General Studies Paper-2 

Context: Recently, the United Nations (UN) has recently released the ‘Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2024’ highlighting the urgent need for increased investment in sustainable development to achieve the SDGs.

About Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

• These are a set of 17 goals established by the UN as a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet.
• These goals, adopted by all UN Member States in 2015, are an urgent call for action by all countries – developed and developing – in a global partnership.

The Journey of SDGs:

• More than 178 countries adopted Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan of action to build a global partnership for sustainable development at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.
• It continued through the Millennium Summit in 2000, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in South Africa in 2002, and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 2012.
• These SDGs recognise that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth – all while tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests.

Key Issues Highlighted in Report:

• Sustainable Development Crisis: The report identified that the world is facing a sustainable development crisis. It identified financing challenges as the heart of this crisis, which threatens the achievement of the SDGs and climate action.
  • Rising geopolitical tensions, climate disasters, and a global cost-of-living crisis have hit billions of people, battering progress on healthcare, education, and other development targets.
  • If current trends continue, the UN estimates that almost 600 million people will continue to live in extreme poverty in 2030 and beyond, more than half of them women.
• The Finance Divide: Developing countries are paying around twice as much on average in interest on their total sovereign debt stock as developed countries.
  • Staggering debt burdens and sky-high borrowing costs are preventing developing countries from responding to the confluence of crises they face.
  • Many of these countries lack access to affordable finance or are in debt distress.
• The Financing Gap: The report estimated that the development financing gap has grown to USD 4.2 trillion annually, up from USD 2.5 trillion before the COVID-19 pandemic.
  • It represents a more than 50% increase over the pre-pandemic estimates.
• Weak Enabling Environments: Average global growth has declined, while policy and regulatory frameworks still do not set appropriate incentives.
  • Public budgets and spending are not fully aligned with SDGs. Private investors are not incentivised to invest enough in SDGs and climate action.
• Closing Window: The window to rescue the SDGs and prevent a climate catastrophe is still open but closing rapidly.

Suggestions Made in Report:

• Urgent Actions Needed: This is the last chance to correct course if we want to achieve the SDGs by the 2030 deadline.
  • Only an urgent, large-scale and sustainable investment push can help us achieve our global goals.
• Four Actions:
  • Close financing gaps for SDG/climate investments (both public and private) at scale and with urgency;
  • Close policy and architecture gaps, and reform international institutions;
  • Close credibility gaps and trust deficits both international and domestically; and
  • Formulate and finance new development pathways.
• Reforms in existing systems: The report concludes that the international financial system, which was set up at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, is no longer fit for purpose.
  • It proposes a new coherent system that is better equipped to respond to crises, scales up investment in the SDGs especially through stronger multilateral development banks, and improves the global safety net for all countries.

Conclusion:

• The ‘Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2024’ serves as a stark reminder of the urgent need for increased investment in sustainable development.
• As the world stands at a crossroads, this report underscores the importance of closing financing gaps, reforming international institutions, and formulating and financing new development pathways.

General Studies Paper -1

Context: The Delhi High Court has recently observed that the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act is a “measure of social justice applicable to each woman irrespective of religious affiliation or social background”.

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005

• It has come into force since 2006.
• Aim: To provide protection to wife or female live-in partner from violence at the hands of the husband or male live-in partner or his relatives.
• Domestic Violence: Domestic violence under the Act includes actual abuse or threat of abuse, whether physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, or economic.
  • Harassment by way of unlawful dowry demands to the women victim or her relatives would also be covered under the definition of Domestic violence.
• Extension of Protection: The Law extends protection to women who are sisters including adopted sisters and mothers.

Salient features of the Act:

• Ensures Right to Residence under sec 17.
• Ensures economic relief by recognising economic violence.
• Recognises verbal and emotional violence.
• Provides temporary custody of the child.
• Judgements within 60 days of filing of the case.
• Multiple Judgements in a single case.

Protection Officers

• Protection Officers have been appointed by the Government to help the aggrieved woman in filing the case against her husband or against any male adult person who has committed domestic violence and who is in domestic relationship with the petitioner.
• The Protection Officer facilitates the women to approach the court by providing legal aid and get appropriate relief from the courts concerned.

