General Studies Paper-2

Context: India is witnessing rapid adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) across sectors like healthcare, education, agriculture, and governance. AI is expected to contribute up to $15.7 trillion to the global economy by 2030.

• However, the absence of a formal national strategy or legal framework raises serious concerns regarding ethical deployment, accountability, and inclusive growth.

Global Trends in AI Governance

• In the past year, countries have shifted their focus on AI governance, from mainly protecting human rights and safety to also promoting innovation and boosting the economy.
• Legislative Frameworks: Countries like the European Union (EU), China, Canada, South Korea, Peru, and the United States have introduced formal laws to regulate AI.
• Draft Legislations: Nations such as the United Kingdom, Japan, Brazil, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Pakistan have proposed AI bills awaiting approval.
• Strategic Documents: Over 85 countries and the African Union have released national AI strategy documents outlining policy goals, ethical principles, budget allocations, and sectoral priorities.

Need For Regulating AI

• Preventing Misinformation: Public opinion can be manipulated by deepfakes and disinformation created by Artificial Intelligence.
• Protecting Privacy: Mass surveillance technologies without regulation will undermine civil liberties.
• Preventing Algorithmic Bias: Artificial Intelligence can also reproduce discriminatory attitudes towards marginalized groups.
• Preventing Job & Labour Displacement: Job automation is threatening jobs in traditional industries.
• Preventing Concentration of Power: A handful of companies with AI pose monopolistic risk and social imbalance.
• Protecting from Existential Risk: Advanced Artificial Intelligence might become superior to human control if left uncontrolled.
• Ethical Concerns: Unethical and improper use of AI systems could impede the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – 2030, weakening ongoing efforts across social, environmental, and economic dimensions.

India’s Current Approach

• Lack of Formal Strategy: India currently does not have an officially approved national AI strategy or dedicated legislation. The only strategic document available is a 2018 discussion paper released by NITI Aayog which was not officially adopted.
• The IT Act (2000) and Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 offer indirect governance of AI systems, primarily through data protection.
• IndiaAI Mission: In the absence of a formal law, the government has launched the IndiaAI Mission through the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). The mission is built upon seven pillars aimed at fostering a responsible and innovation-driven AI ecosystem.
• Expert Advisory Group: An advisory group has been established to develop recommendations for AI governance. However, the timeline and certainty of formal adoption remain unclear.

Key Initiatives and Strategies

• National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (NSAI): It was released by NITI Aayog in 2018 to guide the responsible development of AI across key sectors like healthcare, agriculture, education, smart mobility, and smart cities.
• However, it is non-binding and not followed up with enforceable regulations.
• AI Task Force (2018): It is set-up by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry to suggest frameworks to leverage AI in India’s economic transformation.
• However, recommendations acknowledged but not formally codified.
• Responsible AI for Social Empowerment (RAISE 2020): It was organized by MeitY and NITI Aayog, that focused on AI governance, Ethics and inclusivity, Public-private partnerships etc.
• Parliamentary Standing Committee on IT (2021 & 2023 Reports): These reports recommended a dedicated AI regulatory framework, and establishment of an AI regulatory authority.

Way Forward

• Draft a National AI Policy: A policy document should outline India’s vision for AI, identify priority sectors (e.g., health, education, agriculture), lay down ethical principles, and specify institutional responsibilities.
• Encourage Public Consultation and Awareness: Structured dialogues with academia, industry, and civil society are essential to enhance transparency and ensure accountability in AI deployment.
• Pilot Regulatory Mechanisms: India should implement pilot-level regulatory tools—such as algorithmic audits or risk classification systems—before enacting a full-fledged AI law.
• Invest in Institutional Capacity: This includes support for AI research labs, open datasets, skill development initiatives, independent ethics committees, and sectoral oversight bodies.

Conclusion

• India’s approach to AI regulation prioritizes development and adoption over strict legal frameworks. While this allows flexibility, it also leaves gaps in transparency, accountability, and ethical AI deployment.
• As AI adoption accelerates, India must consider a structured governance model to ensure responsible and inclusive AI growth.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to an analysis by ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (ICAR-NIAP), India’s aggregate food demand is projected to exceed twice the current demand by 2047.

