General Studies Paper-3

Context: India-European Free Trade Association(EFTA) Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) came into effect .

The India-EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA)

• TEPA is a modern and ambitious agreement that incorporates, for the first time in any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) signed by India, a commitment linked to investment and job creation.
• The agreement was signed in March 2024 at New Delhi.
• It comprises of 14 chapters with main focus on market access related to goods, rules of origin, trade facilitation, trade remedies, sanitary and phytosanitary measures, technical barriers to trade, investment promotion, market access on services, intellectual property rights, trade and sustainable development and other legal and horizontal provisions.

Key features of the agreement

• Market Access: EFTA has committed to 100% tariff elimination on non-agricultural goods and concessions on processed agricultural products, covering 99.6% of India’s exports.
  • It aims to attract USD 100 billion in foreign direct investment over 15 years and generate 1 million direct jobs in India.
• India’s Offer: Covers 82.7% of tariff lines (95.3% of EFTA exports), with protections for sensitive sectors like pharma, food, dairy, and gold.
• Services & Mobility: India and EFTA offer market access in over 100 sub-sectors. Agreement allows for digital service delivery, commercial presence, and temporary stay of professionals.
  • Enables Mutual Recognition Agreements in professions like nursing and accountancy.
• Intellectual Property: The agreement upholds TRIPS-level IPR standards, safeguards India’s generic medicine interests, and promotes sustainable development.
• Sustainability & Skills: Focus on sustainable development, vocational training, and technology collaboration in fields like health sciences, renewables, and R&D.
• Sectoral Gains: Indian exporters in machinery, chemicals, textiles, and processed foods will benefit from lower tariffs and easier access to EFTA markets.

 Importance

• Strategic European Engagement: EFTA is one of three key European economic blocs alongside the EU and UK.
  • EFTA’s advanced economies, especially Switzerland and Norway, offer strong potential in finance, engineering, food, and health sciences.
• Boost to Exports: Sectors like machinery, chemicals, textiles, and processed foods gain improved access to high-value European markets.
• Job Creation & Skill Development: TEPA is expected to catalyze employment and enhance India’s human capital.
• Strengthened Bilateral Ties: Especially with Switzerland, India’s largest EFTA trading partner.

 Challenges

• Sensitive Sector Protection: India has excluded or cautiously negotiated sectors like pharma, dairy, coal, and processed food.
  • Sensitive sectors protected, including pharma, medical devices, processed food, dairy, soya, coal, and sensitive agricultural products
• Trade Imbalance: Over 80% of EFTA exports to India are gold, raising concerns about reciprocal trade benefits.
• Implementation Complexity: Coordinating across diverse sectors and regulatory frameworks may pose hurdles.
• Limited Market Size: EFTA’s population is small, though its GDP large

 Conclusion and Way Forward

• TEPA positions India as a hub for innovation, manufacturing, and global trade and opens doors for Indian exporters and symbolizes a new phase in India-Europe relations driven by growth, technology, and sustainability.
• TEPA represents a transformational shift in India’s trade diplomacy—integrating market access, investment, and employment into a single framework.
• TEPA enhances market access for goods and services, strengthens intellectual property rights, and fosters sustainable, inclusive development, while supporting Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat initiatives.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The Union Government announced two cross-border railway projects which will connect Bhutan with the bordering areas of Assam and West Bengal.

Background

• The genesis of these two projects lies in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between Bhutan and India in 2005.
• Why Gelephu and Samtse?
  • Gelephu and Samtse are the major export-import hubs in Bhutan and serve the 700-km long India-Bhutan border.
  • Gelephu is being developed as “Mindfulness City” and Samtse is being developed as an industrial town by the Government of Bhutan.

About the Rail Projects

• Kokrajhar–Gelephu Line: It will connect Sarpang district in Bhutan with Kokrajhar and Chirang districts in Assam.
  • It is declared a Special Railway Project for fast-track approvals and land acquisition.
  • It will span 69 km and is estimated to cost Rs 3,456 crore.
• Banarhat–Samtse Line: It will connect Samtse district in Bhutan with Jalpaiguri district in West Bengal.
  • The line will cover 20 km and is estimated to cost Rs 577 crore.

