliminating interface with taxpayers via technology and Optimising resource use through economies of scale and functional specialisation.
• Virtual digital space: The Act allows income tax authorities to enter and search buildings and break open locks. The Act also empowers the authorities to inspect electronic documents.
• New Change: Authorities can now also gain access to virtual digital spaces, including by overriding access codes, during search and seizure operations.
  • The Bill defines virtual digital space as an environment, area, or realm that is constructed and experienced through computer technology. It includes email servers, social media accounts, online investment and trading accounts, and websites for storing details of asset ownership.
• Interpretation of tax treaties: The Act allows the central government to enter into agreements with other countries to provide relief in cases of double taxation.
  • The Bill retains these provisions and adds that if a term is not defined in the treaty, the Act, or a notification by the central government, its meaning will be as assigned in any other central law.
• Dispute resolution panel: The Act allows certain eligible assessees to refer draft orders passed by assessing officers to a dispute resolution panel.
  • The Bill retains these provisions and adds that the panel must issue directions along with the points of determination and the reasons for arriving at the decision.

The Taxation Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2025

• The Bill seeks to amend the Income-Tax Act, 1961 and the Finance Act, 2025. The 1961 Act provides for the framework to levy income tax on individuals and companies.
• Exemptions for the Unified Pension Scheme: The 1961 Act specifies income categories which are exempt from income tax. The Bill adds exemptions for;
• payments under the Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) upon superannuation, voluntary retirement, or retirement (up to 60% of the pension corpus), and
• lump sum amounts received under UPS.
• The transfers from individual corpus to pool corpus will not be treated as income and will not be taxed.
• Saudi Arabia Public Investment Fund (PIF) Exemption: Tax exemption extended to PIF of Saudi Arabia and its wholly owned subsidiaries investing funds of the Saudi government in India.
• Block assessment in search cases: The 1961 Act specifies a procedure for the assessment of total undisclosed income as a result of a search. It provides for assessment for a block period.
• The Bill adds that if a notice for such an assessment is issued after a search has begun but before the search is completed, that assessment will stop on the date of the notice.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The Union Minister for Road Transport and Highways has announced that India has emerged as the third-largest automobile industry globally, with a market size of about ₹22 lakh crore.

About the Automobile Industry

• Global Scenario: The United States has the largest automobile industry in the world, valued at ₹78 lakh crore.
  • China ranks second with an industry size of ₹49 lakh crore.
• Indian Scenario: India’s automotive industry is a cornerstone of the nation’s manufacturing and economic growth, contributing around 7.1% to India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 49% to manufacturing GDP.
  • Two-wheelers and passenger vehicles dominate the domestic market.
• In FY25, two-wheelers accounted for 76.57% of total market share, while passenger cars accounted for 16.80%.

Government Initiatives Driving Growth

• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Auto and ACC Batteries: With a total allocation of ₹44,038 crore the initiative aims to boost the domestic manufacturing of advanced automotive technologies, including EVs, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and advanced battery storage solutions.
• FAME-II Scheme: The scheme provides subsidies for electric and hybrid vehicles and charging infrastructure, supporting the adoption of eco-friendly vehicles and contributing to cleaner transportation.
• Vehicle Scrappage Policy: Targets phasing out vehicles older than 15 years to cut emissions and stimulate replacement demand.
• Make in India and FDI Policy: The policies, particularly the 100% FDI allowance in the auto sector, have attracted significant investments from both global and domestic players, boosting manufacturing and employment.

What are the Challenges?

• Heavy dependence on imports for high-value components such as semiconductors and EV batteries.
• Limited share of only about 3% in the globally traded auto components market, with low penetration in high-precision segments.
• Inadequate infrastructure for EV charging and hydrogen refuelling stations.
• Environmental Challenges: Rising vehicle numbers leading to increased carbon emissions and environmental concerns.

Way Ahead

• Increase localisation in high-technology automotive components to reduce import dependence.
• Expand investments in EV charging networks and hydrogen fuel infrastructure.
• Enhance research and development and provide skill training for advanced manufacturing capabilities.
• Promote recycling, emission control measures, and adoption of green mobility solutions for sustainable growth.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Armenia and Azerbaijan signed a historic U.S.-brokered peace agreement at the White House, ending decades of conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh.

