General Studies Paper-2

Context: Türkiye’s support for Pakistan on Kashmir, along with defense collaborations, has raised concerns for India.

Türkiye’s Strategic Interests in Pakistan

• Cold War Alliances: Türkiye and Pakistan were part of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD), aligning their policies with Western-led security frameworks.
• Pakistan supported Türkiye’s stance in Cyprus, even offering military assistance during the 1964 and 1971 crises.
• In 1983, Pakistan declared that it would be the first country to recognize Turkish Cyprus if it declared independence, and it further strengthened the ideological bond between both countries.
• Countering Saudi-Emirati Influence: Türkiye, along with Qatar, has sought to challenge Saudi Arabia and the UAE’s dominance in the Muslim world.
  • The Kuala Lumpur Summit (2019), involving Pakistan, Türkiye, Malaysia, and Indonesia, was perceived as an alternative bloc to Riyadh’s leadership.
• Türkiye’s Focus on the Indian Ocean Region (IOR): Türkiye is expanding its presence in the Indian Ocean, establishing its largest overseas base in Somalia (2017).
  • In 2024, Türkiye sold Baykar TB2 drones to the Maldives, signaling growing influence in South Asia’s maritime domain.
  • The Turkish Navy has frequently conducted joint exercises with the Pakistan Navy, with limited engagements with the Indian Navy.

Türkiye-Pakistan Nexus

• Türkiye’s Support for Pakistan on Kashmir: Türkiye has regularly expressed solidarity with Pakistan on Kashmir, calling for international attention to the issue.
  • Pakistan has acknowledged Türkiye, China, and Azerbaijan as its key diplomatic allies during geopolitical crises.
• Türkiye’s Emergence as a Major Arms Supplier: According to SIPRI data, Turkish arms exports surged by 103% between 2015-2019 and 2020-2024.
  • By 2020, Türkiye had become Pakistan’s second-largest arms supplier (after China), providing advanced military equipment.
• Pakistan’s Acquisitions from Türkiye: Under the Military Consultative Group framework (established in 1988), Pakistan has secured multiple defense agreements with Türkiye.
  • The Ada-class anti-submarine corvette, and drone technology transfers highlight Türkiye’s commitment to Pakistan’s military modernization.
• Economic and Strategic Agreements: Pakistan and Türkiye have signed multiple agreements covering trade, defense, and intelligence cooperation.
  • The Pakistan-Türkiye High-Level Strategic Cooperation Council (HLSCC) facilitates joint initiatives in energy, finance, and security.

Türkiye-Pakistan Nexus and Its Impact on India

• Strengthening Ties with Greece and Cyprus: India has consistently engaged and supported the Greece-backed Republic of Cyprus, countering Türkiye and Pakistan’s endorsement of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
  • Greece, in turn, has backed India’s stance on Kashmir, reinforcing diplomatic solidarity.
• Military Cooperation with Armenia: India has emerged as one of the strongest military supporters of Armenia, particularly in its territorial dispute with Türkiye-backed Azerbaijan.
  • By late 2024, India surpassed Russia as Armenia’s largest arms supplier, a remarkable development in global arms trade.
• Pakistan’s Alignment with Azerbaijan: Pakistan has continued to reject the recognition of the Armenian genocide, aligning with Türkiye-supported Azerbaijan.
  • In 2024, Pakistan signed a $1.6 billion defense deal to supply Azerbaijan with JF-17 Thunder Block III fighter jets, further strengthening its trilateral alliance with Türkiye and Azerbaijan.

Geopolitical Shifts Benefiting India

• S. Indo-Pacific Strategy (2022): It omitted any reference to Pakistan, and, in contrast, India was mentioned five times.
• India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) Bypasses Türkiye: It challenges Türkiye’s role as the bridge between Asia and Europe.
• Türkiye openly criticized IMEC, pushing to pursue its own Asia-Europe corridor—the Iraq Development Road.

India’s Response and Strategic Positioning

• Strengthening Regional Alliances: India has deepened ties with Saudi Arabia, UAE, and other Gulf nations, countering Türkiye’s influence.
  • The India-Greece defense partnership has emerged as a counterbalance to Türkiye’s regional ambitions.
• Diplomatic Engagements: India has reiterated that Kashmir remains a bilateral issue, rejecting Türkiye’s interventionist stance.
  • India continues to engage global partners to reinforce its sovereignty and territorial integrity.
• Military Preparedness: India has enhanced its air defense systems and naval capabilities, ensuring readiness against regional security threats.
  • The S-400 missile system and indigenous defense projects strengthen India’s strategic deterrence.