Major Findings

• Increase in Population: By the 100th year of its independence in 2047, India aims to attain the status of a developed nation.
• By this time, of the projected 1.6 billion population, approximately half may reside in urban areas.
• Increase in Demand: By 2047, India’s demand for nutrient-rich foods, including horticultural and animal products, is expected to increase three to four times.
• Land Shrinking: Agricultural land needed to meet this increased food demand is expected to shrink to 176 million hectares (mha) from the current 180 mha.
• The cropping intensity is likely to increase to 170% from the current 156%.
• Structural Changes in Agriculture: By 2047, Agriculture’s contribution to the national income may decrease to 8% from the current 18%.
• The average landholding size is expected to decrease significantly to 0.6 hectares from approximately one hectare now.
• Farmers would increasingly diversify their production portfolios towards less land-intensive activities such as animal husbandry and fisheries.
• Projections indicate an increase in the contribution of livestock to the gross value of agricultural output to 39% from the current 31%, and of fisheries to 10% from 7%.
• Impact of climate change on agriculture: Over the past five decades, extreme climate events such as droughts, heat waves, and floods have reduced India’s agricultural productivity growth by approximately 25%.
• India’ water use efficiency is also low at 35-40%, which is roughly one-third to one-half of the efficiency levels observed in China, Brazil, and the United States.
• Agriculture is a major consumer of water (83 per cent), and by 2047, its demand will be approximately 18 per cent higher than its current use.

Policy Recommendations

• Efficient Management of Water Resources: Rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge are essential for sustainable water resource management.
• Water use efficiency currently stands at 35–40%; a 10% improvement could irrigate an additional 14 million hectares.
• Power Sector Reforms: Phasing out universal electricity subsidies and targeting only needy farmers can help curb the overuse of electricity and groundwater.
• Fertilizer Sector Reforms: Current subsidy system favors nitrogenous fertilizers, disrupting NPK balance.
• Linking subsidies to Soil Health Cards can optimize fertilizer use and restore soil health.
• Emerging tech like nano-fertilizers and drone-based precision fertilization can enhance efficiency and reduce environmental harm.
• Climate Change Mitigation: Single risk mitigation strategies are inadequate; integrated climate-smart practices are more effective (resilient varieties, efficient irrigation, etc.).
• Digital tools (remote sensing, drones) can improve risk assessment and enable region-specific insurance.
• Investment in Agricultural R&D: India spends only 0.43% of AgGDP on R&D (vs. global average of 0.93%); private sector share is low (7%).
• Need sustained public investment and private/philanthropic partnerships.
• Crop Planning and Diversification: Must align cropping with resource endowments and climate, but profitability is key for farmer adoption.
• High-value crops (fruits, vegetables) require strong market infrastructure, cold storage, and financial support.
• De-stress Agriculture Employment: Agriculture faces excessive labor pressure due to slow rural industrialization.
• Promote agri-startups and MSMEs to create jobs and add value to farm produce.
• Strengthening Market Infrastructure & Value Chains: Market infrastructure has not matched growing commercialization in agriculture.
• Strengthen FPOs, cooperatives, and contract farming to improve market access and reduce risks.

Conclusion

• The challenges facing the agri-food system are multifaceted and interconnected, and their management requires a comprehensive approach encompassing technological and institutional innovations, investments in infrastructure, and reforms in incentive structures.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Telangana government has notified the implementation of the Telangana Scheduled Castes (Rationalisation of Reservations) Act 2025 for categorisation of Scheduled Castes (SC) into three groups.

About

• Telangana has become the first Stateto operationalise the classification of the Scheduled Castes after the Supreme Court’s landmark judgment.
• The judgement upheld the constitutionality of sub-classifying the SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to grant separate quotas for the most marginalised groups within these communities.
• Methodology Used for Categorisation: As per the SC’s verdict, empirical data, social, economic, educational, employment and political status of the SC communities was considered.
• Categorisation: 59 SC communities in the state will be divided into three categories – Group I, II and III.
• Group I: 15 sub-castes categorised as most backward have been classified as Group-I with 1 per cent reservation, these groups constitute just 0.5% of the population.
• Group II: 18 sub-castes of the total 59 which received marginal benefits have been placed under Group-II with 9 per cent reservation.
• Group III: 26 sub-castes that were relatively better placed in Group III in terms of opportunities with 5 per cent reservation.