Significance of the Project

• Strengthening ties with Bhutan:
  • Development assistance: This initiative builds on India’s long-standing role as Bhutan’s largest developmental partner and its recent commitment of approximately $1.2 billion for Bhutan’s 13th Five-Year Plan.
  • Enhanced contact: Facilitating smoother passenger and cargo movement is expected to boost people-to-people connections and cultural exchanges.
• Increasing trade:
  • Seamless connectivity: For landlocked Bhutan, the railway links will provide seamless access to Indian ports and markets, significantly lowering freight costs for its exports.
  • Bolstering key hubs: The new lines will support the economic development of Gelephu as a new commercial hub and Samtse as an industrial center.
  • Free trade access: As Bhutan’s top trading partner, the projects will further enhance the benefits of the 2016 free trade agreement between the two nations.
• Counterbalancing China’s influence: The railway lines are located near the sensitive Siliguri Corridor (Chicken’s Neck Area), a narrow strip of land linking mainland India to its northeastern states.
  • By improving security and supply chains in this region, the project helps mitigate potential security risks in the wake of China’s growing regional footprint.

What are the challenges?

• Land Acquisition and Terrain: Southern Bhutan and northeast India have hilly and forested terrain, making land acquisition complex and time-consuming.
  • Negotiating with local communities and obtaining environmental clearances could cause delays.
• Construction and Engineering: Projects require numerous bridges, viaducts, and underpasses in challenging topography.
  • There are risks of geological hazards such as landslides, river floods, and seismic activity.
• Strategic and Geopolitical Risks: Proximity to the China–Bhutan–India border requires infrastructure security and strategic considerations.

Way Ahead

• The railway projects mark a historic milestone in India–Bhutan relations, establishing the Himalayan nation’s first-ever train links.
• With careful implementation and bilateral cooperation, the project poised to become a transformative infrastructure initiative, benefiting both nations and the broader eastern Himalayan region.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Women-led development has been recognised as a structural game-changer for advancing India’s economic ambitions, yet its full potential remains under-leveraged.

Current Scenario

• Agriculture: It is a backbone of India’s economy & largest employer of women.
• Workforce shift: Rural men are moving to non-farm jobs leading to women replacing them in agriculture.
• Rise in women’s participation:
  • Employment in agriculture surged by 135% in a decade.
  • Women now account for 42% of the agricultural workforce.
  • 2 in 3 working women are engaged in agriculture.
• Economic Impact: Women’s greater participation has not translated into higher income for the economy, as agriculture’s share of the national GVA fell from 15.3% in 2017-18 to 14.4% in 2024-25.

Challenges Faced by Women in Agriculture

• Unpaid Labour: Nearly half of the women in agriculture are unpaid family workers, with their numbers jumping 2.5 times from 23.6 million to 59.1 million in just eight years.
  • In States such as Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, more than 80% of women workers are in agriculture, and over half of them receive no wages.
• Systemic Inequities: Women as farmers, own only 13-14% of land holdings, and earn 20-30% less than men for equivalent work.
  • Asset ownership, decision-making power, and access to credit and government support remain male-dominated, trapping women in low-value activities.
• Digital Divide: Barriers in digital literacy, language, affordability of devices limits the participation in modern agri-markets.

Emerging Opportunities

• Global Trade: The India-U.K. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is projected to boost Indian agricultural exports by 20% within three years, granting duty-free access to over 95% of agricultural and processed food products.
  • Many of these export-oriented value chains employ a significant share of women.
  • If FTA-embedded provisions for women, such as training, credit access, and market linkages, are catalysed, it could enable women’s transition from farm labourers to income-generating entrepreneurs.
• High-Value Segments: With global demand rising for organic products and superfoods, India’s value chains for tea, spices, millets and certified organic produce are poised for expansion — sectors where women are already strongly represented.
  • Geographical Indications, branding initiatives, and support for meeting export standards can help women producers shift from subsistence farming toward premium, value-added product markets.