Conclusion

• The Pakistan-Türkiye nexus presents geopolitical challenges for India, particularly in defense and diplomatic spheres.
• By reinforcing regional partnerships, military capabilities, and diplomatic outreach, India can effectively counter emerging threats while maintaining strategic stability.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, the United States Vice-President highlighted its willingness to cooperate with India more closely on energy and defence.

• India’s foreign policy establishment outlined the need for cooperation on energy, defence, technology and the mobility of people.

India-U.S. Cooperation in Energy and Defence

• Strengthening India’s Energy Security: India’s energy security is anchored in three imperatives:
• Stable and Predictable Energy Resources: Ensuring access to reliable energy supplies to support India’s rapid economic growth.
• Minimizing Supply Chain Disruptions: Strengthening supply chains for critical minerals and energy infrastructure to reduce dependency on geopolitical uncertainties.
• Advancing Sustainability: Expanding the role of nuclear energy and clean technologies to achieve India’s net-zero targets.
• Nuclear energy and critical minerals play a pivotal role in India’s clean energy transition, positioning them as foundational pillars for a stronger India-U.S. energy and technology partnership.

Critical Minerals

• These are those minerals, such as lithium, graphite, cobalt, titanium, and rare earth elements that are essential for economic development and national security.
• These are essential for the advancement of many sectors, including hightech electronics, telecommunications, transport, and defence.
• China controls nearly 90% of rare earth processing, and its recent restrictions on exports highlight the fragility of global supply chains.
• In response, India and the U.S. signed a MoU in 2024 to diversify these supply chains.
• It can bolster economic security, technological innovation, and strategic autonomy.

Nuclear Energy Security

• India’s nuclear energy capacity currently stands at just over 8 GW, contributing only 2% of the country’s installed power capacity.
• To meet the 2047 target of 100 GW, India must commission 5-6 GW annually starting in the early 2030s.
• Studies by CEEW suggest that achieving net zero by 2070 could require over 200 GW of nuclear capacity under certain scenarios.

Strengthening Supply Chain Transparency For Critical Minerals

• India-US Critical Minerals Consortium could explore joint extraction and processing projects across Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia.
• Establishing an India-U.S. Mineral Exchange, a secure digital platform for real-time trade, investment tracking, and mineral traceability.
• Co-developing a Blockchain-based Traceability Standard: It is inspired by the EU’s Battery Passport which would prevent supply chain disruptions and ensure ethical sourcing.
• Joint Strategic Stockpiles of Key Minerals: For leveraging existing storage infrastructure such as India’s Strategic Petroleum Reserves and the U.S. National Defense Stockpile for cost-effective deployment.
• Investment in Energy Infrastructure: Platforms such as the U.S.-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) could advance data-sharing protocols, innovation corridors, and workforce development.

Key Reforms for Nuclear Expansion 

• Reducing Deployment Timelines: Standardizing reactor designs, streamlining approval processes, and improving skilled project delivery are essential.
• Strengthening Financial and International Cooperation: India’s power sector exposure stands at $200 billion.
• Collaboration with global firms for technology transfer, co-creation, and waste management solutions is crucial.
• Enabling Private Sector Participation: Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), with their lower capital expenditure, flexibility, and reduced land requirements, can become viable with private sector involvement.
• Amending the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 to encourage private investments in nuclear power plants, fostering technological innovation and financial backing.
• Prioritizing Nuclear Safety and Waste Management: As India leads in SMR manufacturing, adopting centralized waste management and repurposing strategies is essential.
• Long-Term Energy Security Amid Global Uncertainty: The IMF’s latest World Economic Outlook highlights rising trade and tariff tensions, impacting global energy markets.

Challenges and Future Prospects

• Geopolitical Risks: China’s restrictions on rare earth exports highlight the need for secure and diversified supply chains.
• Policy Alignment: Both nations must harmonize regulatory frameworks to facilitate cross-border investments in energy infrastructure.
• Technology Transfer: Strengthening collaborative R&D will accelerate the adoption of next-generation energy solutions.

