General Studies Paper-2

Context: Digital child abuse, fueled by AI-based exploitation, is an emerging threat, and protecting children from these dangers requires urgent regulatory, technological, and social interventions.

Digital Child Abuse & Implications

• Digital child abuse refers to any form of harm inflicted on children through online platforms. It includes:
• Cyberbullying: Harassment and intimidation through social media, messaging apps, and gaming platforms.
  • Exposure to Harmful Content: Children being exposed to pornography, graphic violence, and inappropriate material.
• Online Grooming: Predators luring minors into exploitative relationships.
  • Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM): It refers to material (audio, video, and images) that depicts a sexually explicit portrayal of a child.
• Identity Theft and Privacy Violations: Misuse of children’s personal data for illegal activities.
  • Data Mining and Privacy Breaches: AI algorithms analyze children’s data from educational apps, social media, and gaming platforms to create behavioral profiles, which can be exploited by malicious actors for targeted manipulation, harassment, or identity theft.
  • International AI Safety Report 2025 flags the imminent risk of the generation, the possession, and the dissemination of CSAM with the help of AI tools.
  • Internet Watch Foundation, in October 2024, underscored the proliferation of CSAM on the open web.
• The World Economic Forum, in 2023, highlighted how generative AI can create life-like images, especially of children.

Current Status Digital Child Abuse

• According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) Report 2022, cybercrimes against children have substantially increased compared to the previous year’s statistics.
• Moreover, the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP), under the aegis of the Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC) scheme, recorded 1.94 lakh child pornography incidents as of April 2024.
• In 2019, the NCRB signed a MoU with the National Centre for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC), USA to receive tip-line reports on CSAM.
• As of March 2024, 69.05 lakh cyber tip-line reports have been shared with the States and Union Territories concerned.

Challenges in Addressing Digital Child Abuse

• Lack of Robust Digital Laws: While laws like the POCSO Act and IT Act exist, enforcement remains inconsistent, and legal loopholes allow perpetrators to evade justice.
  • The existing legislative framework lacks adequate safeguards to deal with the AI-generated CSAM.
• Anonymous Nature of Cybercrime: Offenders exploit encryption and the dark web to remain undetected.
• Slow Legal Processes: Convictions in cyber abuse cases are often delayed due to lack of technical expertise in law enforcement.
• Rapid Growth of AI and Deepfake Technology: Deepfake tools are being misused to manipulate images of children, further complicating efforts to combat exploitation.
• Challenges in Reporting and Victim Support: Victims and their families often hesitate to report due to social stigma, lack of trust in law enforcement, and fear of re-victimization.
• Lack of Digital Literacy: Many parents and teachers are unaware of online threats.

Government Measures and Legal Framework

• Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000: Criminalizes online child pornography, cyberstalking, and identity theft.
  • Section 67B of the IT Act 2000 punishes those who publish or transmit material in electronic form depicting children in sexually explicit acts.
• Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012: Strengthened provisions to punish online child exploitation.
  • Sections 13, 14, and 15 of the POCSO prohibit using children for pornographic purposes, storing child pornography in any form, and using a child for sexual gratification.
• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS): Section 294 of BNS penalises the sale, distribution, or public exhibition of obscene materials.
  • Section 295 makes it illegal to sell, distribute, or exhibit such obscene objects to children.
• National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal: Enables citizens to report cases of cybercrime, including CSAM.
• Collaboration with Social Media Companies: The government works with platforms like Meta, Google, and WhatsApp to remove harmful content.
• Awareness Campaigns: Programs like the Digital India initiative promote safe internet usage for children.
  • The Press Information Bureau (PIB) has confirmed that the Indian government is actively working on measures to tackle online pornography and abuse.

Way Forward

• Stronger AI-Based Detection Tools: Automated systems to detect and remove CSAM quickly.
• Cybersecurity Education: Teaching children safe online habits.
• Parental Controls and Monitoring: Encouraging responsible digital parenting.
• International Collaboration: International Cooperation: Working with INTERPOL, EUROPOL, and UNICEF to track and prosecute offenders across borders.

Conclusion

• Digital child abuse is a pressing issue in India that requires urgent intervention. While the government has taken steps to counter online threats, technological advancements have also increased the risk of AI-based exploitation.
• A combination of stricter regulations, awareness, and advanced monitoring is essential to protect children in the digital world.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Researchers and campaigners fear that the government has not properly reviewed rejected claims under the Forest Rights Act (FRA) ahead of a crucial Supreme Court hearing.

About

• More than 150 tribal and forest rights organisations, under platforms such as the Campaign for Survival and Dignity, have accused the government of submitting incomplete and misleading data on forest encroachments, while failing to fully implement the FRA.

About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, commonly known as the Forest Rights Act (FRA), was enacted in 2006 to:
• Recognise historical injustices against forest-dwelling communities.
• Grant legal rights over forest land and resources to Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs).
• Empower Gram Sabhas to verify and approve claims at the grassroots level.
• Ensures that tribal populations and forest dwellers are not evicted without proper rehabilitation, aligning with the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation, and Settlement Act, 2013.
• The FRA includes provisions for individual and community rights over land, forest produce, grazing areas, and traditional knowledge.