Arguments Against the Act

• Gender Bias: Critics argue that the Act is inherently biased as it only provides protection to women, ignoring the fact that men can also be victims of domestic violence.
• Misuse and False Accusations: There are concerns that the Act is misused by some women to falsely accuse their partners or family members of domestic violence for personal gain, such as gaining leverage in divorce or child custody proceedings.
• Family Disruption: The Act’s emphasis on providing protection orders and support services to victims may contribute to the breakdown of families and marriages rather than facilitating reconciliation and family harmony.
  • This could have negative consequences, particularly for children who may be adversely affected by family disruption.
• Legal Complexity and Delay: The legal processes involved in seeking protection orders under the Act can be complex and time-consuming, leading to delays in obtaining relief for victims.
  • This may deter some women from seeking help or prolong their exposure to abusive situations.
• Need for Comprehensive Approach: Addressing domestic violence requires a more comprehensive approach that goes beyond legal remedies alone.
  • This includes addressing underlying factors such as poverty, lack of education, and gender inequality, which contribute to the perpetuation of violence in intimate relationships.

Arguments in Favour of the Act

• Legal Protection: The Act provides a comprehensive legal framework specifically tailored to address domestic violence against women.
• Recognition of Various Forms of Abuse: The Act recognizes multiple forms of abuse beyond physical violence, including emotional, verbal, sexual, and economic abuse.
• This recognition reflects a broader understanding of the ways in which domestic violence manifests and harms women.
• Empowerment of Victims: By providing legal remedies such as protection orders, the Act empowers victims to take action against their abusers and seek protection for themselves and their children.
• Access to Support Services: The Act mandates the establishment of protection officers and support services, including shelters, counseling, and legal aid, to assist victims in accessing the resources they need to escape abusive situations.
• Gender Equality: The Act acknowledges the systemic inequalities and power imbalances that contribute to domestic violence and seeks to address them.
• International Obligations: India is a signatory to various international conventions and treaties that obligate it to combat violence against women, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).

Conclusion

• Overall, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act represents a significant step forward in addressing domestic violence against women in India and is crucial for promoting gender equality, protecting women’s rights, and creating a safer and more just society.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: India’s climate policy has evolved significantly over the years, reflecting the country’s commitment to addressing the challenges posed by climate change.

The Evolution of India’s Climate Policy:

• India’s climate change policies have primarily focused on supporting synergies between development and climate outcomes, and it has always been clear, consistent, and coordinated.
• After the Rio Summit of 1992, the Divisions of Climate Change and Biodiversity in India’s then Ministry of Environment and Forests came to life slowly and steadily.
  • The Rio Summit of 1992 saw the emergence of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Forest Principles.

Major Determinants of India’s Climate Policy:

• Geography: The Indian landmass has an area of 3.28 million sq km, accounting for 2.4% of the world’s geographical land surface area and 4% of the world’s freshwater resources.
  • India is the seventh largest country in the world.
  • It is one of the 17 mega-biodiverse countries, having four biodiversity hotspots, 10 biogeographic zones, and 22 agro-biodiversity hotspots.
• Population: India’s 1.4 billion people account for almost one-sixth of humanity.
  • It is home to 7-8% of the world’s recorded species, with more than 45,500 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals documented so far.
  • The human to land ratio is very low in India at 0.0021 sq km, and is continuing to recede.
• Impacts: The Global Climate Risk Index (2020) prepared by German watch puts India as the fifth most affected country in terms of experiencing extreme weather events, a sharp rise from its 14th position in 2017.
  • The World Bank report on the Impact of Climate Change on South Asia predicts that rising temperatures and changing monsoon rainfall patterns could cost India 2.8% of its GDP and depress the living standards of nearly half the country’s population by 2050.
• Worldview: Our worldview is shaped by our ancestors — of living in harmony and consonance with nature.
  • The ‘Prithvi Sukta’ says that the Earth is our Mother, and sacred groves tell us that the idea of protection of nature and natural resources is seeped in our way of life.
  • Gandhi’s ideals of standing up for the last man, trusteeship, and the ability of the Earth to provide enough for everyone’s need and not anyone’s greed represents a continuous strain of thought since time immemorial.
• Actions: The logo of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) — ‘Nature Protects if She is Protected’ — shows our reverence, respect for nature, and our focus towards conserving it.
  • Despite having historical cumulative emissions of less than 4% (1850-2019) and 1.9 tonnes CO2 per capita emissions, India has not dissuaded itself from taking resolute domestic and international actions that benefit the planet.