Conclusion

• The India-U.S. energy partnership is poised to play a crucial role in global energy security and sustainability. By focusing on critical minerals, nuclear energy, and clean technology, both nations can drive economic growth and climate resilience.
• Strengthening bilateral agreements and strategic investments will ensure a stable and sustainable energy future.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Supreme Court observed that if Rohingya refugees are found to be ‘foreigners’ under the Foreigners Act, they will be dealt with as per the law.

About

• Petitioners’ Arguments:
• The Rohingya are recognized as refugees by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and thus deserve protection under the principle of non-refoulement (not returning refugees to a place where they face serious threats).
• Deportation to Myanmar, where they are stateless and allegedly face torture and death, violates Article 21 (Right to Life) and Article 14 (Right to Equality).
• Government’s and Court’s Position:
• India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention, and the Foreigners Act gives the government broad powers to regulate the entry and exit of foreigners.
• Article 19(1)(e) (Right to reside/settle) applies only to Indian citizens, not to foreigners, per the Supreme Court’s interpretation.
• The SC acknowledged basic constitutional protections (like Articles 14 and 21) extend to all persons in India, but not a right to stay or settle in India.
• The bench reiterated that the matter of whether the refugees can stay is subject to legal procedure under Indian law.

Who are the Rohingya refugees?

• The Rohingya are a Muslim minority ethnic group with their roots in the Arakan kingdom in Myanmar.
• The Rohingya are culturally and religiously distinct from the majority Buddhist population in Myanmar.
• The Rohingya claim to have lived in Myanmar’s Rakhine State for generations, but successive governments in the country have disputed their ties, labelling them illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.
• Myanmar has denied them citizenship since 1982, thus making them the world’s largest stateless population.
• Their largest exodus began in 2017 driving more than 7.5 lakh people to seek refuge in Bangladesh to escape the brutality of security forces.

India’s Policy on Refugees

• India has welcomed refugees in the past, with nearly 300,000 people categorised as refugees.
• This includes the Tibetans, Chakmas from Bangladesh, and refugees from Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, etc.
• But India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention or the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugee. Nor does India have a refugee policy or a refugee law.
• All foreign undocumented nationals are governed as per the provisions of The Foreigners Act, 1946, The Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939, The Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920 and The Citizenship Act, 1955.
• As per the MHA foreign nationals who enter into the country without valid travel documents are treated as illegal immigrants.

Reasons for India’s Policy on Refugees

• Resource Strain: Hosting refugees puts pressure on resources, especially in areas where infrastructure is already stretched thin.
• Social Cohesion: Large numbers of refugees can strain social cohesion, potentially leading to tensions with host communities.
• Security Concerns: Refugee influxes can raise security concerns, including the potential infiltration of extremist elements and difficulties in monitoring movements across porous borders.
• Diplomatic Relations: Hosting refugees strain diplomatic relations with neighboring countries or countries of origin.
• Economic Impact: Refugees compete for low-skilled jobs, affecting the local job market, while their potential contributions to the economy through entrepreneurship or labor may not be fully realized.

Way Ahead

• India’s approach to refugees is shaped by a tradition of humanitarianism, regional geopolitics, and national security concerns.
• Though India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol, it has historically provided refuge to various displaced communities.
• As global displacement continues to rise, there is an increasing need for India to establish a clear and consistent national refugee policy that balances humanitarian obligations with security and demographic concerns.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India’s latest Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) data was released by the Registrar-General of India.

Maternal death

• It is the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.
• One of the key indicators of maternal mortality is the Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) which is defined as the number of maternal deaths during a given time period per 100,000 live births during the same time period.
• The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim at reducing global MMR to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.

Recent Findings

• Maternal Mortality Ratio in India dropped to 93 per 100,000 live births in 2019–21, down from 97 (2018–20) and 103 (2017–19).
• The highest MMR occurs in the 20-29 age group, and the second highest in the 30-34 age group.
• Several States, including Madhya Pradesh (175), Assam (167), Uttar Pradesh (151), Odisha (135), Chhattisgarh (132), West Bengal (109), and Haryana (106), have high MMRs.