Supreme Court’s Judgement in State of Punjab v Davinder Singh case (2024)

• In the 2024 State of Punjab v Davinder Singh case, a seven-judge bench upheld the constitutional validity of sub-classification within SC/ST categories.
• This judgment has overruled the earlier decision in the EV Chinnaiah v. State of Andhra Pradesh case (2004), which held that ‘Scheduled Castes’ notified under Article 341 form one homogeneous group and that sub-categorization is not permissible.
• Sub-classification within the Scheduled Castes does not violate Article 341(2) because the castes are not per se included in or excluded from the List.
• Historical and empirical evidence demonstrates that Scheduled Castes are a socially heterogeneous class. Thus, the State, in the exercise of its power under Articles 15(4) and 16(4), can further classify Scheduled Castes if (a) there is a rational principle for differentiation; and (b) the rational principle has a nexus with the purpose of sub-classification.

Arguments in Favour

• Unequal Backwardness Within SCs: Some castes within the SC communities are more socially and educationally backward than others and have been consistently underrepresented.
• Treating unequals equally perpetuates inequality, defeating the purpose of reservation.
• Constitutional Mandate allows it: Articles 15(4) and 16(4) empower the state to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward class.
• Promotes Effective Representation, Not Just Numerical: The goal is effective representation, not mere numbers, sub-classification can help achieve meaningful inclusion.
• Backed by Empirical Data: Allows the government to target affirmative action where it’s needed the most.

Arguments Against

• Article 341: Article 341 allows only the President to modify the SC list.
• State-led sub-classification is seen as indirect interference with the list and beyond state powers.
• Fragmentation Within Community: Sub-quotas can lead to increased caste-based divisions among SCs.
• It may undermine collective political strength and social solidarity of SC communities.
• Defining Criteria: Establishing objective, empirical measures of disadvantage within SCs is challenging.

Risk of inaccurate classification and legal challenges.

• Opens the ‘Creamy Layer’ Debate: Introducing the ‘creamy layer’ concept for SCs (as some judges suggest) could dilute the protection provided to SCs as a whole.
• Reservation for SCs is not just about economic backwardness, but historical discrimination and stigma, which persists across income groups.

Way Ahead

• States can now create sub-quotas within SC/ST reservations.
• It gives greater autonomy for states to address internal disparities within the SC/ST groups.
• However, stringent requirements of evidence and data may make implementation complex.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, the Russian Embassy in India witnessed a vibrant cycle rally commemorating the 78th anniversary of India-Russia diplomatic relations.

The rally marked the 80th anniversary of Russia’s victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.

About the India-Russia Relations

Historical Overview:

• 1947: India and the USSR established diplomatic relations just months before India gained independence in August 1947.
• Cold War Period (1947-1991): The USSR emerged as a reliable ally for India, especially during times of Western hostility.
• Both signed the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation (1971) that laid the foundation for a strategic partnership.
• 1991: India recognised the Russian Federation after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
• 1993: Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
• 2000: Declaration of Strategic Partnership
• Multi-Dimensional Cooperation Framework: India and Russia are bound by a Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership (2010).
• Over the years, it has expanded far beyond traditional military ties, integrating economic, energy, space, and educational cooperation.

Key Areas of Cooperation

Trade and Economic Relations:

• Bilateral Trade: Over US$60 Billion in 2024-25; ($50 Billion in 2023–24).
• Main Imports from Russia: Crude oil, coal, fertilizers, and defense equipment.
• Main Exports to Russia: Pharmaceuticals, electronics, iron & steel, tea, and coffee.
• Strategic and Defense Cooperation: It includes INS Tushil, S-400 Triumf missile systems, INS Vikramaditya, production of AK-203 Rifle, BrahMos Missile, submarines, tanks, and aircraft.
• India-Russia Inter-Governmental Commission on Military-Technical Cooperation (IRIGC-MTC): It continues to coordinate procurement, servicing, and joint R&D programs.