Role of Supreme Court in Climate Policy:

• The Supreme Court of India has recognized the links between ecology, human dignity, and climate change and made important connections between human rights and global warming mitigation.
• It stated, ‘Without a clean environment which is unimpacted by the vagaries of climate change, the right to life is not fully realised’.
• It noted that the right to a healthy environment, safe from the ill-effects of climate change, was a ‘fundamental human right’.
• The court linked the right against climate change to Articles 21 (right to life) and 14 (right to equality), stating that the rights to life and equality could not be fully realised without a clean, stable environment.
  • It highlighted the interconnection between climate change and various human rights, including the right to health, indigenous rights, gender equality, and the right to development.

Conclusion:

• India’s climate policy is informed by its vision of inclusive growth for all-round economic and social development, the eradication of poverty, declining carbon budget, firm adherence to the foundational principles of the UNFCCC, and climate-friendly lifestyles.
• It has created international institutions like the International Solar Alliance (ISA) to focus on the transition to renewable energy, separated carbon emissions from economic growth, Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and the Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA).

As the world grapples with the effects of climate change, India’s climate policy will continue to evolve, reflecting the country’s commitment to sustainable development and environmental protection.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: The government has come up with a new platform to disburse subsidies to horticulture farmers under the Cluster Development Programme (CDP) known as CDP-SURAKSHA.

CDP-SURAKSHA

• The CDP-SURAKSHA is essentially a digital platform. SURAKSHA stands for “System for Unified Resource Allocation, Knowledge, and Secure Horticulture Assistance.”
• The platform will allow an instant disbursal of subsidies to farmers in their bank account by utilising the e-RUPI voucher from the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).
  • The voucher is a one-time payment mechanism that can be redeemed without a card, digital payments app or internet banking access, at the merchants accepting e-RUPI.
  • e-RUPI can be shared with the beneficiaries for a specific purpose or activity by organisations or government via SMS or QR code
• Significance: The CDP-SURAKSHA platform will provide subsidies to farmers upfront, at the time of purchasing the planting material.
  • Vendors, who will supply planting materials to farmers, will receive their payment only after farmers verify the delivery of their orders.
  • The move seeks to push the growth of India’s horticulture sector.

Horticulture Sector in India

• Horticulture is the science and art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamental plants.
  • It encompasses a wide range of activities including plant propagation, production, management, and marketing.
• The Indian horticulture sector contributes about 33% to the agriculture Gross Value Added (GVA) making a very significant contribution to the Indian economy.
• India is currently producing about 320.48 million tons of horticulture produce which has surpassed the food grain production, that too from much less area.
  • Productivity of horticulture crops is much higher compared to productivity of food grains.
• At present, India is the second largest producer of vegetables and fruits in the world.
  • India ranks first in the production of a number of crops like Banana, Lime & Lemon, Papaya, Okra.
• India’s advantage lies in being a low-cost producer of fruits and vegetables because of a combination of factors such as favourable agro-climatic conditions, availability of labour, and low input costs.
  • As a result, fruits and vegetables account for almost 90% of the total horticulture production in the country.

Challenges Faced by the Sector

• Lack of Infrastructure: Insufficient infrastructure for post-harvest handling, storage, and transportation leads to significant losses of perishable horticultural produce.
• Water Management: Horticulture is water-intensive, and water scarcity or inefficient water management practices affect crop yields and quality.
• Pest and Disease Management: Pests and diseases cause significant damage to horticultural crops, and the misuse of pesticides lead to environmental pollution and health hazards.
• Market Linkages: Limited market linkages and price fluctuations affect farmers’ income and discourage investment in horticultural production.
• Climate Change: Erratic weather patterns, including unpredictable rainfall and temperature fluctuations, pose challenges to horticultural production and require adaptation strategies.
• Quality Standards and Certification: Meeting quality standards and obtaining certification for export markets can be challenging for small-scale horticultural producers.