Government Initiatives for Women in Agriculture

• Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Under National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), supports women farmers in sustainable agriculture, livestock, and NTFP (non-timber forest produce).
• Joint Land Titles: States encouraged to issue land pattas in joint names of husband and wife.
• Priority Sector Lending (PSL): Mandates credit flow to women farmers.
• Rural women SHGs & FPOs: Supported through NABARD and DAY-NRLM.
• Agri-Clinics & Agri-Business Centres (ACABC): Special provisions for women agri-entrepreneurs.
• Maternity Benefits & Health Schemes: Support women farmers’ welfare indirectly.
• Support for Women FPOs: Encouraged under the 10,000 FPOs Scheme (2020) with special provision for women-led groups.
• GI Tags, Branding, and Export Facilitation: Helps women producers in spices, tea, millets, organic produce.

Way Ahead

• Without targeted measures, women risk being excluded from the export-led opportunities emerging in Indian agriculture.
• To transform women’s role in agriculture, land and labour reforms are equally vital.
• Policies must recognise women as independent farmers by promoting joint or individual land ownership, which in turn strengthens their eligibility for credit, insurance, and institutional support.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, the Crime in India 2023 report was published by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB).

Key Findings

• Overall Crime Trends: India recorded 62.4 lakh cognizable crimes, a 7.2% increase from 2022.
  • Of these, 37.6 lakh were under the IPC and 24.8 lakh under Special and Local Laws (SLL).
  • The national crime rate increased from 422.2 to 448.3 per lakh population.
  • In metropolitan cities, crime rose by 10.6% to 9.44 lakh cases, with theft accounting for 44.8%, followed by rash driving (9.2%) and obstruction on public ways (8.1%).
• Changing Pattern of Crime: Decline in traditional violent crimes such as rape and dowry deaths.
  • Surge in cybercrimes and urban-related offenses, reflecting social, technological, and lifestyle shifts.
  • Cybercrimes rose sharply by 31.2% to 86,420 cases, with nearly 69% involving online fraud.
  • Karnataka reported the highest number of cybercrime cases (21,889), followed by Telangana (18,236) and Uttar Pradesh (10,794).
• Crimes against STs: Crimes against Scheduled Tribes surged by 28.8%, from 10,064 in 2022 to 12,960 in 2023.
• Crimes against Women: Crimes against women saw a marginal rise of 0.4%, with most cases involving cruelty by husbands or relatives (29.8%), kidnapping (19.8%), and assault (18.7%).

Suggestions

• The Crime in India 2023 report highlights the urgent need for reforms in response to the evolving nature of crime, particularly in the digital space.
• Key policy recommendations include strengthening cybercrime infrastructure through investments in digital forensic labs and public awareness campaigns, improving reporting mechanisms with anonymous channels and victim support, and training police in gender-sensitive and child-friendly protocols.
• It also calls for standardising crime classifications, enhancing inter-state coordination via a national crime analytics dashboard, and accelerating judicial processes with fast-track courts for cyber and gender-based cases.

General Studies Paper-2

Context:

• Oceans cover about 70% of the Earth’s surface, but governance beyond national jurisdictions has long been weak.
• The High Seas Treaty, formally known as the Agreement under UNCLOS on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ), was finalised in March 2023 and will enter into force in January 2026 after Morocco became the 60th country to ratify it.
• Environmentalists call it a “once-in-a-generation conservation event”, as it provides a global legal framework for protecting biodiversity in international waters, which constitute about two-thirds of oceans.

Historical Background

• UNCLOS, 1982: Established broad principles for use of oceans but left gaps regarding biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction.
• Two decades of negotiations: Since 2004, countries debated conservation, benefit-sharing, and ocean governance.
• Finalisation in 2023: UN member states reached consensus after marathon talks.
• Ratification milestone (2025): With 60 nations’ ratification, it becomes binding international law from January 2026.