Evolution of Forest Rights Act (FRA)

• In the colonial era, British policies exploited forest resources, leaving tribal and forest-dwelling communities in a state of tenurial insecurity.
• The National Forest Policy of 1988 emphasized the involvement of tribal people in forest protection, leading to the enactment of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, which aimed to protect their rights to the environment, life, and livelihood.
• The FRA recognizes the rights of tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to access forest land and resources.

Issues and Concerns

• According to Land Conflict Watch, since 2016, there have been 117 land conflicts involving FRA, impacting 611,557 people.
• Key issues include non- implementation of FRA provisions (88.1%), lack of legal protection over land rights (49.15%), and forced evictions (40.68%).
• The issue stems from the lack of clarity regarding whether due process was followed in rejecting claims, particularly in tribal areas with high Left-Wing Extremism.
• Many affected people are poor, illiterate, and unaware of the correct procedure, with gram sabhas being inadequately informed.

Way Ahead

• The Forest Rights Act is a crucial law designed to empower indigenous communities by recognizing their legal rights to forest land and resources.
• It ensures their participation in sustainable forest management, but effective implementation and addressing challenges are essential for its success.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (Ind-Aus ECTA) marked  its third anniversary.

Ind-Aus ECTA

• The agreement signed in April , 2022, has strengthened economic ties between India and Australia, fostering new trade pathways and business opportunities
• Total bilateral trade reached USD 24 billion in 2023-24, with a 14% increase in India’s exports to Australia compared to 2022-23.
• India’s exports to Australia grew by 4.4% from April 2024 to February 2025 compared to the same period in the previous fiscal year.
• Sectors benefiting from ECTA include textiles, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, agriculture, electronics, and engineering.
• New export lines, such as Calcined Petroleum Coke, High-Capacity Diesel Generating Sets, and Air Liquefaction Machinery, show expanding trade opportunities.
• Imports from Australia include key raw materials like metalliferous ores, cotton, and wood products, supporting the growth of Indian industries.

Diplomatic Relations

• Diplomatic relations between Australia and India date back to 1941, with the Consulate-General of India opening in Sydney.
• Both countries hold annual leader-level summits and frequent multilateral forum interactions (e.g., Quad, G20, East Asia Summit).
• The 2+2 format (Foreign & Defence Ministers) meetings occur every two years to discuss strategic issues.
• Foreign Ministers’ Framework Dialogue meets annually.

People-to-People Links

• Nearly 1 million Australians have Indian heritage, forming the second-largest overseas-born group.
• India is Australia’s largest source of skilled migrants and second-largest source of international students.
• Cultural and Community Initiatives like the Australia India Leadership Dialogue and Youth Dialogue strengthen bilateral ties.

Renewable Energy & Resources

• Renewable Energy Partnership was launched November 2024 and focuses on solar, green hydrogen, and energy storage.
• Both countries are developing new supply chains for green steel and minerals to support India’s clean energy goals.

Defence Engagement

• It was enhanced post-2020 with Mutual Logistics Support Agreement and joint military exercises.
• Australia hosted Exercise Malabar, Indian Navy visited Australia’s Cocos Islands in 2023.

Future Outlook

• Australia and India are committed to deepening cooperation for mutual prosperity and a stable Indo-Pacific region.
• The partnership is expected to continue growing, driving mutual prosperity and contributing to a stronger global economy.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Waqf (Amendment) Bill 2025, now renamed as the Unified Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency, and Development (UMEED) Bill, has been passed in the Lok Sabha.

• Mussalman Wakf (Repeal) Bill 2024 also approved, repealing the Mussalman Wakf Act, 1923.

Background

• Two Bills Introduced in 2024:
  • Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2024.
  • Mussalman Wakf (Repeal) Bill, 2024.
• Objective of Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025:
  • Amend the Waqf Act, 1995 to address challenges in managing Waqf properties.
  • Improve administration and efficiency of Waqf boards.
• Objective of Mussalman Wakf (Repeal) Bill, 2024:
  • Repeal the Mussalman Wakf Act, 1923, an outdated colonial-era law.
  • Ensure uniformity, transparency, and accountability in Waqf property management under the Waqf Act, 1995.
  • Eliminate inconsistencies and ambiguities created by the continued existence of the old law.

Meaning of ‘Waqf’:

• Refers to properties dedicated solely for religious or charitable purposes under Islamic law.
• Sale or other use of the property is prohibited.
• The ownership of the property is transferred from the person making the Waqf (called waqif) to Allah, making it irrevocable.
• The creator is a wakif, and the property is managed by a mutawalli.