Government of India Initiatives for the Promotion of Horticulture Sector

• National Horticulture Mission (NHM): Launched in 2005-06, NHM aims to promote holistic growth of the horticulture sector by enhancing production, productivity, and quality of horticulture crops.
  • It focuses on creating infrastructure, providing technical assistance, and promoting market linkages.
• National Horticulture Board (NHB): NHB provides financial assistance, technical guidance, and market intelligence to horticulture growers, processors, and exporters to promote production, processing, and marketing of horticultural crops.
• Cluster Development Program (CDP): The CDP is a component of the central sector scheme of NHB.
  • It is aimed at leveraging the geographical specialisation of horticulture clusters and promoting integrated and market-led development of pre-production, production, post-harvest, logistics, branding, and marketing activities.
  • So far, 55 horticulture clusters have been identified, out of which 12 have been selected for the pilot.
• Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH): MIDH, launched in 2014, integrates various horticulture development schemes under one umbrella to provide holistic support for the entire value chain, from pre-production to post-harvest management and marketing.
• Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY): RKVY supports states in planning, implementing, and monitoring their horticulture development strategies by providing financial assistance for infrastructure development, capacity building, and other interventions.
• Sub-Mission on Agriculture Mechanization (SMAM): SMAM supports the adoption of mechanization in horticulture for activities like land preparation, planting, harvesting, and post-harvest management to improve efficiency and reduce labor dependency.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Despite Japan facing challenges such as low birth rates, a shrinking population, and slow economic growth, reforms promoting “womenomics” were implemented during the “Abenomics” (Tenure of PM Shinzō Abe)period. Now, these reforms are yielding positive outcomes

The women’s labour force participation rate (WLFPR) in Japan has increased by ten percentage points, rising from 64.9% in 2013 to 75.2% in 2023. This marks the fastest growth in Japan’s WLFPR in recent decades and stands as the highest among G7 countries over the past decade. It’s estimated that this rise in women’s labour force participation rate could  boost Japan’s GDP per capita by 4% to 8%.

What reforms were undertaken by Japan to enhance participation of women in labour force?

1. Investment in care economy-The government’s investment in expanding daycare capacity from 2.2 million in 2012 to 2.8 million in 2018 has decreased daycare waiting lists. Further, in 2023, Japan’s government announced an additional investment of $26 billion for childcare measures from 2023 to 2026.
2. Rebalancing of gender norms– From 2022,the government has introduced greater flexibility in paternity leave provisions such as reduced notice periods, and allowing men to break up their paternity leave. This has resulted in boosting paternity leave uptake from 2 per cent in 2012, to 17 per cent in 2023.

What are the lessons that India can learn from Japan to boost its Female Labour Force Participation Rate?

1. India can also invest in long-term public support for care infrastructure and services, particularly childcare.
2. India can enhance paternal leave uptake among men by adopting an employer-led approach that dispels gender stereotypes around care work. However, this would also require change in people’s mindsets.
3. India can invest in various care services like childcare, elder care, domestic assistance, and long-term care for those with high needs. This helps decrease dependency and taps into the growing market for elder care services. For ex-Japan has collaborated with the private sector to invest in affordable senior living and care. With India’s elderly population expected to double by 2050, it can also make similar investments in elder care infrastructure.

What are the policy changes that can be made by India to improve its Female Labour Force Participation Rate?

There is a need to adopt a five-pillar strategy to unlock business opportunities in India’s care economy, such as-

1. There should be formulation of gender-neutral and employee friendly paternity leave policies.
2. Government should provide subsidies for availing/providing care services.
3. Public and private sector should enhance investment in care infrastructure and services.
4. There should be skill development programmes for care workers.

Government should pay attention to quality assurance for care services and infrastructure.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The article discusses India‘s ‘National One Health Mission,’ which aims to prepare us for better management of diseases affecting humans, animals, and the environment. It involves various ministries and departments working together for disease control, research, and pandemic preparedness. The mission includes setting up a national network of laboratories and using technology like AI for disease monitoring.

What is the India’s ‘National One Health Mission’?

• Mission Overview: The ‘National One Health Mission’ is India’s integrated approach to managing diseases affecting humans, animals, and the environment.
• Participating Bodies: Coordination among 13 Ministries and Departments, including those for Science and Technology, Biotechnology, Health, and Animal Husbandry.
• Objectives and Goals: Developing strategies for disease surveillance, research, and response to human and animal diseases.
• Focus on Diseases: Tackling diseases that affect humans such as COVID-19, foot and mouth disease, and lumpy skin disease.

Why is ‘One Health’ important globally?

1. One Health is globally essential for integrated disease management across humans, animals, and the environment.
2. It addresses widespread diseases like COVID-19, which affect multiple species, showing the interconnectedness of health sectors. It also concerns wildlife diseases, like canine distemper, crucial for conservation efforts.
3. It focuses on establishing a global network of ‘One Health’ institutes for unified disease response strategies.
4. It extends beyond diseases to address wider issues like antimicrobial resistance, food safety, and climate change impacts.
5. ‘One Health’ was endorsed during India’s G-20 presidency, highlighting the need for international collaboration in health surveillance.