Key Features of the Treaty

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

• Enables creation of protected zones in the high seas.
• Targets to conserve 30% of world’s oceans by 2030 (30×30 goal).
• Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
  • Countries must assess the environmental impact of activities in their waters that could affect high seas biodiversity.
• Sustainable Use of Marine Resources
  • Framework for sharing marine genetic resources, which are crucial for biotechnology and medicine.
• Technology Transfer & Funding
  • Encourages developed nations to support developing countries with scientific knowledge, funding, and technology.
• Deep-Sea Mining & Geo-engineering Restrictions
  • No deep-sea mining allowed until the International Seabed Authority (ISA) develops robust regulatory mechanisms.
• Decision-making
  • Multilateral decisions through Conferences of Parties (CoP), not unilateral moves by states.
• No Punitive Enforcement Mechanism
  • Relies on states to regulate their entities, reflecting the principle of cooperation and good faith.

Significance of the Treaty

• Environmental Conservation
  • Protects fragile ecosystems such as hydrothermal vents, coral reefs, and migratory species.
  • Addresses threats like plastic pollution, overfishing, deep-sea mining, and geo-engineering experiments.
• Climate Change Link
  • Oceans absorb about 25% of anthropogenic CO₂ and 90% of excess heat.
  • Healthy high seas are vital for climate mitigation.
• Scientific Collaboration
  • Facilitates joint research and data sharing, particularly important for developing countries with limited marine capacity.
• Global Commons & Equity
  • Prevents the “tragedy of the commons” where some nations exploit resources disproportionately.
  • Promotes equitable benefit-sharing from marine genetic resources, akin to principles in the Nagoya Protocol on biodiversity.

Challenges and Limitations

• Ratification Gap
• Many major powers, including India (signed but not ratified) and the USA (policy inconsistencies), are yet to ratify.
• Among G7, only France has ratified so far.
• Enforcement Weakness
• Lacks punitive mechanisms; compliance depends on national will.
• Conflict of Interests
• Tensions between conservation goals and economic interests such as fishing, deep-sea mining, and geo-engineering.
• North-South Divide
• Developing nations demand financial and technological support; developed nations often reluctant.
• Institutional Overlap
• Multiple bodies already regulate parts of ocean governance (e.g., IMO, ISA, FAO). Risk of duplication and conflicts.

India’s Position

• Signed but not ratified.
• Government says ratification will follow enabling legislation in Parliament.
• India has one of the longest coastlines (over 7,500 km) and a growing “Blue Economy” agenda, making the treaty crucial.
• India must balance:
  • Its economic ambitions in deep-sea mining, fisheries, and exploration.
  • Its responsibilities in marine biodiversity conservation.

Global Geopolitical Context

• United States: Signed under Joe Biden, distanced under Donald Trump. Its long-standing refusal to ratify UNCLOS complicates matters.
• European Union: Strong supporter, aligning treaty with its Green Deal and Ocean Governance Strategy.
• China: Focused on deep-sea mining rights, careful about resource-sharing commitments.
• Small Island Developing States (SIDS): Strong advocates, as their survival depends on healthy oceans.

Linkages with Other Global Agendas

• UN SDGs: Supports Goal 14 (Life Below Water), and indirectly SDG 13 (Climate Action).
• Paris Agreement: Oceans’ role in carbon absorption strengthens climate targets.
• Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework: Complements the 30×30 conservation goal.

Way Forward

• Wider Ratification
• Urgent need for major economies like India, US, Japan, and China to ratify.
• National Legislation
• Countries must create domestic laws to ensure compliance.
• Financing Mechanisms
• Dedicated funds for developing nations to enable research, monitoring, and enforcement.
• Strengthening Enforcement
• Develop reporting, peer-review, and compliance mechanisms to ensure accountability.
• Blue Economy Integration
• Align high seas conservation with sustainable economic opportunities such as eco-tourism, renewable energy, and fisheries.

Conclusion

• The High Seas Treaty represents a landmark in international environmental law and global commons governance. Entering into force in 2026, it symbolises hope for cooperative stewardship of the oceans.
• However, its effectiveness will depend on universal ratification, national implementation, and bridging the North-South divide. For India, ratification offers an opportunity to showcase global leadership in marine conservation while advancing its own Blue Economy
• As climate change accelerates, protecting oceans is no longer optional—it is central to the survival and prosperity of humanity.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The recent launch of BharatGen marks a transformative mission toward technological sovereignty and culturally rooted artificial intelligence systems, aiming to embed AI into the very fabric of India’s digital future.