Origin of the Concept of ‘Waqf’:

• Traces back to the Delhi Sultanate when Sultan Muizuddin Sam Ghaor dedicated villages to the Jama Masjid of Multan.
• Waqf properties grew with the rise of Islamic dynasties in India.
• The Mussalman Waqf Validating Act of 1913 protected the institution of Waqf in India.

Constitutional Framework and Governance:

• Charitable and religious institutions are under the Concurrent List of the Constitution, allowing both Parliament and State Legislatures to frame laws on it.
• Waqf Governance: Currently governed by the Waqf Act, 1995, replacing earlier laws from 1913, 1923, and 1954.
• Creation of Waqf: Can be created via:
  • Declaration (oral or written deed).
  • Long-term use of land for religious or charitable purposes.
  • Endowment upon the end of a line of succession.
• States with the highest share of Waqf properties: Uttar Pradesh (27%), West Bengal (9%), Punjab (9%).
• Evolution of Waqf Laws:
  • 1913 Act: Validated Waqf deeds.
  • 1923 Act: Made registration of Waqf properties mandatory.
  • 1954: Established Central Waqf Council and State Waqf Boards for better management.
  • 1995 Act: Introduced Tribunals for dispute resolution and added elected members and Islamic scholars to Waqf Boards.

Key Amendments

• Composition of the Central Waqf Council: The Union Minister in-charge of waqf is the ex-officio chairperson.
• Council members include:
  • Members of Parliament (MPs).
  • Persons of national eminence.
  • Retired Supreme Court/High Court judges.
  • Eminent scholars in Muslim law.
  • The Bill removes the Muslim requirement for MPs, former judges, and eminent persons.
  • The Bill mandates two non-Muslim members in the Council.
• Composition of Waqf Boards:
  • Empowers state governments to nominate one person from each group.
  • Non-Muslim members required: two.
  • Must include at least one member each from Shias, Sunnis, and Backward Muslim classes.
  • Requires two Muslim women members.
• Composition of Tribunals:
  • Removes the expert in Muslim law.
  • District Court judge (Chairman).
  • Joint Secretary rank officer.
• Appeals Against Tribunal Orders:
  • Act: Decisions of Tribunals are final, with no appeals allowed in courts.
  • Bill: Allows appeals against Tribunal decisions to the High Court within 90 days.
  • Survey of Properties: The Bill replaces the Survey Commissioner with the District Collector or other senior officers to oversee the survey of Waqf properties.
  • Government property as waqf: The Bill states that any government property identified as waqf will cease to be so.
  • The Collector of the area will determine ownership in case of uncertainty, if deemed a government property, he will update the revenue records.
• Audits: Waqf institutions earning over ₹1 lakh will undergo audits by state-sponsored auditors.
• Centralized Portal: A centralized portal will be created for automating Waqf property management, enhancing efficiency and transparency.
• Property Dedication: Practicing Muslims (for at least five years) can dedicate property to the Waqf, restoring pre-2013 rules.
• Women’s Inheritance: Women must receive inheritance before the Waqf declaration, with special provisions for widows, divorced women, and orphans.

Need for the bill

• The new Bill mandates a unified digital listing of Waqf properties to reduce litigation and ensure transparency.
• The bill ensures gender justice by mandating women’s inclusion in Waqf Boards.

Concerns

• Non-Muslim Members in Waqf Boards: The Bill mandates the inclusion of non-Muslim members in State Waqf Boards and the Central Waqf Council.
  • This could lead to these bodies being majorly composed of non-Muslims, whereas similar boards for Hindu and Sikh endowments primarily consist of members from those religions.
• Impact on Waqf Tribunals: Removal of experts in Muslim law from Waqf Tribunals may affect the redressal of waqf-related disputes.
• Creation of Waqf: The Bill limits the creation of Waqf to people who have been practicing Islam for at least five years.
  • The rationale behind this five-year criterion is unclear and creates a distinction between those who practice Islam for less than five years and those who have done so for more than five years.

Conclusion

• The Bill marks a significant step towards reforming the management of Waqf properties in India.
• The proposed reforms not only ensure better governance and accountability but also foster a more inclusive approach, benefiting all communities involved.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: As India prepares for the 6th Summit of Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), its role in fostering connectivity and addressing shared challenges in the Bay of Bengal region is under scrutiny.

About the BIMSTEC

• It is a regional organization that fosters economic and technical collaboration among countries in the Bay of Bengal region.
• The Bangkok Declaration (1997) formally laid the foundation for the organization, as BIST-EC(Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand Economic Cooperation).
  • Myanmar joined later that year, transforming it into BIMST-EC, and Nepal and Bhutan became members in 2004, finalizing the present-day BIMSTEC.
• Since then, BIMSTEC has expanded its focus to include connectivity, counterterrorism, technology, trade, security, and people-to-people ties.