Political Support and Multilateral Forums:

• Support on Global Platforms: Russia reiterated its support for India’s permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
• Both countries coordinate in BRICS, SCO, and G20 to push for a multipolar global order.
• Russia is supportive of India’s Act Far East Policy and Indo-Pacific engagement.

Energy Security and Nuclear Cooperation:

• Nuclear Energy: Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, Tamil Nadu.
• In 2023-24, Russia was the India’s fourth-largest trade partner, largely driven by discounted oil imports (over 35% of India’s crude oil basket).
• It is expected to exceed imports from Saudi Arabia and Iraq.

Space and Technology Partnerships:

• Space Cooperation: Both are exploring partnerships in satellite navigation and human spaceflight.
• Satellite Navigation: India and Russia have agreed to cooperate on GLONASS and NavIC interoperability.
• Cybersecurity & AI: Emerging areas of cooperation include digital transformation, AI-based surveillance, and defense tech R&D.

Concerns & Challenges

• Geopolitical Pressures: Russia’s growing alignment with China, India’s regional rival, has raised concerns in India.
• India’s strategic partnerships with Western nations, particularly the US, have added layers of complexity to its ties with Russia.
• Payment mechanisms are a challenge due to Western sanctions on Russia, which restrict banking channels.
• Delay in Defense Equipment: Russia’s delayed delivery of the S-400 Triumf air defense system, largely due to the Ukraine conflict and related sanctions, has raised concerns in Indian defence circles.
• India’s efforts to diversify its defense procurement sources could impact its reliance on Russian arms.
• Ukraine Conflict: India’s neutral stance on the Ukraine war has been criticized by Western allies, while Russia expects stronger support from India.
• The conflict has also disrupted global supply chains, affecting bilateral trade.

Conclusion

• As India and Russia mark 78 years of diplomatic engagement, their relationship stands as a resilient example of strategic pragmatism.
• From being Cold War-era allies to 21st-century strategic partners, the journey reflects adaptability, trust, and mutual benefit.
• Despite shifting global dynamics, India-Russia ties are poised to remain strong, with new frontiers in trade, technology, and defense cooperation.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Deputy Prime Minister of Italy Antonio Tajani, visited India to bolster bilateral cooperation between both the nations.

• Both the nations discussed how to boost cooperation in trade, defence, clean energy, and technology, focusing on the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC).
• Focus should be on deepening India-Italy cooperation under the framework of Joint Strategic Action Plan (JSAP) 2025-29.

India–Italy Relations

• Historical Connect: Italy’s port cities once served as crucial nodes on the ancient spice trade route, linking the East and the Mediterranean.
• The Venetian merchant Marco Polo’s 13th-century travels to India exemplify the long-standing civilizational contact between the two regions.
• Diplomatic Ties: India and Italy established diplomatic relations in 1947, founded on historical connections and shared cultural values.

India and Italy elevated their Relations into Strategic Partnership in 2023.

• The Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025–29 launched in 2024 between India and Italy marks a significant step towards deepening their bilateral relationship.
• Italy’s exit from China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2023—after being its only G7 signatory—resonates with India’s concerns over China’s growing footprint in Europe and the Indo-Pacific.
• Economic Cooperation: Bilateral trade stood at $13.220 billion in 2023–24, with Indian exports valued at $7.94 billion.
• Italy is India’s 4th largest trading partner in the EU and ranked 17th in FDI inflows into India between 2000 and 2023.
• Defence Cooperation: INS Sumedha participated in a PASSEX (Passing Exercise) with ITS Morosini off the coast of Sardinia in 2023.
• The Italian Navy participated in MILAN 2024, a multinational naval exercise hosted by India in 2024.
• Multilateral Convergence: Both nations support multilateralism, and Italy has joined key Indian-led initiatives such as the International Solar Alliance (ISA), Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA), and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC).
• Cultural Diplomacy: From yoga to Italian cuisine, the cultural exchanges between India and Italy create a unique bond.
• The Executive Programme on Cultural Cooperation for the term 2023-27 was signed in 2023.
• Indian Diaspora: The Indian community in Italy is estimated at 2 lakhs including Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs).
• The Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement (MMPA) was signed in 2023 to facilitate safe and legal migration of seasonal and non-seasonal workers, researchers, professionals and academicians.