About BharatGen

• It is the world’s first government-funded multimodal Large Language Model (LLM) initiative, launched under the IndiaAI Mission, focused on developing foundational AI models in:
  • Text (LLMs for Indian languages);
  • Speech (Text-to-Speech and Automatic Speech Recognition);
  • Vision-language systems (for multimodal understanding);
• It is spearheaded by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS).
• The project is led by IIT Bombay, with a consortium of premier institutions including IIIT Hyderabad, IIT Madras, IIT Kanpur, IIT Mandi, IIT Hyderabad, and IIM Indore.
• It is being executed by the Technology Innovation Hub (TIH) Foundation for IoT and IoE at IIT Bombay, which serves as the central coordination hub.
• It oversees:
  • Model development across modalities;
  • Data collection and curation focused on Indian contexts;
  • Ecosystem partnerships for compute, talent, and deployment;
  • Governance and strategic planning;
• Budgetary Support: BharatGen has secured a staggering ₹988.6 crore in funding from MeitY, making it the largest beneficiary of the ₹1,500 crore national AI budget, under the IndiaAI Mission 2025.

Key Features & Importance

• Language Coverage and Inclusivity: Currently, BharatGen models support 9 Indian languages, and aims to cover all 22 scheduled Indian languages by June 2026.
• It has already launched Param-1, a bilingual LLM trained on 5 trillion tokens in English and Hindi.
• Real-World Impact: BharatGen has already piloted applications in agriculture, governance, and defence, and these applications aim to be scaled across all states and districts, transforming public service delivery nationwide, once fully deployed.
• Redefining Digital Sovereignty Through AI: BharatGen seeks to redefine digital sovereignty through AI, much like the original Manhattan Project that redefined global power dynamics through nuclear science.
  • BharatGen is not just about building models — it’s about building infrastructure, policy, and public-good ecosystems.
• Supporting Digital Public Infrastructure: BharatGen can be intelligence by participation like Aadhaar was identity by participation.
• It needs to evolve into a stack: APIs, developer toolkits, open frameworks, and deployment systems that seed innovation across state universities, startups, and grassroots hubs.

Related Concerns & Challenges

• Lack of Robust AI Regulation: India still lacks comprehensive AI-specific legislation, despite the scale of BharatGen.
  • The Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) offers broad exemptions to the government, raising concerns about unchecked data processing and surveillance.
• Infrastructure Gaps: Limited access to high-performance GPUs, data centers, and compute resources could slow down development.
• Language and Inclusivity Challenges: Ensuring accuracy, cultural sensitivity, and regional relevance across hundreds of dialects is a massive challenge.
• Talent and Ecosystem Readiness: Deep tech projects need interdisciplinary expertise — from linguistics to ethics to engineering — which is still developing in India.
• Ethical and Governance Frameworks: There are concerns like who controls the models, how decisions are made, and how citizens can challenge AI-driven outcomes.
  • The risk of algorithmic bias, especially in sensitive domains like healthcare and governance, requires rigorous testing and redressal mechanisms.

Government Efforts & Progress To Overcome Above Challenges

• Strengthening AI Infrastructure: BharatGen has already secured 13,640 H100 GPUs under the IndiaAI Mission to support trillion-parameter models.
  • IBM and BharatGen are co-developing open-source, Indic-specific data workflows to streamline model training.
• Building Ethical and Regulatory Frameworks: IBM is helping implement enterprise-grade governance frameworks for responsible model development.
  • Experts recommend involving civil society and academia in shaping AI ethics policies.
• Enhancing Language Inclusivity: BharatGen is developing Domain-specific Small Language Models (SLMs) for agriculture, Ayurveda, legal, and finance sectors.
  • IBM and BharatGen are building systems that switch seamlessly between Indian languages while preserving context.
• Fostering Talent and Ecosystem Growth: BharatGen brings together IITs, IIITs, and IIMs to pool expertise across domains.
  • Open-source models and solution templates allow Indian startups to build AI tools for local contexts.
• Promoting Public Trust and Accessibility: Open-source Release: BharatGen plans to make its models publicly available to ensure transparency and accessibility.
  • IBM and BharatGen are creating templates for sectors like education, governance, and healthcare.
  • AI-powered platforms will support vernacular languages for inclusive public service delivery.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The recent Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA) between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan marks a seismic shift in South Asian geopolitics, including India that challenges long-held assumptions about its regional security architecture and its diplomatic outreach to the Gulf.