Earlier BIMSTEC Summits

• 1st BIMSTEC Summit, 2004 (Bangkok, Thailand): Strengthening economic cooperation among member countries.
  • Adoption of the Bangkok Declaration, formalizing BIMSTEC as a regional group.
• 2nd BIMSTEC Summit, 2008 (New Delhi, India): Energy, transport, and trade connectivity.
  • Agreement to establish the BIMSTEC Free Trade Area (FTA).
  • India proposed a regional energy grid for better power-sharing.
• 3rd BIMSTEC Summit, 2014 (Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar): Strengthening security and regional connectivity.
  • Endorsement of the BIMSTEC Convention on Counter-Terrorism.
  • Formation of an expert group on energy cooperation.
• 4th BIMSTEC Summit, 2018 (Kathmandu, Nepal): Strengthening institutional mechanisms and transport linkages.
  • Adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter (to institutionalize the organization).
  • Proposal for a BIMSTEC Development Fund.
• 5th BIMSTEC Summit, 2022 (Colombo, Sri Lanka): Post-pandemic economic recovery and security cooperation.
  • Adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter (formalizing the structure of BIMSTEC).
  • Establishment of 7 key sectors of cooperation like:
  • Trade and Investment (Bangladesh): Strengthening economic integration and trade facilitation.
  • Transport & Communication (India): Improving regional connectivity via highways, railways, and shipping.
  • Energy Cooperation (Myanmar): Enhancing energy security, cross-border power trade, and renewable energy projects.
  • Counterterrorism & Security; Climate Change & Disaster Management (India): Coordinating efforts against terrorism, human trafficking, and cyber threats; Addressing environmental challenges and disaster resilience.
  • Technology & Innovation (Sri Lanka): Promoting research and innovation.
  • Public Health (Thailand): Enhancing healthcare cooperation and pandemic preparedness.

Significance of BIMSTEC

• Boost Trade and Investment: Facilitate intra-regional trade and economic collaboration.
• Enhance Connectivity: Develop infrastructure, transport, and digital connectivity.
• Strengthen Regional Security: Cooperate on counterterrorism, cyber-security, and transnational crime.
• Sustainable Development: Address climate change, disaster management, and sustainable energy.
• People-to-People Exchanges: Promote cultural ties, tourism, and educational collaboration.

Importance of BIMSTEC for India

• Strategic Connectivity: Enhances Northeast India’s linkages with Southeast Asia.
  • ‘Act East’ Policy: India plays a leading role in BIMSTEC as the largest economy in the bloc. BIMSTEC aligns with India’s ‘Act East’ policy, strengthening ties with Southeast Asian nations.
  • India is actively involved in BIMSTEC-led projects such as the BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal) Motor Vehicle Agreement, trilateral highways, and port connectivity programs.
• Economic Growth: Expands markets for Indian businesses.
• Energy Security: Facilitates regional power trade and renewable energy projects.
• Geopolitical Influence: Strengthens India’s presence in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Alternative to SAARC: Overcomes challenges posed by Pakistan in South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) by focusing on like-minded nations.

Major Initiatives

• BIMSTEC Free Trade Agreement (FTA): The long-pending BIMSTEC FTA aims to boost intra-regional trade.
  • Negotiations focus on tariff reduction, trade facilitation, and investment flows.
• BIMSTEC Transport Connectivity Master Plan: India has proposed multi-modal transport networks linking ports, roads, railways, and air routes.
  • The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (India-Myanmar) and the Trilateral Highway (India-Myanmar-Thailand) are part of this initiative.
• BIMSTEC Energy Grid: Plans for a regional electricity grid to facilitate cross-border energy trade.
  • India and Myanmar are leading efforts in renewable energy and power sharing.
• BIMSTEC Security Cooperation: The BIMSTEC Convention on Counter-Terrorism and Transnational Crime aims to strengthen security collaboration.
  • India and Thailand are leading cybersecurity and maritime security initiatives.
• BIMSTEC Disaster Management Mechanism: Regional response frameworks for natural disasters, climate change adaptation, and humanitarian assistance.

Challenges Facing BIMSTEC

• Slow Progress on Agreements: The FTA and key connectivity projects have seen delays.
• Institutional Weaknesses: BIMSTEC lacks a permanent secretariat with sufficient funding and staffing.
• Unequal Member Commitments: Some member nations prioritize ASEAN or SAARC over BIMSTEC.
• China’s Growing Influence: Chinese investments in Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Thailand pose strategic challenges for India.
• Geopolitical Issues: Border tensions (e.g., India-Myanmar) and internal instability (Myanmar’s political crisis) affect cooperation.

Way Forward

• Accelerating FTA negotiations to enhance regional trade.
• Boosting connectivity projects for better economic integration.
• Institutional Strengthening – Establishing a fully operational BIMSTEC Secretariat.
• Enhancing security cooperation on terrorism, cyber threats, and transnational crimes.
• Increasing investment in infrastructure and digital trade.
• India, as the regional leader, must prioritize BIMSTEC in its foreign policy by investing in capacity-building, trade facilitation, and technological collaboration.