Nagorno-Karabakh

• It is located within the international borders of Azerbaijan.
• It is in the South Caucasus region between eastern Europe and western Asia, spanning the southern part of the Caucasus mountains that roughly includes modern-day Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.
• The Armenians are Christians, while Azeris are Muslims.

What is the Dispute?

• Nagorno-Karabakh, historically part of the Armenian Kingdom, was ruled by empires like the Ottomans, Persians, and Russians.
• Tsarist Russia controlled the South Caucasus during the 19th century, but its influence declined after the 1917 Russian Revolution.
• The Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict dates back nearly a century, originating during World War I when Ottoman and Azeri forces targeted ethnic Armenians in the South Caucasus.
• Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly Armenian region within Azerbaijan, became a key flashpoint, rooted in ethnic, religious, and geopolitical tensions.
• As the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh declared independence, leading to a war that lasted until 1994 and caused around 30,000 deaths.
• A Russia-brokered ceasefire followed, but borders remained unsettled despite international peace efforts.
• In 2020, Azerbaijan launched a successful offensive, regaining surrounding territories with support from Turkey and Pakistan.
• Another offensive in 2023 allowed Azerbaijan to claim full control.

Key Outcomes of recent deal

• Cessation of Hostilities: The peace deal ends nearly 35 years of tensions and paves the way for regional stability and development.
• Trump Route for International Peace and Prosperity (TRIPP): It includes reopening key transport routes and creating the “Trump Route for International Peace and Prosperity” to link Azerbaijan with its Nakhchivan exclave via Armenia.
• S. Exclusive Development Rights: The U.S. won’t send soldiers, but it will have the exclusive right to develop and manage the route, likely with American companies involved.

India’s Strategic Interest

• Relations with Armenia : India has deep historical and cultural ties with Armenia, dating back millennia.
  • The two countries share strong modern relations, including a $250 million defence deal in 2022.
  • Armenia also supports India’s positions on Kashmir and the UN Security Council.
• Connectivity Interest: Strategically, the South Caucasus region, including Armenia and Azerbaijan, is key to India’s connectivity goals with Russia and Europe via the International North South Transport Corridor (INSTC), which India hopes to strengthen through Chabahar Port.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, the Supreme Court of India directed the Delhi government and authorities of Noida, Gurgaon, and Ghaziabad to capture and relocate stray dogs to shelters, calling the situation ‘grim’.
• It stressed that ‘infants and young children, at any cost, should not fall prey to rabies’.

Stray Dog Problem in India

• India is home to over 60 million stray dogs, accounting for 37% of the global stray dog population. Dog bites occur every 10 seconds in India, totaling over 3 million annually.
  • Rabies claims two lives every three hours, making India the global epicenter for rabies-related deaths.
• Infants and elderly citizens are increasingly vulnerable, with fatal attacks reported in Delhi, Telangana, and Punjab.
• Stray dogs contribute significant health hazards.
• Even the rabies elimination goal (by 2030) is unattainable without effective stray control.

Root Causes: A Complex Web

• Pet Owner: Pet ownership is rising rapidly, with 30 million pet dogs recorded in 2024 and is growing at 10–15% annually.
  • A significant portion of the problem stems from irresponsible pet ownership like abandonment of pets, unneutered pets, and lack of identification.
• Issue of Proxy Petting: Feeding strays on streets—often by well-meaning citizens—makes dogs territorial and aggressive.
  • It mirrors the issue seen with monkeys in urban India, emboldening animals and increasing attacks on non-feeders.
• Municipal laws mandate sterilization and sheltering, but implementation is patchy and underfunded.
• Earlier Attempts to Control Stray Populations
• Lethal Measures: Past methods like electrocution, poisoning, shooting—proved both inhumane and ineffective.
• Reduced competition for food led to increased breeding among survivors.
• Sterilisation Drives: The Animal Birth Control (ABC) programme, introduced in 1992 and formalised in 2001, requires sterilising at least two-thirds of a canine population in a short window to work.
• No Indian city has consistently met this target, and pet dogs breeding with strays undo much of the progress.