What initiatives has the Indian government taken for the ‘National One Health Mission’?

1. The Indian government has launched the ‘National One Health Mission’, aiming to synergize efforts in managing diseases that impact humans, animals, and the environment.
2. A key step was the establishment of the National Institute for One Health in Nagpur, serving as a central hub for coordinating both national and international activities related to health management.

What should be done?

1. Enhancement of disease management across human, animal, and environmental sectors by efficiently using the national network of high-risk pathogen laboratories, including BSL 3 and BSL 4 labs.
2. Application of advanced technologies such as AI and machine learning to enhance epidemiology and data analysis. This approach can be modeled on the success of genomic surveillance from wastewater, as demonstrated during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Promotion of active collaboration between government agencies, NGOs, academia, the private sector, and citizens to advance the ‘One Earth, One Health’ initiative, aiming for inclusive health management.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recent study by Lancet on global fertility rates suggests that India’s TFR  has been seeing a decline over the last century.

Finding 

• The total fertility rate (TFR) for India is projected to go down to29 by 2051 from 6.18 children per woman in 1950.
  • This estimate is based on a complex demographic modelling, done for 204 countries as part of the global burden of disease study.
  • The decline is uneven across states and it will take a decade before all states, especially large ones like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand, achieve the replacement level fertility, which, in the long run, would ensure stabilisation of population
• The projection by the UN Population Division is that India will have a population of close to 1.7 billion by 2065 before it starts declining.

Causes 

• Several factors have jointly triggered a demographic transition in India, the rapid pace of economic development, particularly since the early years of the present century.
• Lower infant and child mortality rates reduce the need to have a large family for old-age support, backed by the rise in women’s education and work participation rates and the increasing usage of modern contraception methods.
• Improvement in housing conditions and the old-age security system are the other contributing factors.
• Various factors, including obesity, stress, smoking, and environmental pollution, contribute to the declining fertility rates in India

Impacts 

• Positives : The first impact of the rapid decline in TFR is a fall in the dependency rate and a larger share of working adults in the population, leading to an overall surplus income which can accelerate economic growth and lead to positive intergenerational transfers.
  • The demographic transition will have a positive impact on several states in the coming years through an increase in labour productivity
    • The decline in population growth would increase the amount of capital resources and infrastructure available in per capita terms.
    • The reduction in fertility would permit the relocation of resources for the education and skill development of children rather than expanding the coverage for achieving universalisation.
  • Negatives:  It will subsequently result in a larger share of the elderly dependent population, as is noted in China, Japan and several European countries.
    • The dependency ratio, taking the young and the old as a fraction of the percentage of the working-age population, is projected to go up from 8 in 2011 to 23 in 2036 for India.
    • It can trigger potential social imbalances due to gender preferences in the country.
    • Emerging population issues have serious implications for policy, particularly for skill development for women and other underprivileged groups.

Conclusion and Way Forward 

• Economic policies that stimulate growth and job creation, alongside social security and pension reforms are essential in adapting to and mitigating the impacts of declining fertility rates.
• With an ageing population, which will have to be supported in the coming decades by a shrinking workforce, it becomes imperative that India’s economy grows at a strong pace consistently over decades.
  • There is also a need to generate employment opportunities that effectively utilize the skills of this demographic.
• Skill development can ensure there is no dearth of labour in the modern growing sectors.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, it has been highlighted that Climate change is not gender-neutral and It represents an enormous challenge to the well-being of women.

About Climate Change

• Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns.
• Such shifts can be natural, due to changes in the sun’s activity or large volcanic eruptions.
• But since the 1800s,human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas.
  • Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and raising temperatures.
  • The main greenhouse gases that are causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane.

How Climate Change Impacts Women?