Issues and Concerns

• Maternal mortality remains a critical public health issue in India.
• It serves as a key indicator of healthcare quality and accessibility, reflecting the effectiveness of maternal health services.
• Most maternal deaths occur due to complications from pregnancy, childbirth, or abortion, not from accidental causes.

Government Initiatives to Reduce MMR

• India has committed to the UN target for Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for MMR at 70 per 1,00,000 live births by 2030 and NHP (National Health Policy) 2017 target for MMR less than 100 per 1,00,000 live births by 2020.
• India has accomplished the National Health Policy (NHP) target for MMR.
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) supports all States/UTs in implementation of Reproductive, Maternal, New-born, Child, Adolescent health and Nutrition (RMNCAH+N) strategy under National Health Mission (NHM) based on the Annual Programme Implementation Plan (PIP) submitted by States/ UTs to reduce MMR & Neonatal Mortality Rate.
• Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): Launched in 2005, it promotes institutional deliveries among poor and marginalized women (SC/ST/BPL) to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality.
• Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): A maternity benefit scheme offering ₹5,000 for the first live birth to eligible women. Under PMMVY 2.0 (from April 2022), additional incentives are given if the second child is a girl, to promote positive behavioural change.
• Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK): Started in 2011, it eliminates out-of-pocket costs for pregnant women and sick newborns by providing free delivery, transport, medicines, diagnostics, and diet in public facilities.
• Surakshit Matritva Aashwasan (SUMAN): Launched in 2019, it ensures free, respectful, and quality healthcare for all pregnant women and newborns, aiming to eliminate preventable deaths.
• Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA): Initiated in 2016, it provides free antenatal care on the 9th of every month.
• The e-PMSMA extension targets high-risk pregnancies with individual tracking and financial incentives. Over 5.9 crore women have benefited by March 2025.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• India has made significant progress in reducing maternal mortality, successfully achieving the National Health Policy (NHP) target of an MMR below 100 by 2020. However, continued efforts are required to reach the SDG target of MMR below 70 by 2030.
• Strengthening healthcare infrastructure, expanding maternal health programs, and addressing socioeconomic barriers will be critical in further reducing maternal mortality in the country.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, India thwarted Pakistani aerial attacks along the western border through its air defence systems, and successfully neutralized an air defence system in Lahore, Pakistan.

About the Air Defence Systems

• These are critical components of a nation’s security infrastructure, designed to detect, track, and neutralize aerial threats such as enemy aircraft, missiles, and drones.
• These systems operate through layered defense mechanisms, combining radars, missile interceptors, electronic warfare tools, and command centers to safeguard airspace.

Key Components of Air Defence Systems

Detection and Surveillance:

• Radar Systems: Air defence begins with high-frequency radar waves that detect incoming threats by bouncing signals off objects in the sky.
• Satellite and Infrared Sensors: Advanced systems use satellite imaging and infrared tracking to identify stealth aircraft and hypersonic missiles.
• Tracking and Target Identification: Once a threat is detected, tracking systems analyze its speed, altitude, and trajectory to determine its nature—whether it’s a fighter jet, ballistic missile, or drone.
• Command centers assess the threat level and decide on the appropriate response.

Engagement and Neutralization:

• Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs): These missiles intercept enemy aircraft or incoming projectiles before they reach their target.
• Electronic Warfare (EW) Systems: Jammers disrupt enemy communications and radar signals, reducing their ability to coordinate attacks.
• Anti-Aircraft Artillery: In close-range combat, high-caliber guns provide an additional layer of defense.

Types of Air Defence Systems

• Short-Range Air Defence (SHORAD): Designed to counter low-altitude threats, including drones and cruise missiles.
• Example: Barak-8 Missile System.
• Medium-Range Air Defence (MRAD): Covers larger areas, intercepting fighter jets and long-range missiles.
• Examples: Patriot Missile System, S-400 Triumf.
• Long-Range Air Defence (LRAD): Protects entire regions, capable of neutralizing intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).
• Examples: THAAD, Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense.

Key Air Defence Systems in India

• Akash Missile System: It is a Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) system designed to neutralize multiple airborne threats simultaneously, using command guidance and phased array radar.
• S-400 Triumf Missile System: It is procured from Russia, which enhances India’s air defence capabilities.