Legal and Ethical Dilemmas

• Protection for Feeders: Citizens feeding stray dogs are protected under Article 51A(g) of the Constitution, which encourages compassion for living creatures.
• India’s legal frameworks: Like Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act (1960),Animal Birth Control (ABC) (2001, updated in 2023), and Municipal Acts aim to balance animal welfare with public safety. However, contradictions persist:
  • Municipalities are restricted from euthanizing strays unless they are mortally ill.
  • Stray dogs are now legally recognized as ‘community animals’, complicating removal efforts.
• Right to Life vs. Right to Safety: The Supreme Court has repeatedly emphasized that stray dogs have a right to live, cautioning against indiscriminate culling. It raises difficult questions, like:
• Can the right to life of stray animals override the right to safe public spaces, especially for children and the elderly?
• Is it ethical to allow animals to suffer homelessness and disease on the streets in the name of compassion?

Toward Humane and Balanced Solutions

• Mandatory pet registration, microchipping and sterilization to prevent abandonment and uncontrolled breeding.
• Designated feeding zones and shelters to reduce territorial aggression.
• Public awareness campaigns to educate citizens on dog behavior and responsible interaction.
• Instilling empathy and responsibility in young citizens can create a more humane future.
• Accountability for pet owners and feeders, ensuring they contribute to safety and welfare.
• National Task Force to coordinate efforts across states, as proposed by MP Karti Chidambaram.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Universal healthcare — the ideal system where every citizen, regardless of income, receives quality medical care — needs to begin by making diagnostics accessible, affordable, and ubiquitous.

About Universal Health

• It means that all people have access to the full range of quality health services without financial hardship.
• Key components of UHC include:
  • Access to Care:Everyone should be able to obtain necessary health services when they need them.
  • Quality Services:The care provided should be effective, safe, and of good quality.
  • Financial Protection:Individuals should not face financial difficulties due to medical expenses.
• India is committed to Universal Health Coverage (UHC), as outlined in the National Health Policy 2017 and the UN’s SDGs.

Role of Diagnostics in Effective Healthcare

• Accurate diagnosis is the foundation of effective medical treatment. It relies on patient history, clinical examination, and laboratory tests to confirm or adjust the initial assessment, often predicting disease progression.
• Diagnostics guide over 60% of clinical decisions globally, from identifying diseases early to tailoring treatments and monitoring progress.
  • In India, diagnostics receive less than 5% of total health spending.
• Without timely and reliable diagnostic services, patients risk delayed or incorrect treatment, leading to worse outcomes and higher costs.

Current Gaps in Diagnosis & Need for Localised Services

• Limited Access and Affordability: Diagnostics account for 10 – 15% of out-of-pocket health expenditure, especially in outpatient care.
  • Most public health facilities lack basic diagnostic infrastructure — only 12% of PHCs have labs that meet minimum standards.
  • Private labs dominate the market but are often unaffordable for rural and low-income populations.
• Poor Quality and Regulation:India has over 100,000 labs, but fewer than 2% are accredited by NABL.
  • Many labs operate without standardized protocols, proficiency testing, or external audits.
  • Faulty diagnostics lead to misdiagnosis, delayed treatment, and irrational drug use, fueling antimicrobial resistance.
• Evolving Health Needs and Priority Areas: Shifting demographics and lifestyles have brought non-communicable diseases (NCDs)like diabetes and heart disease to the forefront, alongside persistent infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria.
• Fragmented Data and Digital Disconnect:Lack of integration between public and private diagnostic data systems undermines continuity of care.
  • The Ayushman Bharat Digital Missionaims to bridge this gap, but implementation is uneven.
• Neglect of Preventive Diagnostics:Insurance schemes like PM-JAY focus on inpatient care, excluding preventive diagnostics.
  • Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabetes and cardiovascular conditions require early detection, which is often missed due to lack of routine screening.
• Workforce and Training Deficit:Many technicians lack proper training in test administration, quality control, and ethical practices.
  • Rural areas suffer from acute shortages of skilled diagnostic personnel.