About the SDMA Between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan

• It builds on nearly eight decades of cooperation rooted in Islamic solidarity and shared strategic interests, elevating their relationship into a formal treaty framework.
• It states that ‘any aggression against either country shall be considered an aggression against both’, effectively committing each side to respond to threats to the other.
• It includes provisions for:
  • Permanent coordination mechanisms;
  • Joint military committees;
  • Intelligence-sharing arrangements;
  • Expanded training programs;

Strategic Importance for Saudi Arabia

• Security Assurance Beyond US Reliance: Pakistan provides a tested partner with nuclear capabilities, amid concerns over waning US commitment as the Gulf’s security guarantor.
  • It is a hedge against growing uncertainty in West Asia, especially after Israel’s attack on Qatar, which hosts the Al-Udeid airbase—the largest US military base in the region.
• Counterbalance to Iran and Israel: Saudi Arabia faces threats from Iran-backed proxies like the Houthis and increasing Israeli assertiveness across the region.
  • SMDA strengthens Saudi deterrence posture by aligning with Pakistan’s military capabilities, including its nuclear potential—though not explicitly stated, the symbolism is potent.
• Expanding Strategic Depth: The pact includes joint military committees, intelligence-sharing, and expanded training programs.
  • It formalizes decades of informal cooperation, including Pakistan’s long-standing troop deployments in the Saudi Kingdom.
• Military Expertise: Pakistan’s army has historically trained Saudi forces and guarded holy sites.
• Economic and Energy Corridors: Partnership secures routes for Vision 2030 investments, especially via CPEC and Gwadar.
  • Both Pakistan and Saudi Arabia are part of China’s strategic orbit through CPEC and Belt & Road Initiative.

Strategic Importance for Pakistan

• Economic and Military Leverage: The agreement allows Pakistan to convert economic dependency into strategic influence.
  • It positions Pakistan as a regional security provider, enhancing its global relevance amid domestic challenges.
  • Saudi Arabia remains Pakistan’s largest source of concessional loans, remittances, and oil subsidies.
• Nuclear Diplomacy: Pakistan hinted that Saudi Arabia could access Pakistan’s nuclear capabilities if needed.
  • It elevates Pakistan’s status as a potential nuclear umbrella for the Gulf, a role with significant geopolitical weight.
• Military Prestige and Influence: The presence of Pakistan’s Army Chief at the signing ceremony signals Pakistan’s military establishment’s central role in shaping foreign policy.
  • It is leveraging this pact to bolster its domestic standing and international clout.
• Strategic Depth Against India: An agreement enhances Pakistan’s bargaining power with India, indirectly strengthening its deterrence.
• Military Technology & Training: Access to advanced Saudi-funded military equipment, joint exercises, and strategic partnerships.

Associated Global Uncertainty & Risks

• Regional Security Order: The US agenda of expanding the Abraham Accords has been derailed by Israel’s war in Gaza.
  • Saudi Arabia made it clear it will normalise relations with Israel only if there is a commitment to a Palestinian state — a demand Israel rejects.
• Regional Rivalries: Pakistan could be pulled into Saudi Arabia’s rivalries with Iran or into Yemen’s protracted conflict.
  • Saudi Arabia may find itself entangled in South Asian instability, particularly over India–Pakistan tensions.
  • It could deepen divides with Iran and Qatar, challenging OIC unity.