1. It can detect and intercept ballistic missiles, fighter jets, and drones at distances up to 400 km.
2. It is also used by China, and Turkey for ballistic missile and aircraft defense.

• Integrated Counter-UAS Grid: India has deployed counter-drone technology to neutralize hostile UAVs along sensitive borders.

1. It integrates radar detection, electronic jamming, and kinetic interception to prevent aerial intrusions.

• Barak-8 Missile System: It is jointly developed by India and Israel, and provides high-speed interception against airborne threats.

1. It enhances naval and land-based air defence capabilities.

Other Air Defence Systems in the World

• Patriot Missile System (United States): It is widely deployed for missile interception and aerial threat neutralization.

1. It is used by the U.S., Germany, Japan, and Saudi Arabia for high-altitude defense.

• Iron Dome (Israel): It is designed for short-range missile interception, particularly effective against rocket attacks.

1. It is used extensively by Israel to protect urban areas and military installations.

• Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) – United States: It is a high-altitude missile defense system capable of intercepting ballistic missiles in their terminal phase.

1. It is deployed by the U.S., South Korea, and Japan for regional security

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Civil services are crucial in maintaining and strengthening democracy but there is a need for lateral entrants and greater transparency.

About

• The concept of a merit based modern Civil Service in India was introduced in 1854.
• From 1922 onwards the Indian Civil Service Examination began to be held in India.
• After independence, the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) became responsible for conducting the exams.
• Civil Services Day is observed on 21st April every year to commemorate the day in 1947 when Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel addressed the first batch of civil servants at the Metcalfe House, New Delhi.
• He termed civil servants as the “Steel frame of India,” emphasizing their role in maintaining unity and integrity.

Role of Civil Services in Governance

• Service delivery: They are responsible for administering welfare schemes and ensuring that public services reach the intended beneficiaries, particularly at the last mile.
• Maintaining law and order: Civil servants ensure peace, justice, and security by upholding the rule of law and coordinating with law enforcement agencies.
• Elections: They have been instrumental in the conduct of free and fair elections, and ensuring smooth transfer of power both at the Centre and States.
• Uninterrupted Administration: There have been numerous instances when States have been placed under President’s rule, with the civil servants ensuring uninterrupted administration during such times.
• Policy Making: They provide advice to governments in policy making and also implement the policies made by the political executive.

Challenges faced by civil services

• Political Bias: Neutrality as a trait is fast eroding among bureaucrats, resulting in political bias in discharge of critical functions.
• The cause and effect of this phenomenon is the increasing political interference in all aspects of bureaucracy including postings and transfers.
• Lack of Expertise: Bureaucrats who are generalists, may lack the expertise needed to address technical challenges.
• Corruption: There is also significant corruption at all levels of the bureaucracy that often goes unpunished.
• Red-tapism: Excessive procedural formalities often delay decision-making and hinder timely service delivery.
• Mental health issues: High-pressure environments, and long working hours impact the mental well-being of civil servants.
• Resistance to innovation: A rigid administrative culture discourages experimentation and adoption of new practices.
• Outdated rules and procedures: Many service regulations are colonial-era legacies that are not compatible with modern governance needs.

Governance reforms to enhance efficiency of bureaucracy

• Mission Karmayogi National Program: It is a flagship programme of Government of India launched in 2020 for training of civil servants, which intends to transform the Civil Services from ‘Rule Based’ to ‘Role Based’ way of functioning and Citizen Centric.
• Lateral Entry into Civil Services to bring domain expertise and promote competitiveness in administration.
• e-Governance Initiatives: Centralised Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) for grievance redressal, SPARROW for performance appraisal, and digitization of service records.

Conclusion

• Civil servants play a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of India’s growth and governance, often known as the architects of Viksit Bharat.
• The neutral bureaucracy needs to be insulated from undue political interference to uphold the rule of law and constitutional values.
• To maintain a harmonious balance between the political and permanent executive, the autonomy of career bureaucrats is essential.
• This includes reasonable independence with respect to postings, tenures and transfers.
• Also, there needs to be a shift in the focus of bureaucrats from ‘procedure’ to ‘outcomes.’

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Social media and digital platforms have transformed communication by enabling mass outreach, empowering individuals, and fueling the creator economy. However, they also amplify misinformation, manipulation, and ethical dilemmas, necessitating a balanced governance framework.