Conclusion

• BIMSTEC holds immense potential as a regional economic and strategic bloc, bridging South Asia and Southeast Asia.
• With India’s leadership and enhanced cooperation among members, BIMSTEC can emerge as a key driver of regional growth, connectivity, and security.
• However, it requires stronger political will, infrastructure development, and institutional reforms to achieve its full potential.
• If implemented effectively, BIMSTEC could redefine regional diplomacy and economic partnerships in the Bay of Bengal region.

General Studies Paper-3

• India’s air pollution crisis is a persistent issue causing severe health problems, with cities regularly topping global pollution rankings.

World Air Quality Report 2024

• Thirteen of the world’s top 20 most polluted cities are in India, with Byrnihat on the Assam-Meghalaya border being the most polluted.
• India is the fifth most polluted country in the world, with an average Air Quality Index (AQI) of 50.6 μg/m3 – 10 times higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) annual PM2.5 guideline value of 5 μg/m3.
• Delhi continues to be the most polluted Capital city in the world with an average PM 2.5 concentration of 91.8 μg/m3.

Air Pollution

• When harmful substances (pollutants) – particles, gases, or matter – are released into the air and reduce its quality, the air is polluted.
• Common air pollutants include: Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Lead etc.
• Source: These pollutants can originate from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and wildfires, but human activities such as industrial production, transportation, agriculture, and residential heating are significant contributors to air pollution.
• Concerns:
• Health Related: Respiratory issues, cardiovascular problems, reduced lung function.
• Environmental: Ecosystem damage, Biodiversity loss, Water pollution, climate change, crop damage.
• Healthcare Costs: The health impacts of air pollution result in increased healthcare costs, including expenses related to the treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

Reasons for High Level of Air Pollution in India

• Vehicular Emissions: High number of old, inefficient vehicles and dependence on diesel and petrol contribute to air pollution.
• Industrial Emissions: Large-scale industries, especially coal-based power plants, contribute significantly to air pollution.
• Burning of Biomass: Widespread use of crop residue burning and solid fuels like wood and cow dung for cooking in rural areas.
• Construction Dust: Rapid urbanization leads to construction activities, generating significant amounts of dust and particulate matter.
• Waste Burning: Open burning of garbage and waste is common, especially in urban and semi-urban areas, releasing harmful pollutants.
• Population Density: Overcrowded cities with high vehicular traffic and industrial activity increase pollution levels.
• Climate and Geography: Seasonal weather patterns, especially during winters, cause pollutants to remain trapped in the air, exacerbating smog and haze.
• Deforestation: Loss of green cover reduces the natural filtration of air, leading to higher pollution levels.

Government Initiatives

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP is a comprehensive initiative with the goal of reducing air pollution in identified cities and regions across India.
  • The program focuses on improving air quality monitoring, implementing stricter emission standards, and promoting public awareness.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards: The government implemented BS-VI emission standards for vehicles nationwide in 2020.
  • These standards aim to reduce vehicular emissions by mandating the use of cleaner fuel and more advanced emission control technologies.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): The PMUY scheme aims to provide clean cooking fuel to households by promoting the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as an alternative to traditional biomass-based cooking methods.
• FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme: The FAME scheme promotes the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce air pollution caused by vehicular emissions.
  • Incentives are provided to both manufacturers and consumers to encourage the use of electric vehicles.
• Green Initiatives for Sustainable Habitat (GRIHA): GRIHA is an initiative to promote sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in the construction and operation of buildings.
  • It encourages the use of energy-efficient technologies and materials to reduce pollution.
• Waste Management Programs: It is crucial to prevent the burning of waste, which contributes to air pollution.
  • Various waste management initiatives, including the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, aim to address solid waste issues and promote cleaner disposal methods.
• Commission for Air Quality Management: The Commission has been set up for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas for better coordination, research, identification, and resolution of problems surrounding the air quality index.
• Afforestation Programs: Initiatives like the Green India Mission aim to increase tree cover, which can help absorb pollutants and improve air quality.

Way Ahead

• National Targets: India aims to reduce PM2.5 levels by 40% by 2026, but more detailed local data is needed for effective action, such as vehicle types, fuel used, and traffic patterns.
  • The current data gap affects fund utilization and makes air pollution a secondary concern for municipalities.
• Avoiding the “Western Trap”: Over-reliance on high-tech solutions and urban-centric tools could divert attention from basic pollution sources like biomass burning, old industrial processes, and polluting vehicles.
  • India’s strategy must remain rooted in on-ground realities rather than imported models.
• Focus on Implementation: Separate funding streams for research and immediate interventions are needed. The emphasis should be on short-term, scalable solutions.
• Global Guidance: Countries like China, Brazil, California, and London offer lessons on contextual, tailored approaches.
  • India should innovate based on its own unique needs, focusing on federalism and informal economies.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The US Department of Energy (DoE) has granted final approval for a US company to design and build nuclear power plants in India.