Government and Policy Responses

• National List of Essential Diagnostics (NLED): The ICMR’s updated NLEDreflects India’s health and technology transitions. Key inclusions:
  • PHC-level HbA1C testingfor diabetes monitoring;
  • Rapid testsfor sickle cell anaemia, thalassaemia, hepatitis B, syphilis, and dengue at sub-centres;
  • Molecular TB testingstarting from sub-centres, with in-house testing at higher facilities;
  • Expanded blood chemistry tests at PHCs;
  • Dental X-raysat Community Health Centres (CHCs)
• Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres:These centers are being equipped to offer frontline diagnostic services, including HbA1c tests for diabetes and rapid tests for infectious diseases.
  • The Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM)integrates diagnostics with electronic health records, enabling better data sharing and predictive care.
• Vision 2035 by NITI Aayog:Emphasizes lab networks and surveillance systems as critical components of public health infrastructure.
• G20 Health Working Group: Advocates decentralized manufacturing and regional diagnostic strategies to improve access and affordability.

Innovations and Solutions

• Tele-diagnostics:Services like tele-radiology and tele-pathology bridge expertise gaps between rural clinics and urban hospitals.
• Point-of-Care Devices:Portable diagnostic tools are expanding reach in underserved areas.
• AI and Genomics:Advanced technologies are improving diagnostic accuracy and enabling personalized medicine.
• Technological Advances in Diagnostics: District hospitals now offer enhanced imaging, while PHCs are equipped with semi-auto analysers. Modern healthcare benefits from:
  • Molecular diagnosticsfor higher precision;
  • Tele-diagnostics(tele-radiology, tele-pathology, tele-dermatology) to bridge expertise gaps;
  • Point-of-care devicesfor frontline use.
• Cost-Effectiveness and Evidence-Based Practice: Choosing the right tests involves balancing accuracy and cost. ICMRplays a key role in developing diagnostic algorithms to guide healthcare providers on:
  • Sequential vs. simultaneous testing;
  • Cost–benefit trade-offs;
  • Maximum value per diagnostic step;

Lessons for India

• Countries like Rwanda and Thailandhave shown that investing in diagnostics pays off.
  • Rwanda’s community health worker modelincludes basic diagnostic tools, leading to early detection of diseases like malaria and pneumonia.
  • Thailand’s universal coverage schemeincludes free diagnostics, which has drastically reduced out-of-pocket expenses.
• Lessons from TB and COVID-19: The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the spread of RT-PCR and molecular diagnosticsacross India.
  • These technologies are now critical for faster TB detection and drug-resistance monitoring, replacing older, less sensitive techniques.

Roadmap: Democratizing Diagnostics

• Public-Private Partnerships:Encourage collaborations between government and private labs to set up low-cost diagnostic centers in underserved areas.
• Mobile Labs and Telemedicine: Deploy mobile diagnostic vans and integrate remote consultations to reach remote populations.
• Subsidies and Insurance Coverage:Include diagnostics in government health schemes like Ayushman Bharat, ensuring tests are covered and not just treatments.
• Local Manufacturing:Invest in domestic production of diagnostic equipment and reagents to reduce dependency on imports and lower costs.
• Training and Workforce Development:Scale up training for lab technicians and radiologists, especially in Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities.
• Building Technical Capacity: Beyond equipment supply, healthcare delivery needs:
  • More trained laboratory technicians;
  • Skilled frontline workers for point-of-care testing
  • Clinical training in interpreting diagnostic probabilities
• AI could support providers in interpreting results and reducing errors.

Conclusion

• Achieving UHC in India requires diagnostics that are affordable, available close to home, and supported by trained personnel.
• By strengthening the diagnostic backbone—through policy, technology, and training—India can ensure early detection, reduce treatment delays, and improve health outcomes for all.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• As the global trade landscape undergoes seismic shifts and the President of the United States reintroduces aggressive tariffs— some reaching as high as 50% (framed as ‘reciprocal tariffs’) — the world has responded with strategic restraint.

Recent Tariffs by US

• Nearly all U.S. trading partners now face tariffs between 10% and 50%, with Asian countries averaging 22.1%.
• Countries like India face a 25% rate, plus potential penaltiesfor trading with Russia.
• Only China and Canada have retaliated. Most others have opted to negotiate or comply to preserve access to the US market, despite these provocations.