Landscape of Digital Influence in India

• Widening Internet Base: As per the Internet in India Report 2024, the country has 886 million active internet users (8% YoY growth), expected to cross 900 million by 2025. Rural India leads with 488 million users, forming 55% of the total user base.
• Rise of Indic Language Users: Over 57% of urban users prefer content in regional languages, driving deeper digital penetration.
• Third-Largest Digital Economy: State of India’s Digital Economy Report 2024 places India third globally in digitalization and 12th among G20 nations for user-level digital adoption.

Power and Reach of Digital Influence

• Creator Economy: Digital creators influence over $350 billion in annual consumer spending—projected to cross $1 trillion by 2030. Platforms like YouTube, Instagram, and AI-driven short-form videos shape consumer choices.
• Brand and Market Evolution: Influencer marketing is replacing traditional ads. Live commerce, virtual gifting, and paid subscription models are reshaping revenue generation.
• Digital Politics: Platforms are central to political campaigns, shaping public narratives and voter behavior. However, they also fuel misinformation, risking electoral integrity.
• Online Activism: Movements for climate justice, gender rights, and marginalized voices are amplified via digital platforms, promoting inclusive discourse.

Challenges and Ethical Concerns

• Misinformation and Deepfakes: India is among the most vulnerable countries to misinformation (WEF Global Risks Report 2024). AI-generated content and clickbait tactics blur truth and fiction.
• Digital Divide: Marginalized groups face exclusion due to complex KYC norms and poor digital access. The Supreme Court recently upheld digital access as a fundamental right, underlining the need for inclusivity.
• Political Polarization: Unchecked digital influence can deepen societal divides and manipulate democratic discourse.
• Unregulated Influencer Marketing: Misleading endorsements, especially in health and finance, are rising without adequate disclosure or regulation.

Legal and Ethical Frameworks

Constitutional Safeguards:

• Article 19(1)(a) guarantees free speech with reasonable limits under Article 19(2).
• SC rulings assert that free speech excludes misinformation and harmful content.
• Consumer Protection Act, 2019: Holds influencers accountable for misleading promotions; mandates transparency in advertisements.

IT Act, 2000 and Intermediary Rules (2021):

• Sections 66 & 67 penalize harmful content.
• Guidelines require platforms to moderate unlawful content and ensure grievance redress.
• Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI):
• Provides ethical codes for influencer marketing, though non-binding, with limited enforceability.

Way Forward: Responsible Digital Influence

• Transparent Content Creation: Influencers must prioritize authenticity over sensationalism, especially in health, education, and finance sectors.
• Stronger Regulation and Enforcement: Convert ASCI guidelines into binding norms. Enhance AI-based content monitoring.
• Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking: Encourage users to verify sources, question narratives, and practice responsible sharing.
• Bridging the Digital Divide: Ensure inclusive digital infrastructure and simplified access for marginalized communities.

Conclusion

• Digital influence is both a democratizing force and a source of distortion. Its ability to shape consumer behavior, public opinion, and activism must be balanced through robust regulations, ethical standards, and inclusive digital ecosystems.
• A rights-based, accountable, and transparent framework is essential to harness its transformative potential while mitigating the risks of misinformation and manipulation.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) released the Human Development Report (HDR) for 2025, highlighting India’s progress in life expectancy, education, and income levels.

• It is titled as ‘A Matter of Choice: People and Possibilities in the Age of AI’, and explores AI’s role in shaping future development.

Human Development Index: Current Status

• Iceland (HDI value of 0.972), ranked at the top of the Index, followed by Norway and Switzerland.
  • South Sudan was at the bottom at 193 with 0.388.
• India improved its HDI value from 0.676 in 2022 (133th) to 0.685 in 2023 (130th), remaining in the medium human development category.
  • India’s HDI value has increased by over 53% since 1990, growing faster than both the global and South Asian averages.
• Among India’s neighbours, China (75th), Sri Lanka (78th) and Bhutan (127th) are ranked above India, while Bangladesh (130th) is ranked at par.
  • Nepal (145th), Myanmar (149th), Pakistan (168th) are ranked below India.