Challenges

• Structural Trade Barriers: Non-tariff barriers, regulatory delays, and logistical constraints limit potential trade growth between both the nations.
• Italian Marines Case (2012): The case caused a diplomatic strain, with concerns over national sovereignty and legal jurisdiction impacting defence ties.
• Differing Policies on Military Sales: Italy has been selling military equipment to Pakistan which has created a perception of policy divergence in defence matters between the two countries.

Way Ahead

• Joint Strategic Action Plan 2025–29: Focused execution of this roadmap can unlock potential in areas such as trade, innovation, education, defence and sustainability.
• Boost Innovation & Start-Up Linkages: Establish joint incubation centres and tech parks focusing on AI, green energy, biotech, and space.
• Streamline FDI procedures and regulatory frameworks to foster a more predictable, investor-friendly environment for Italian investments in India and Indian businesses in Italy.
• During Italy-India Business, Science and Technology Forum, Italy emphasised deepening cooperation in AI, supercomputing, defence, innovation, and space technology.
• India also underlined new areas of synergy in fashion, luxury goods, pharmaceuticals, food processing, green tech, tourism, and manufacturing.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The United States and Iran have resumed negotiations over Iran’s nuclear program following a period of heightened tensions, signalling a potential thaw in diplomatic relations.

Earlier talks

• Iran had previously refused direct talks with the U.S. following the U.S. withdrawal from the 2015 nuclear deal (JCPOA).
• Indirect talks were held under Joe Biden but were unsuccessful, and Iran accelerated its nuclear program.

Iran’s Nuclear Programme

• Iran is a signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but it ceased cooperating with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) after the 1979 revolution.
• Allegations have existed about Iran pursuing a secret nuclear weapons program, although Iran claims its nuclear program is for peaceful purposes.
• Iran has enriched uranium to varying degrees, including 19.75% in 2010 and 60% recently, moving closer to weapons-grade uranium (90%).

The 2015 Iran nuclear deal (JCPOA)

• The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was signed between Tehran, the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, and the European Union.
• It aimed to resolve the nuclear crisis by lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for Iran limiting its nuclear activities, including reducing its centrifuges, capping uranium enrichment to 3.67%, and limiting its low-enriched uranium (LEU) stockpile to 300 kg.
• Iran complied with the deal until the U.S. withdrew in 2018 under President Trump and reimposed sanctions.
• In response, Iran accelerated its nuclear program, enriching uranium to 60%, which is a significant step towards weapons-grade uranium.

Potential for a Nuclear Weapon and Related Concerns

• It’s estimated that Iran could develop a deployable nuclear warhead within months, if it chooses to do so, given its current enrichment capabilities.
• The increasing stockpile and reduced breakout time have raised concerns.
• Israel has expressed strong concerns over Iran’s nuclear progress, threatening military action to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons.
• Trump has also suggested military action if diplomatic talks fail, with Israel playing a key role in any military operation.

Latest Developments

• Recently, Iran has faced military, political, and economic pressures, including setbacks in its regional influence and worsening economic conditions.
• Trump offered dialogue, stating that the U.S. couldn’t allow Iran to obtain a nuclear bomb, prompting Iran to engage in diplomacy.
• Iran agreed to negotiate, partially due to its weakened position.

Way Forward

• Revival of JCPOA: Requires mutual trust-building, sanctions relief, and IAEA monitoring.
• Multilateral Guarantees: Broader international consensus is essential to prevent breakout scenarios.
• Regional Dialogue: Middle Eastern security architecture must include nuclear non-proliferation commitments.
• India’s Diplomatic Role: As a responsible regional player, India can advocate for peaceful nuclear energy and non-proliferation.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: Prime Minister Modi paid homage to the martyrs of Jallianwala Bagh.