India’s Strategic Concerns

• India has deepened relations with Saudi Arabia through energy, trade, and diaspora ties, while maintaining a pro-Israel tilt in West Asia policy. The defence pact complicates this balance.
• Saudi Arabia signals that it will prioritise its own security interests, by choosing Pakistan as a formal defence partner, even if this unsettles India.
• For India, the challenge is twofold:
• Preventing erosion of its influence in the Gulf if Pakistan positions itself as a credible security provider.
• Adapting to a post-US-dominant order, where alliances are more fluid and transactional.

Reconsidering Strategic Assumptions By India

• Gulf Neutrality: India had long viewed Gulf nations, especially Saudi Arabia, as neutral actors in South Asian disputes.
• Regional Deterrence: The pact enhances Pakistan’s deterrence posture, potentially emboldening its stance in future conflicts.
• Diplomatic Balancing: India needs to navigate a more polarized regional landscape, balancing its ties with Saudi Arabia while countering the implications of the Saudi-Pakistan axis.

Conclusion

• The Pakistan–Saudi pact is less about ironclad defence and more about perception, prestige, and deterrence through uncertainty. It elevates Pakistan’s global profile, provides Saudi Arabia a measure of insurance, unsettles India, and forces global powers to recalibrate.
• Above all, it signals that regional boundaries are dissolving, giving way to a new era of interlinked security architectures.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Recently, researchers from the Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) have successfully grown wheat on desert land using an innovative ‘soilification technology’ powered by an indigenous bioformulation.

About Desertification

• Desertification is defined as land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas due to various factors including climatic variations and human activities.
• According to the Space Applications Centre of ISRO, about 30% of India’s total geographical area suffers from degradation, with nearly 25% affected by desertification.

Extent of the Problem

• Nearly 96.40 million hectares of land in India are degraded (Space Applications Centre, ISRO, 2021).
• Drylands in Rajasthan contribute to over 23% of desertified areas, making it a hotspot for urgent interventions.
• India aims to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 (India’s National Action Programme to Combat Desertification, MoEFCC).

Breakthroughs in Farming Technology

• Soilification Technology in Rajasthan: It lies in modifying desert sand into fertile soil using polymers and bioformulations. It involves:
  • Cross-linking desert sand particles using eco-friendly polymers;
  • Enhancing water retention capacity of sandy soil;
  • Stimulating microbial activity through indigenous bioformulations;
  • Creating a soil-like structure that supports crop growth;
  • Minimising the spread of desertification, particularly in vulnerable zones like western rajasthan’s thar desert;
• Baramati Experiment in Maharashtra: It was based on AI and Precision Farming, supported by Microsoft and Oxford University, that uses AI-driven tools to optimize irrigation, pest control, and crop planning.
  • Farmers reported up to 40% increase in yield;
  • Reduced input costs and water usage;
• Real-time data helps manage climate risks.

Other Farming Technology in Combating Desertification

• Precision Agriculture: Use of drones, sensors, and GIS to monitor soil moisture and nutrient levels.
• Micro-Irrigation Systems: Drip and sprinkler irrigation reduce water wastage and salinity.
• Soil Conservation Technologies: Zero-tillage, contour bunding, and mulching help retain soil moisture.
• Agroforestry: Integration of trees with crops prevents erosion and enhances soil carbon sequestration.
• Remote Sensing & Satellite Monitoring: ISRO’s Desertification Atlas provides data for planning at national and state levels.
• Climate-Smart Farming: Adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties (e.g., millets) promoted under the International Year of Millets 2023 initiative.
• Natural Farming: It avoids chemical fertilizers and pesticides, restores soil health and water permeability, and promotes climate-resilient agriculture.

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• The Government of India has launched the ‘National Initiative on Water Security,’ making water conservation a top national priority and introducing mandatory minimum spending on water-related works under MGNREGA.

Key Features of the Initiative

• Fund Allocation Mandates:
  • ‘Over-exploited’/‘Dark zone’ blocks: 65% of MGNREGA funds must be spent on water-related works (rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge).
  • ‘Semi-critical’ blocks: 40% of funds for water conservation.
• All other blocks: 30% minimum for such activities.
• Budgetary Focus: Out of the ₹88,000 crore annual MGNREGA budget (2025–26), a fixed share is now earmarked for water security.
• Groundwater Assessment Basis: Fund distribution and block categorisation are based on the Dynamic Ground Water Resources Assessment Report (2024), as classified by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB).