Highlights of India’s HDI Progress

• Improved Life Expectancy: India’s life expectancy has risen from 58.6 years in 1990 to 72 years in 2023, marking its highest level since the index began.
  • National health programs like Ayushman Bharat, Janani Suraksha Yojana, and Poshan Abhiyaan have contributed to this growth.
• Advancements in Education: The average years of schooling have increased from 8.2 years in 1990 to 13 years in 2023.
  • Policies like the Right to Education Act, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, and National Education Policy 2020 have played a crucial role.
• Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction: India’s Gross National Income (GNI) per capita has risen over four times, from $2,167 in 1990 to $9,046 in 2023.
  • 135 million Indians escaped multidimensional poverty between 2015-16 and 2019-21.

Key Challenges & Suggestions Made in Report

• AI and Human Development: HDR 2025 argues that AI should enhance human capabilities rather than replace them.
  • It calls for bold policy decisions to ensure AI-driven growth benefits all communities.
• Widening Inequalities: Global inequalities are increasing, slowing human development progress, despite technological advancements.
  • Income inequality reduces India’s HDI by 30.7%, one of the highest losses in the region.
  • Gender disparities continue to affect education, employment, and healthcare access.
  • The report urges inclusive AI policies to bridge the gap between developed and developing nations.

• Three Key Action Areas:
  • Building a complementarity economy where humans and AI work together.
  • Driving innovation to expand human capabilities.
  • Investing in inclusive education, healthcare, and social protection systems.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Centre for Earth Sciences and Himalayan Studies (CESHS) has successfully drilled Northeast India’s first geothermal production well at Dirang in Arunachal Pradesh’s West Kameng district.

About the project

• The Dirang area is a medium-to-high enthalpy geothermal zone (~115°C), with geological features supporting efficient and low-impact drilling.
• The project involves CESHS, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Icelandic firm Geotropy ehf, and Guwahati Boring Service (GBS).
• It is supported by the Arunachal Pradesh government and India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• This marks a major step toward clean, eco-friendly energy solutions in the high-altitude region.

What is Geothermal energy?

• Geothermal energy is heat energy from the earth—geo (earth) + thermal (heat).
• Geothermal resources are reservoirs of hot water that exist or are human-made at varying temperatures and depths below the earth’s surface.
• It taps into the Earth’s subsurface heat for direct heating or electricity generation, requiring medium- to high-temperature resources typically found near tectonic activity.
• Its key advantages are low cost, reliable year-round operation, and the ability to provide steady, dispatchable power—making it increasingly valuable alongside intermittent sources like solar and wind.

Applications of Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal energy serves multiple purposes, including heating and cooling buildings with heat pumps, generating electricity with power plants, and directly heating structures through direct-use applications.
• Geothermal energy can be used for fruit, nut, and meat drying, space heating, and controlled-atmosphere storage—key to improving agriculture and living conditions in high-altitude areas.

Concerns

• Geothermal energy can cause minor earthquakes in seismically active areas due to high-pressure water injection
• Drilling and resource exploration require significant investment, making the cost a barrier.
• Viable geothermal sites are often concentrated in specific regions with active tectonic activity.
• It can pose risks such as land subsidence, water use conflicts, and the release of trace gases if not properly managed.

Suggestions and Way Ahead

• The successful drilling in Northeast marks a major milestone in India’s quest for sustainable energy.
• Geothermal energy can play a vital role in a low-carbon, resilient energy future.
• But it needs continued research, technological innovation, and supportive policies to unlock its full potential
• Public and private sector collaboration will be essential in lowering costs, improving drilling techniques, and integrating geothermal more broadly into energy systems.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India’s Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 protects indigenous communities’ rights, recognizing the rights of indigenous communities and forest dwellers, unlike global conservation policies that restrict human access to protected areas.

About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

• It is officially known as the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
• It aims to correct historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities by recognizing their land and resource rights.
• It ensures that Scheduled Tribes (STs) and other traditional forest dwellers can legally access and manage forest resources while contributing to biodiversity conservation.
• It impacts an estimated 150 million forest-dwelling people, 40 million hectares of land, and 1,70,000 villages.