What was the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar massacre, occurred on 13th April 1919 and marked one of the darkest chapters in India’s colonial history.
• To celebrate the Baisakhi festival and protest the arrest of prominent nationalist leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal under the Rowlatt Act, a large crowd of men, women, and children had gathered at the Jallianwala Bagh.
• Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered British Indian Army troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering of thousands, without issuing any warning or order to disperse.
• According to official British records, at least 379 people were killed and many wounded.

The Rowlatt Act

• The Rowlatt Act, officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, was passed on March 10, 1919.
• It gave the British government extraordinary powers to detain individuals suspected of sedition without trial.
• This act was based on the recommendations of the Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt and was modelled on the wartime Defence of India Act of 1915.

British response to Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• Martial Law: The shooting was followed by the proclamation of martial law in Punjab.
• The Hunter Commission, also called the Disorders Inquiry Committee, was set up by the British government in October 1919 to investigate the massacre.
• The Commission criticized Colonel Reginald Dyer for his actions at Jallianwala Bagh.
  • It censured Dyer but did not impose any significant penalties. It did, however, recommend his resignation from the military.

Nationalist Response

• Rabindranath Tagore, the Nobel laureate poet, renounced his knighthood in protest against the brutality of the British actions.
• Mahatma Gandhi, launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920, urging Indians to boycott British goods and institutions.
  • He also gave up the title of Kaiser-i-Hind, bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War.
• This movement marked a significant phase in India’s struggle for independence.

The Jallianwala Bagh Memorial

• Jallianwala Bagh is a memorial site maintained by the Jallianwala Bagh National Memorial Trust.
• The site includes several structures like a memorial flame, bullet-marked walls, and a well where many people had jumped to escape the bullets.
• The memorial also houses a museum and gallery that showcases the events of the massacre and the larger context of India’s fight for freedom.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: Recently, India celebrated the legacy of Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar on Ambedkar Jayanti, a towering figure in India’s fight against caste-based discrimination.

BR Ambedkar & ‘Annihilation of Caste’

• Origins of Annihilation of Caste: Originally written as a speech for a 1936 meeting of progressive Hindus under the Jat-Pat Todak Mandal, the address was never delivered due to its provocative content.
  • Instead, Ambedkar published it himself, making it a foundational text for anti-caste thought in India.

Core Arguments of the ‘Annihilation of Caste’

• Caste as Social Tyranny: Ambedkar rejected the view that caste is merely a division of labor; instead, he saw it as a division of laborers — deeply hierarchical and oppressive.
• Critique of Hindu Scriptures: He directly attacked the sanctity of Hindu shastras, including Manusmriti, for legitimizing caste discrimination and inequality.
• Rejection of Gandhi’s Approach: Ambedkar openly criticized Mahatma Gandhi’s views on caste, especially his defense of varna (the four-fold division of society), and reforming Hinduism without discarding its texts.
• Religion as a Social Force: Ambedkar emphasized that for any real reform, Hinduism must undergo a radicaltransformation.
  • He provocatively argued that Hindu society must ‘burn the scriptures that preach inequality’.
• Appeal for Rationality and Justice: Drawing from liberal and Enlightenment ideals, he urged Indians to abandon traditions that violate human dignity and embrace rationality, human rights, and constitutional morality.

Vision of an Ideal Society

• Liberty: It encompasses both freedom from social norms that limit one’s options and freedom from physical tyranny.
• Equality: Ambedkar pushed for the adoption of perfect equality as he thought that in order to maximize society potential, equal chances must be given from birth.
• Fraternity: Ambedkar promoted ‘social endosmosis’ or the free exchange of information across all groups, and saw brotherhood as the foundation of democracy.

Influence on Later Movements

• Dalit Panthers (1970s): It emphasized cultural assertion and resistance inspired by Ambedkar’s radicalism.
• Bahujan Samaj Party: It emerged with an explicitly Ambedkarite ideology aimed at political representation for Dalits and backward classes.

About Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956)

• Born: April 14, 1891; Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, in Hindu Mahar Family.
• He was the 14th child of Subedar Ramji Maloji Sakpal, a respected figure in the British Army and a follower of Sant Kabir.

Education

• A. in Economics and Political Science from Bombay University.
• A. and Ph.D. in Economics (Thesis work: National dividend for India — A Historic and Analytical Study) from Columbia University, and furthered studies at the London School of Economics.

1. His thesis was published as ‘Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India’.

Architect of the Indian Constitution

• Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly
• He emphasized the importance of equality, liberty, and fraternity.
• He was India’s first Minister of Law and Justice

1. He resigned his ministership in 1951, expressing his differences on the Kashmir issue, India’s Foreign Policy and Nehru’s Policy towards the Hindu Code Bill.

• He was conferred with the title of ‘Bodhisattva’ by the Buddhist monks at ‘Jagatik Buddhism Council’ in 1954 in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Major Writings and Publications

• Mooknayak (fortnightly newspaper, in 1920)
• The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution (1923)
• The Bahiskrit Bharat (newspaper, 1927)
• Annihilation of Caste (1936)
• The Untouchables: Who Are They?
• Who Were the Shudras? (1942)
• Thoughts on Linguistic States (1955)

Economic Contributions

• Ambedkar’s recommendations to the Hilton Young Commission contributed to the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India.

Legal Advocacy

• In 1934, he defended the All India Textile Workers Conference, highlighting flaws in the Trade Disputes Act of 1929
• His vision established a democratic framework with checks and balances among the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary.
• He considered the ‘Right to Constitutional Remedies’, enshrined in Article 32, as the ‘heart and soul’ of the Indian Constitution.

Others

• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (aka Outcastes Welfare Association) in 1924
• Led the Mahad Satyagraha (1927)
• Kalaram Satyagraha in Nashik (1930), a temple entry movement for the untouchables.
• Formation of Independent Labour Party (1936)
• Foundation of Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha (1955)

Award

• In 1990, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna (highest civilian honour of India).

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India and Russia have agreed on six new strategic projects during the 8th Session of the India-Russia Working Group on Priority Investment Projects (IRWG-PIP) held in New Delhi.

Background

• The “Declaration on the India-Russia Strategic Partnership” was signed in October 2000 during President Vladimir Putin’s visit to India.
• In 2010, the partnership was elevated to a “Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership,” reflecting increased cooperation across key sectors: defense, politics, economics, and culture.
• India-Russia ties are characterized by high-level engagements, institutional dialogue mechanisms, and cooperation in multilateral forums like BRICS, SCO, and the UN.

Key Points of the 8th IRWG-PIP Session

• Six New Strategic Projects: India and Russia have agreed to collaborate on six new strategic projects with the goal of boosting bilateral investment.
  • Sectors involved include trade, technological innovation, and economic development.
• Framework: The IRWG-PIP operates under the India-Russia Intergovernmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technological and Cultural Cooperation.

Significance of the Agreement

• Strengthens Economic Resilience: Diversifies India’s trade portfolio amid shifting global dynamics.
• Reduces Overdependence on the West: Reinforces strategic autonomy by balancing relations with major powers.
• Boosts ‘Make in India’ & Atmanirbhar Bharat: Encourages technology transfer, localization of production, and industrial growth.
• Geopolitical Leverage: Enhances India’s role in a multipolar world and Eurasian regional dynamics.