• Disproportionate: The climate crisis does not impact everyone equally.
  • Women and girls experience disproportionately high health risks, especially in situations of poverty, and due to existing roles, responsibilities and cultural norms.
  • According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), women and children are 14 times more likely than men to die in a disaster.
• Food insecurity: Agriculture is the most important livelihood source for women in India, particularly in rural India.
  • Climate-driven crop yield reductions increase food insecurity, adversely impacting poor households that already suffer higher nutritional deficiencies.
• Extreme events and Gender based violence: The world is witnessing an increasing frequency of extreme weather events and climate-induced natural hazards. A report from the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) in 2021 found that75% of Indian districts are vulnerable to hydromet disasters (floods, droughts and cyclones).
  • NFHS 5data showed that over half of women and children living in these districts were at risk.
  • Women living in drought-prone districts were more underweight, experienced more intimate partner violence ,worse health and had a higher prevalence of girl marriages
  • Prolonged heat is particularly dangerous for pregnant women (increasing the risk of preterm birth and eclampsia), young children, and the elderly.
  • It also impacts their mental health and emotional well-being.
• Exposure to pollutants : exposure to pollutants in the air (household and outdoor) affects women’s health, causing respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and also the unborn child, impairing its physical and cognitive growth.

Suggestions 

• Climate action requires 100% of the population if we want to achieve the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5° C.
• At the same time, empowering women means better climate solutions; when provided with the same access to resources as men, women increased their agricultural yields by 20% to 30%.
• Tribal and rural women, in particular, have been at the forefront of environmental conservation.
  • Giving women and women collectives (Self-help Groups and Farmer Producer Organisations) the knowledge, tools and access to resources would encourage local solutions to emerge.
• Adaptation measures will necessarily be different in rural and urban areas as exposure to heat, air pollution and access to water and food will vary by context.
• On heat waves and water shortage: While gaps in data (sex disaggregated data for multiple social outcomes) and knowledge need to be filled by more research, there are areas where immediate action is needed.
• We should reduce the impact of prolonged heat on priority groups (outdoor workers, pregnant women, infants and young children and the elderly).
  • Heat wave warnings(based on local temperature plus humidity), change of timings for outdoor work and schools, cooling rooms in health facilities, public drinking water facilities, and immediate treatment of those with heat stroke will minimise deaths.
  • Urban local bodies, municipal corporations and district authorities in all vulnerable districts need to have a plan and provide training and resources to key implementers.
• In addition, urban planning to improve tree cover, minimising concrete, increasing green-blue spaces and designing housing that is better able to withstand heat are longer-term actions.
• Water shortage is probably the biggest threat to our very existence and needs concerted societal action.
  • Work done in a few districts of Tamil Nadu showed that using geographic information systems, the panchayat could map key water sources, identify vulnerabilities and climate hazards and develop a local plan to improve water access by directing government schemes and resources.
• Working at the village level: Convergence of sectors and services and prioritisation of actions can happen most effectively at the village or panchayat levels.
  • Devolution of powers and finances and investing in building the capacity of panchayat and SHG members can be India’s way of demonstrating how to build resilience in a community-led and participatory way.

Conclusion 

• There is the need to move beyond stereotypes, recognise the vulnerabilities of all genders, and implement gender-transformative strategies, ensuring a comprehensive and equitable approach to climate adaptation.
• Instead of being labelled as victims, women can lead the way in climate action.
• A gender lens needs to be applied to all State-action plans on climate change
• There is a need for supporting women’s participation through legislation and policies that guarantee that women will be heard and take part, meaningfully, in decision-making.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The National Sample Survey (NSS) Office released the key results of the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2022-23.

About

• The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) under Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation has been conducting household surveys on consumption/consumer expenditure at regular intervals as part of its rounds, normally of one-year duration.
• Since 1972, NSSO has been conducting the Consumer Expenditure Survey.
• It  is designed to collect information on consumption of goods and services by the households.
• The survey aims at generating estimates of household Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE)and its distribution separately for the rural and urban sectors of the country, for States and Union Territories, and for different socio-economic groups.

Methodology Used

• In the present survey, three 3 questionnaires were used, covering:
• Food items;
• Consumables and services items, and;
• Durable goods used.
• The survey had a separate provision for collection of information on the quantity of consumption of the number of items received and consumed by the households free of cost through various social welfare programmes.

Changes in the Methodology

• First, there is change in item coverage with inclusion of new items and merging some of the obsolete items. Overall, the number of items covered has increased from 347 to 405 items.
• Secondly, there have been changes in the questionnaire of the survey.
  • Instead of a single questionnaire as used in earlier surveys, HCES 2022-23 uses four separate questionnaires for food, consumables and services items, and durable goods, apart from a separate questionnaire for canvassing household characteristics to be used in three separate monthly visits in a quarter.
  • Thus, there have been multiple visits for data collection instead of the usual practice of a single visit in the earlier surveys.