About

• The India-US civil nuclear agreement was signed in 2007 but took 20 years of negotiations, legal clearances, and regulatory approvals to reach this stage.
• India had insisted on local design and manufacturing of nuclear plants, which the US has now agreed to.
• Amendments to the Atomic Energy Act 1962 also have to be initiated to enable private companies to enter nuclear generation as operators, which is currently restricted to only state-owned companies.

Highlights of the Deal

• Regulatory Approval: The DoE approved Holtec International’s proposal as an American Company, allowing it to transfer SMR technology to three Indian firms: Larsen & Toubro, Tata Consulting Engineers, and Holtec Asia.
• SMR Technology: US and Indian firms will jointly manufacture Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and co-produce all parts.
• US Condition: The US has placed a condition that the jointly-designed nuclear plants cannot be transferred to other entities or countries without prior written consent.

Significance

• Diplomatic Achievement: The deal strengthens US-India relations and gives India access to advanced PWR (Pressurized Water Reactor) technology, previously limited to government corporations.
• China Competition: The agreement comes as China expands its Small Modular Reactor (SMR) plans, with India and China competing for leadership in the Global South with affordable nuclear technology.
• Private Sector: The deal is also being seen as a major win for India’s private sector, which will gain specialisation and expertise in designing and manufacturing nuclear power plants.

Need for Private Players in Nuclear Sector

• Nuclear Capacity: India’s plans to increase its nuclear power capacity from the current 8,180 MW to 22,480 MW by 2031-32 and eventually 100 GW by 2047.
• Energy Demand Growth: India’s electricity demand is expected to increase 4-5 times by 2047, and nuclear power will help meet base-load demand alongside renewables.
• India’s Targets: To reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by 44% by 2030 from the 2005 level.
  • To achieve 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
• Roadmap for 100 GW: A roadmap is being developed with stakeholders, and while challenges remain, achieving the 100 GW target is seen as both ambitious and achievable

Governance

• Recently, Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) has invited requests for proposals (RFPs) from private players to set up Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs).
• NPCIL: India’s nuclear sector is governed by the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, under which only government-owned entities such as NPCIL can generate and supply nuclear energy.
• There has been no private sector involvement in India’s nuclear power sector so far.

Arguments in Favour of Private Sector Participation in Nuclear Power

• Improved Efficiency and Innovation: Private companies bring technological advancements, operational efficiency, and innovation, reducing costs and improving safety standards.
• Increased Investment: Private players attract more capital, helping to address the financial challenges of large nuclear projects.
• Faster Project Execution: Driven by competition and profit incentives, they can complete nuclear projects faster and more effectively compared to government processes.
• Expertise and Global Standards: Private companies will bring global best practices, cutting-edge technology, and expertise to the nuclear industry, improving overall standards.
• Job Creation: It will lead to increased employment opportunities in the nuclear sector, from construction to operations.

Arguments Against

• Safety and Security Risks: Private players prioritize cost-cutting over rigorous safety measures, potentially risking catastrophic accidents.
• Lack of Transparency: They may not be as transparent as public institutions, leading to a lack of accountability in the management of sensitive nuclear technologies.
• National Security Concerns: Involving private entities in nuclear power generation raises concerns about the potential for foreign ownership, control, or influence over critical national infrastructure.
• Limited Regulatory Control: Ensuring strict regulatory oversight of private companies might be challenging, potentially leading to lapses in compliance with safety, environmental, and operational standards.
• Profit Motive Over Public Welfare: Private companies prioritize profitability over public welfare, potentially compromising on environmental protections, worker safety, and the long-term sustainability of nuclear energy.

Way Ahead

• Clear Regulatory Framework: Establish a robust regulatory environment to ensure safety, compliance, and transparency, addressing concerns about accountability and national security.
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Promote partnerships where the government maintains oversight, while private players handle operations, innovation, and investment, ensuring a balance of interests.
• Gradual Implementation: Start with pilot projects and small-scale initiatives to test private sector involvement, ensuring risk management before large-scale implementation.

General Studies Paper -2

Context

• The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 has been hailed as a transformative framework for India’s education system. However, translating policy into practice presents unique challenges and opportunities.