Types of Forest Rights (FRA, 2006)

• Individual Forest Rights (IFR): Individuals and families have the right to cultivation for livelihood and habitation on forest land.
• Community Forest Rights (CFR): Communities have access to traditional community resources and minor forest products such as bamboo, honey, wood oil, and mahua.
• It includes grazing and fishing rights, access to water bodies in forests, habitat rights for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), and access to traditional seasonal resources for pastoral and nomadic communities.
• Community Forest Resource Rights (CFRR): It goes one step beyond CFR as it offers management rights of the forest to the gram sabha instead of the forest department.

Other Key Provisions of the Forest Rights Act (2006)

• Evidence-Based Claims: It provides a framework for recording and verifying forest rights through Gram Sabhas (village councils).
• It accepts traditional knowledge and oral evidence for claim validation.
• Responsibilities of Forest Dwellers: It encourages sustainable use of forest resources while ensuring ecological balance.
• Protection Against Eviction: It prevents forced displacement of forest dwellers without proper legal procedures.
• It ensures rehabilitation and compensation in case of relocation.

Key Concerns & Challenges

• Bureaucratic Resistance and Exclusion: Many forest officials oppose FRA provisions, fearing loss of control over forest lands.
• Forest bureaucracy often rejects claims, leading to mass evictions despite legal protections.
• Legal Battles and Evictions: The Supreme Court, in 2019, ordered the eviction of rejected claimants, affecting 17 lakh tribal families, though protests led to a temporary hold on the order.
• Conflicts with Conservation Policies: India’s protected-area model under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 has led to large-scale displacement of forest communities.
• Conservation laws often criminalize traditional forest use, disregarding community-led biodiversity protection.
• Slow Recognition of CFRs: Estimates suggest 30 million hectares of forest land could be vested as CFRs, benefiting 200 million people, but progress has been slow.
• As of October 2023, only 2.3 million land titles have been granted, while 4.5 million claims remain unresolved.

Global Efforts for Forest Conservation

• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), introduced at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, is the largest international agreement, with 196 countries as signatories, guiding conservation laws worldwide.
• India, recognized as one of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, has developed legal instruments and governance systems to align with the CBD’s objectives.
• UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007): It was passed to address discrimination against Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs), the declaration affirms their right to maintain and strengthen their institutions, cultures, and traditions.
• Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF): It was adopted at COP-15 in 2022, that promotes the equitable representation of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) in conservation efforts.
• It includes the ‘30 by 30’ target, aiming to protect 30% of the world’s land and marine areas by 2030 while ensuring IPLC participation.

How the FRA Differs from Global Conservation Laws?

• Community-Led Conservation: Unlike laws that displace indigenous peoples, the FRA acknowledges their historical role in protecting forests.
• Studies show that traditional governance systems used by indigenous groups help preserve ecosystems more effectively than state-controlled conservation.
• Legal Recognition of Forest Dwellers: The FRA grants land and resource rights to Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
• It overrides colonial-era laws that declared forests as state-owned land, disregarding indigenous claims.
• Balancing Conservation and Livelihoods: The FRA allows communities to harvest minor forest produce, ensuring economic sustainability while preserving ecosystems.
• Global conservation models often criminalize indigenous practices, leading to forced evictions.

India’s Legal Instruments for Conservation

• Biological Diversity Act (BDA), 2002: It supports documentation and protection of traditional knowledge related to biodiversity. It establishes a three-tier institutional system:
• National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) at the central level.
• State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) at the state level.
• Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at the local level.
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and Project Tiger, 1973: It introduced the protected area model, creating national parks, sanctuaries, and tiger reserves.
• As of February 2025, India has 1,134 protected areas and 58 tiger reserves.
• Scheduled and Tribal Areas: Articles 244 & 244A of Indian Constitution acknowledges the distinct status of Adivasis and other tribal groups, while it does not officially use the term ‘indigenous peoples’.
• Tribal and Forest Rights: The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA), 1996 empowers Gram Sabhas (village councils) in tribal regions with decision-making authority.
• India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAPs): India’s updated NBSAPs outline 23 key conservation goals for 2023, including biodiversity protection and IPLC rights recognition.
• It relies on existing institutional frameworks, limiting the scope for more decentralized, community-led approaches.

Conclusion

• India’s Forest Rights Act sets a global precedent for inclusive conservation, ensuring that indigenous communities remain stewards of biodiversity.
• Strengthening its implementation can further protect both forests and livelihoods, making India’s approach a model for sustainable conservation worldwide.