Major Findings

• Rise in Income:The income levels of both the Urban and Rural households have risen since the last survey, with Rural households showing a sharper growth in spending.
• Rise in MPCE: The average Monthly per capita consumption expenditure of both Urban and Rural households has doubled in the 11-year period with both spending less on food items.
  • Of the total expenditure, 46% was spent on food items in Rural households and 39% in Urban homes in 2022-23.
• Spending increased in Rural Households:Household spending increased 2.6 times in Rural areas and 2.5 times in Urban areas since the last survey in 2011-12.
  • The gap between Urban and Rural household consumption has narrowed, and Indian households have been spending more on non-food items.
• Gap Between Rich and Poor:The top 5% of India’s Rural population has 7 times the MPCE of the bottom 5 % rural population.
  • The top 5 % of India’s urban population has 10 times the MPCE of the bottom 5 % Urban population.
• Among the States,the MPCE is the highest in Sikkim for both rural (₹7,731) and urban areas (₹12,105).
  • It is the lowest in Chhattisgarh, where it was ₹2,466 for rural households and ₹4,483 for urban household members.

It can be inferred from the data presented in the survey that:

• The difference between Rural and Urban MPCE has narrowed substantially over the years, implying the success of government policies in improving Rural incomes.
• While the difference is more pronounced at the lower levels, the gap is bigger at the top, reflecting an increase in inequality at higher income levels.
• The poorest Rural households have been able to spend at a much closer level to their Urban Counterparts, implying that government’s policy initiatives for enhancing Rural incomes have worked to an extent.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: The India Employment Report, 2024, released by the Institute for Human Development and the International Labour Organization, points out that key labor market indicators have improved in recent years.

Key Findings

• In India the female Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is very low compared to the male counterparts.
• In 2023, for male LFPR was 5%; and for women LFPR was37%. 
  • The world women LFPR rate is 49%,according to the World Bank figures.
• The female LFPR had been steadily declining since 2000 and touched 24.5%  in 2019, before inching up, particularly in rural areas.
• Status of women employed:
  • The Report shows that it is women who largely account for the increase in self-employment and unpaid family work.
  • The share of regular work, which steadily increased after 2000, started declining after 2018.

Reason for poor women labor force participation

• Cultural and Social Norms: In traditional societies, gender roles may discourage women from entering or staying in the workforce. Expectations around women’s responsibilities for caregiving and homemaking limit their ability to pursue full-time employment.
• Educational Attainment:Limited access to quality education can be a barrier for women to acquire the necessary skills and qualifications for certain jobs.
• Unequal Pay: Difference between wage gap, discourage women from entering or staying in the workforce.
• Structural rigiditiesin India’s manufacturing and service sectors have restricted employment opportunities in the informal sector, where a substantial amount of female workforce is involved.
• Security Issues:Sexual harassment at Worlplace often hinders women participation in labor force.

Steps taken by Government

• Code on Wages, 2019: It provides that there shall be no discrimination in an establishment among employees on the ground of gender in matters relating to wages by the same employer, in respect of the same work or work of similar nature done by any employee.
• Maternity Benefit Act, 2017: It was enacted to provide improved maternity benefits and promote a healthier work environment for pregnant and nursing women.
• The Code on Occupational Safety, Health And Working Conditions (OSH), 2020: It has proposed tweaks in employment terms and conditions for women workers in the above-ground mines.
• Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK):It is a national-level organization that provides microfinance services to poor women for various livelihood activities. It supports income-generating projects and promotes women’s economic empowerment.
• National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM):NRLM focuses on creating sustainable self-employment opportunities for rural women. It provides skill training, capacity building, and financial support for women to engage in income-generating activities.
• MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act): It guarantees 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to rural households. Women’s participation in this program is encouraged, and efforts are made to ensure equitable employment opportunities.

Way Ahead

• The increase in labor force participation has come mostly in rural areas and mostly in self-employment, which means largely unpaid work.
• Interventions are needed on both the demand and supply side of the labor market to improve the condition.
  • On the demand side, policies that promote labor intensive sectors (in both manufacturing and relatively higher productivity services) are needed.
• Public investment in safety and transport is also critical along with  public investment in affordable child and elderly care.
• All of these types of support can enable women to work outside the home and take advantage of relatively better paying opportunities.