What Qualifies as Water Conservation Works?

• Construction of check dams, farm ponds, community tanks, and percolation tanks.
• Desilting, renovation of traditional water bodies, groundwater recharge pits, soak wells.
• Building irrigation channels, watershed management structures, afforestation and plantation works to increase water retention.

Rationale

• Groundwater depletion: India is the world’s largest user of groundwater (~25% of global extraction).
• Rural dependence: 80% of rural drinking water and nearly two-thirds of irrigation rely on groundwater.
• Climate stress: Erratic monsoons and rising drought frequency exacerbate water scarcity.
• PM’s directive: Following the Prime Minister’s instruction to earmark funds specifically for water, this step institutionalises water conservation as a national rural priority.

Significance

• Water Security: Strengthens groundwater recharge and rainwater harvesting.
• Rural Livelihoods: Ensures sustainable employment + improved farm productivity.
• Women Empowerment: Rising participation in MGNREGA aligns with SDG 5.
• Climate Adaptation: Improves resilience of rural communities against droughts and floods.
• Synergy with National Missions: Supports Jal Jeevan Mission, Catch the Rain, Amrit Sarovar, and Doubling Farmers’ Income goals.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• The Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR) has launched a series of digital reforms to strengthen Gram Panchayats.

Need for the Digital Transformation of Villages

• Bridging the Digital Divide: Rural India still faces low internet penetration and digital illiteracy, digital transformation helps ensure inclusive growth and reduces inequality.
• Improved Governance and Service Delivery: Digital platforms enable direct benefit transfers (DBT), e-Governance, and online grievance redressal.
• Boost to Rural Economy: Promotes digital payments, e-commerce, and online marketplaces for farmers and artisans.
• Agriculture Transformation: Use of digital tools for weather forecasts, soil health, crop advisories, and precision farming.
• Healthcare Access: Telemedicine and digital health records provide affordable and timely healthcare, reducing the need for travel to distant hospitals.

Challenges

• Poor Digital Infrastructure: Patchy internet connectivity, low broadband penetration, and unreliable electricity supply in rural areas hinder the progress.
• Digital Literacy Gap: A large section of villagers, especially elderly lack digital skills leading to the fear of technology adoption.
• Language and Content Barriers: Most digital platforms are in English or Hindi, leaving out regional language users.
• Cybersecurity and Trust Deficit: Rural citizens are more vulnerable to digital frauds and scams due to the low awareness about data privacy and online safety.
• Resistance to Change: Preference for traditional cash-based transactions and offline systems.

Government Initiatives

• SabhaSaar: AI for Gram Sabha Meetings: Launched in 2025, SabhaSaar is an Artificial Intelligence (AI) tool that creates structured minutes of meetings from the audio or video of Gram Sabha and other Panchayat gatherings.
  • The SVAMITVA (Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas) Scheme was launched in 2020.
  • The scheme gives rural households legal ownership papers for the homes and land they occupy.
  • Using drones and advanced mapping tools, it clearly marks property boundaries.
• BharatNet: It was launched in2011, to bridge the digital divide.
  • The project aims to deliver affordable, high-speed internet to every Gram Panchayat.
• eGramSwaraj:
  • Meri Panchayat App: Meri Panchayat App serves as an integrated mobile governance platform, designed and developed by the National Informatics Centre (NIC).
  • It empowers rural communities by promoting transparency, accountability and citizen participation in Panchayat affairs.
  • Gram Manchitra: Geo-Spatial Planning Tool: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj launched the Gram Manchitra Geographic Information System (GIS) application.
• It offers a unified digital map where officials can visualise developmental works across different sectors and align them with the Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP).

Conclusion

• These reforms aim to make governance faster, more transparent and more inclusive.
• Tools now range from artificial intelligence (AI) meeting summarisers to geo-spatial mapping platforms, digital accounting systems and citizen-facing mobile apps.
• This shift also reflects the Government’s broader vision under Digital India and Atmanirbhar Bharat.