India and Russia Relations

• They share a long-standing relationship, with bilateral trade and investment ties dating back to the Soviet era.
• Over the years, their cooperation has strengthened, with trade growing from USD 1.4 billion in 1995 to USD 65.7 billion in FY 2023-24.
• Key exports from India include agri-products, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and machinery, while Russia primarily exports oil, fertilizers, and mineral fuels.
• Both countries aim to reach a bilateral trade target of USD 100 billion by 2030.
• Bilateral cooperation is supported by key forums like the India-Russia Inter-governmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technological and Cultural Cooperation (IRIGC-TEC), which includes 15 Working Groups and 6 Sub-Groups.
• The India-Russia Strategic Economic Dialogue (IRSED) also plays a vital role.
• Multilateral engagement: India & Russia cooperate closely at several multilateral platforms such as the UN, G20, BRICS & SCO.
  • India’s Presidency of the G20 & SCO in 2023 afforded the opportunity for officials and ministers of both countries to meet on the sidelines of various events in India
• Defence: Bilateral projects include the supply of S-400, licensed production of T-90 tanks and Su-30 MKI, supply of MiG-29 and Kamov helicopters, INS Vikramaditya (formerly Admiral Gorshkov), production of AK-203 rifles in India and BrahMos missiles.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Union Information and Technology Minister said that personal details that are subject to disclosure under various laws will continue to be disclosed under the RTI Act after the implementation of the new data protection rule.

About

• Amendment to RTI Act (2005) will come into effect once Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Rules are notified in the coming weeks.
• Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act now includes a blanket prohibition on disclosing personal information, even if it serves the public interest.
• Concerns Raised:
  • The change makes it harder to access information vital for social audits and uncovering misuse of public funds or corruption.
  • RTI requests have been critical in verifying government programs and ensuring accountability, e.g., checking food ration distribution.
  • The original RTI Act balanced privacy and transparency; they reject the argument that the changes align with the Supreme Court’s privacy ruling.
  • The Union Minister stated the amendment won’t restrict transparency or disclosure of personal information when legally required.
  • He cited the 2017 Supreme Court judgement affirming the right to privacy under Article 21 to justify the amendment.

Right to Information Act (RTI), 2005

• Aim: It was designed to promote transparency in the functioning of the government by giving citizens the right to access information from public authorities.
• Scope: The Act applies to public authorities, which include government departments, ministries, and organizations that are substantially funded by the government.
• Information Accessible to the Public: Citizens have the right to request information from public authorities. This includes the right to access records, documents, and other information.
• Exclusions: Information that may compromise national security, breach confidentiality, or harm the integrity of ongoing investigations.
• Timeframe for Response: Public authorities are required to respond to information requests within 30 days. In certain cases, this period can be extended to 45 days.
• Penalties: The Act provides for penalties against officials who withhold information without reasonable cause or provide false information.

Significance of the Act

• Empowers Citizens: By accessing information from public authorities, promoting transparency and accountability in government.
• Holds Government Accountable: Helps in holding public authorities accountable for their actions, preventing corruption.
• RTI helped uncover misuse of funds in the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS).
• Promotes Good Governance: It strengthens democratic processes by ensuring that the government operates transparently, fostering public trust.
• Enables Social Audits: Activists and NGOs use RTI to perform social audits of government schemes and services.
• RTI was used to check if food rations were correctly distributed under the Public Distribution System (PDS).
• Access to Public Records: RTI requests have been used to obtain details of government contracts, exposing corruption or inefficiencies.
• Strengthens Democracy: Provides a tool for citizens to actively participate in the decision-making process, enhancing democracy.

Criticism of the Act

• Overburdening Public Authorities: It has led to an overload of information requests, putting a strain on public authorities and diverting attention from their primary duties.
• Misuse of the Act: Some individuals or groups use RTI requests as a tool for harassment or to settle personal or political scores.
• Delay in Processing Requests: Despite the stipulated time frames for response, some public authorities struggle to adhere to these deadlines, causing frustration among information seekers.
• Capacity and Training Issues: Some public authorities lack the necessary infrastructure, manpower, and training to effectively implement the RTI Act.
• Exemptions and Ambiguities: The Act’s provisions regarding exemptions are sometimes vaguely defined, this ambiguity can be exploited to withhold information that should ideally be in the public domain.

Way Ahead

• The RTI Act has played a significant role in promoting transparency, reducing corruption, and empowering citizens to actively participate in the democratic process by holding government institutions accountable.
• It is a powerful tool for promoting good governance and ensuring that citizens have access to information that affects their lives.
• The amendment has not yet come into effect, as the rules for implementing the DPDP Act (Digital Personal Data Protection Act) are still in draft form.
• Civil society organizations are calling for these draft rules to be revised so that the changes to the RTI Act are not finalized.