Key Features of NEP 2020 in the Classroom

• Foundational Learning and Early Childhood Education: NEP 2020 places significant emphasis on foundational literacy and numeracy through the National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat).
• Multidisciplinary and Holistic Learning: The rigid separation between academic streams (Science, Commerce, and Arts) has been removed.
  • Students can now choose multidisciplinary subjects, such as mathematics with music or history with physics.
  • Schools and colleges are adopting a Choice-Based Credit System (CBCS) to allow more flexibility in subject selection.
• Shift to Competency-Based Learning: Traditional rote learning is being replaced bycompetency-based education (CBE), where the focus is on conceptual understanding, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
  • The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2023, developed under NEP 2020, is guiding these changes, ensuring that classroom learning is more application-oriented rather than memorization-based.
• Integration of Technology in Learning: Digital platforms such as DIKSHA, SWAYAM, and PM e-Vidya are being widely used for online resources, teacher training, and interactive learning experiences.
  • Schools are incorporating virtual labs, AI-powered assessment tools, and hybrid learning models, enhancing engagement and accessibility.
• Mother Tongue as the Medium of Instruction up to Class 5: It is aimed at improving comprehension and cognitive development.
  • Reformed Assessment System: Schools are adopting continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE) and AI-based adaptive testing to assess students’ progress in real time.
  • The introduction of PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) is ensuring a more competency-based assessment structure.
  • Vocational Education from an Early Stage: NEP 2020 mandates the integration of vocational education from Grade 6 onwards, enabling students to learn skills like coding, carpentry, agriculture, and entrepreneurship. Internships and apprenticeships are being incorporated into school curricula, helping students develop practical skills for the job market.
• Teacher Training and Professional Development: Initiatives such as the National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST) and Integrated Teacher Education Programme (ITEP) are being introduced to enhance teaching quality.
  • Online training modules on DIKSHA and regular upskilling programs are helping teachers adopt experiential and activity-based learning approaches in classrooms.

Challenges in Implementation

• Infrastructure Gaps: Many rural schools lack digital infrastructure for technology-driven education.
  • Other challenges such as availability of textbooks and trained teachers in regional languages are still being addressed.
• Teacher Readiness: Not all teachers are equipped to handle competency-based education and multidisciplinary learning.
• Regional Language Implementation: Availability of textbooks and trained teachers in multiple languages remains a concern.
• Assessment Transition: Moving from marks-based exams to competency-based assessments requires systemic change.

Road Ahead

• NEP 2020 is gradually transforming classrooms across India. Schools and colleges are focusing on student-centric learning, flexibility in education, and skill development.
• With continued policy support, digital interventions, and teacher empowerment, the vision of NEP 2020 is becoming a reality.
• As education shifts from rote learning to experiential understanding, the future of Indian education looks promising, fostering critical thinkers, problem solvers, and global citizens.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Recently, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has unveiled its annual publication, ‘Energy Statistics India 2025’, through the National Statistics Office (NSO).

India’s Energy Scenario in 2025

• Total Energy Supply and Demand:
  • Supply: Approximately 1,800 Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent (MToE), reflecting an annual increase of 4.5% compared to 2024.
  • Demand: It is driven primarily by industrial growth (40%), transportation (25%), and residential consumption (20%).
• Energy Mix (Sources and Shares):
  • Coal: 48%
  • Oil: 28%
  • Natural Gas: 8%
  • Renewables (Solar, Wind, Hydro, Biomass): 12%
  • Nuclear: 4%
• Fossil Fuel Reserves and Production (Total coal reserves: 320 billion tonnes):
  • Coal Reserves and Production: The distribution of coal reserves in India is concentrated in a few states like Odisha (25.47%), Jharkhand (23.58%), Chhattisgarh (21.23%), West Bengal (8.72%) and Madhya Pradesh (8.43%).
  • These states account for approximately 85% of the total coal reserves in India.
  • Total estimated reserves of lignite as on 01-04-2024 stood at 47.30 billion tonnes. The highest reserves of lignite are located in the state of Tamil Nadu (79%).
  • Annual coal production: 950 million tonnes, meeting 85% of domestic demand.
  • India remains the second-largest coal producer globally, after China.
  • Crude Oil: Geographically, the maximum crude oil reserves in India are concentrated in the Western Offshore region (32% of the total crude oil reserves). It is followed by the Assam region (22% of the country’s crude oil reserves).
  • Natural Gas Reserves: Largest reserves of natural gas in India are located in the Western Offshore region (approximately 31% of the total natural gas reserves). It is followed by the Eastern Offshore (approx 24% of the reserves).

Renewable Energy Growth

• Potentials: Wind Power dominates share (around 55%), followed by Solar Energy and Large Hydro.
  • Geographical Distribution of Renewable Energy Potential: More than half of the potential for generation of renewable energy has been concentrated within the four States of India viz. Rajasthan (20.3%), Maharashtra (11.8%), Gujarat (10.5%) and Karnataka (9.8%).
• Solar and Wind Power Expansion: The National Solar Mission and Wind Energy Development Programme have played a crucial role in achieving these milestones:
  • Solar Power Capacity: 175 GW (up from 150 GW in 2024)
  • Wind Power Capacity: 50 GW (up from 45 GW in 2024)
• Hydro and Biomass Energy:
  • Hydropower: 52 GW, providing 12% of total electricity generation.
  • Biomass and Waste-to-Energy: 15 GW, contributing to sustainable energy practices in rural areas.
• Electricity Generation and Consumption Trends:
  • Installed Capacity and Generation: India’s total installed power generation capacity stands at 450 GW, an increase from 420 GW in 2024.
  • Total electricity generation: 1,700 TWh (terawatt-hours).
  • Per capita electricity consumption: 1,500 kWh per year, reflecting economic growth and urbanization.
• Distribution and Transmission:
  • Transmission losses have reduced to around 17% during FY 2023-24 (23% during FY 2014-15) due to Smart Grid Initiatives.