Strategic Motives Behind the Tariffs

• Reciprocity and Trade Deficit Reduction:USA has long criticized what it sees as unfair trade practices by US partners, including India, which he labeled the ‘Tariff King’.
  • The tariffs are framed as ‘reciprocal’,aiming to match or exceed the duties imposed by other countries on US goods.
  • The broader goal is to narrow America’s trade deficit,especially with countries like India, China, and Brazil.
• Pressure Tactics for Bilateral Trade Deals:The US is using tariffs as leverage to push countries into bilateral trade agreements that favor American interests.
  • US moves are seen as part of a broader effort to reshape global trade from multilateralism to transactional bilateralism.
• Geopolitical Signaling:The US is asserting its geopolitical stance and pressuring allies to align with its foreign policy by penalizing countries that maintain energy or defense ties with Russia.
• Domestic Political Messaging:The tariffs serve as a domestic political tool, reinforcing Trump’s ‘America First’ narrative and appealing to voters concerned about job losses and manufacturing decline.
• Strategic Realignment of Global Supply Chains:The US is encouraging companies to shift supply chains away from China and other adversarial economies, with India caught in the crossfire due to its mixed strategic alignment.
  • Tariffs are being used to incentivize reshoring and reduce dependence on foreign suppliers in critical sectors like electronics, pharmaceuticals, and defense.

Global Response & Impacts

• The World Trade Organization (WTO)has warned that these tariffs could lead to a 1.5% contraction in global merchandise trade in 2025.
  • The WTO’s dispute settlement mechanism remains dysfunctional, leaving countries with limited recourse to challenge US actions.
• Some countries, including South Korea and the EU, have signed deals to lock in lower tariff rates and commit to U.S. investments.
  • Indiahas called the tariffs ‘unfair and unjustified’, but has not retaliated.
• Economic Fallout:Global supply chains are being reconfigured, with disruptions in sectors like pharmaceuticals, electronics, and agriculture.
  • The S&P 500 saw a sharp decline, losing over $5 trillion in market value in just days.
  • The IMF and WTO have revised global growth forecasts downward.

Strategic Silence: Why the World Isn’t Panicking?

• Fear of Escalation:Retaliation risks further tariff hikes and potential exclusion from the US market.
  • Many countries have made concessions, such as lowering tariffs on US goods or reforming domestic regulations, to avoid confrontation.
• WTO Paralysis:WTO’s Dispute Settlement Mechanism is effectively defunct due to the U.S. blocking judge appointments since 2019.
  • It means countries cannot enforce rulings against the US, undermining the global trade rulebook.
• Economic Warning Signs: The IMF projects global growth to fall to 2.8% in 2025, down from 3.3%.
  • The WTO warns that merchandise trade could shrink by 0.2%, nearly three percentage points lower than it would have been without recent policy shifts.
  • Services trade is also expected to grow 4% slower than initial forecasts.
• Geopolitical Dependence:Many of America’s traditional allies in Europe and Asia rely on the US for security.
  • NATO, for instance, has long allowed EU countries to prioritize welfare spending over defense. Trump’s push for higher NATO spending (2% of GDP, rising to 5% by 2035) heightened awareness of this dependency.
• Deep Integration of Global Supply Chains:. Today’s trade networks are interdependent, unlike the early 20th century. Many nations understand that raising import tariffs would increase costs for domestic consumers; disrupt access to foreign inputs; and weaken competitiveness of local firms.
  • As a result, economic pragmatismappears to have prevailed over mercantilist retaliation.
• Legacy of Globalization: The post-1991 global order, after the collapse of the Soviet Unionand the rise of free-market capitalism, has fostered widespread prosperity through liberalized trade.
  • Nations like Chinaemerged as major beneficiaries, integrating deeply into global markets.
  • Even if institutions like the WTOare imperfect, they have helped moderate trade tensions.

Conclusion

• The world avoided a repeat of 1930s-style protectionism, despite Trump’s disruptive tactics. The absence of broad retaliation reflects a mature understanding of mutual gains from trade, even in geopolitically fraught times.