Energy Efficiency and Sustainability Measures

• Government Policies and Initiatives:
  • National Hydrogen Mission: Promoting Green Hydrogen production for industrial use.
  • Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) Scheme: Encouraging industries to adopt energy-efficient technologies.
  • Faster Adoption of Electric Vehicles (FAME-III): Boosting EV sales and charging infrastructure.
• Carbon Emissions and Climate Targets:
  • India’s carbon emissions in 2025 are projected at 2.9 billion tonnes CO₂, a 4% decline due to increased renewable energy usage.
  • Commitment to net-zero emissions by 2070 remains a long-term goal.

Future Outlook

• Future Energy Projections (2026-2030):
  • Renewable energy share is expected to reach 25% by 2030.
  • Energy demand will continue growing at 5% annually, driven by economic expansion.

Challenges Ahead

• Dependence on Fossil Fuels: India still relies heavily on coal and imported crude oil.
• Energy Security Risks: Geopolitical uncertainties affect oil and gas imports.
• Infrastructure Bottlenecks: Need for grid modernization and storage solutions for renewables.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Arctic has become a geopolitical hotspot due to climate change, resource competition, and strategic rivalries among major powers.

About Arctic Region

• It is one of the most fragile and crucial ecosystems on Earth, covering the northernmost parts of the planet.
• It includes the Arctic Ocean, parts of Canada, Russia, Greenland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and the United States (Alaska).
• The Arctic is warming at nearly four times the global average, causing environmental and economic shifts that influence policies and territorial claims.

Key Factors Driving Geopolitical Tensions in Arctic Region

• Natural Resources: According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the region holds about 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of its natural gas.
  • With ice caps retreating, these resources are becoming increasingly accessible, fueling competition among nations seeking to exploit them.
• New Navigational Routes: These include routes such as the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and the Northwest Passage are becoming viable alternatives to the Suez and Panama Canals.
  • The Northeast Passage along Russia’s Arctic coast could shorten trade routes between Asia and Europe by 8,000 km, reducing costs significantly.
  • Northwest Passage, a potential shipping route through Canada’s Arctic archipelago, remains a flashpoint.
  • Canada asserts it as internal waters, while the US insists it is an international strait with freedom of navigation.

Key Concerns/Challenges

• Russia’s Expansion in the Arctic: Russia, which controls nearly half of the Arctic coastline, has been actively increasing its military presence in the region.
  • It has reopened Soviet-era military bases, deployed nuclear-powered icebreakers, and modernized its Arctic military infrastructure.
  • Russia conducted regular military drills, signaling its determination to assert control over Arctic waters.
• NATO’s Response and Western Concerns: In response to Russia, the United States and NATO have ramped up their presence in the region.
  • Finland and Sweden’s decision to join NATO is partly due to concerns over Russian aggression, particularly after its invasion of Ukraine.
  • The US has increased Arctic military exercises, deployed submarines, and strengthened ties with Norway and Canada to counter Russian influence.
  • The United Kingdom, for instance, has repeatedly emphasised the strategic importance of the Greenland-Iceland-U.K. (GIUK) gap, a critical choke point for NATO’s naval defences.
• China’s Growing Arctic Ambitions: China, despite being a non-Arctic nation, has declared itself a ‘near-Arctic state’ and is investing heavily in Arctic infrastructure.
  • It has proposed a ‘Polar Silk Road’ as part of its Belt and Road Initiative, aiming to establish economic and scientific footholds in the region.
• Legal Disputes and Territorial Claims: Several Arctic nations have competing territorial claims in the region, particularly over the continental shelf.

Geopolitical Implications

• • UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): Nations can extend their claims to the seabed beyond the 200-nautical-mile EEZ if they can prove that the area is a natural prolongation of their continental shelf.
  • Russia, Canada, and Denmark (via Greenland) have all submitted claims to extend their seabed sovereignty under the UNCLOS.
  • The US, which has not ratified UNCLOS, faces limitations in asserting its claims. Meanwhile, Russia has used legal maneuvers and strategic military positioning to reinforce its claims, challenging Western interests.
• Arctic Council: It is composed of eight nations (U.S., Canada, Russia, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland), and aims to promote environmental protection and scientific cooperation.
  • It was formally established in 1996 through the Ottawa Declaration.
  • India is an Observer in the Arctic Council.

India’s Role in Arctic Research

• India, despite being a non-Arctic nation, plays an active role in Arctic research.
• National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR): India conducts scientific studies on climate patterns, marine biodiversity, and glacial dynamics.
• India’s Arctic Policy, titled ‘India and the Arctic’ by the Ministry of Earth Science for building a partnership for sustainable development.
• India established Himadri (in 2008), its research station in Svalbard, Norway, to study Arctic climate systems and their global impact.