General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Union government announced that the much delayed Census 2021 will be held in two phases beginning October 1, 2026 and March 1, 2027.

About

• The census, typically conducted every ten years to update the National Population Register (NPR), was scheduled for 2021 but had to be postponed due to the Covid pandemic.
• The delimitation of constituencies for the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies is to be carried out on the basis of the first Census after 2026.
• This will be India’s first digital Census and will be the first Census since 1931 to capture granular caste data, beyond the broader classifications of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) that have been enumerated in every post-Independence Census.

Census in India

• A census is a survey of the population of an area that includes collecting details of a country’s demographics including age, sex and occupation.
• History: Under W.C. Plowden, the Census Commissioner of India, the first synchronous decennial (every ten years) census was conducted in 1881.
• Independent India’s first census was held in 1951 and since then it has happened in the first year of every decade.
• The Constitution mandates that enumeration is carried out but the Census of India Act of 1948 does not specify its timing or periodicity.
• The population census is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Need for the Census

• Informed Policy Making: The Census provides detailed socio-economic data, helping the government make informed decisions on issues like education, healthcare, housing, employment, and infrastructure.
• Evaluating Development Progress: Comparing census data over decades helps assess the effectiveness of past policies, guiding future strategies.
• Environmental Planning: The Census provides insights into human settlements and demographic pressures, supporting environmental sustainability efforts.
• Electoral Reforms and Delimitation: Census data directly impacts the delimitation of constituencies, ensuring fair representation in Parliament and State Legislatures.

Way Ahead

• The upcoming Census presents a critical opportunity to bridge long-standing data gaps, especially on caste and socio-economic markers.
• Enumerators must be adequately trained to handle complex classifications, particularly for caste data, to ensure reliability and uniformity across states.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: While closing the 2007 Salwa Judum case, the Supreme Court recently observed that any law made by the Parliament or a State Legislature cannot be held to be an act of contempt of Court.

SC’s Direction

• Every State Legislature has plenary powers to pass an enactment and so long as the said enactment has not been declared to be ultra vires the Constitution or, in any way, null and void by a constitutional court, the said enactment would have the force of law.
• The top court affirmed that the legislature can pass a law to nullify the basis of a judgment or amend a struck-down law to align it with a constitutional court’s ruling.
  • This is the core of the doctrine of separation of powers and must always be acknowledged in a constitutional democracy.

About Contempt of the Court

• Definition: It refers to any act or omission that obstructs or interferes with the due administration of justice or shows disrespect to the authority, dignity, and integrity of a court.
• Types of Contempt:
  • Civil Contempt: Wilful disobedience to any judgment, order, direction, or decree of a court, or wilful breach of an undertaking given to a court.
  • Criminal Contempt: Any act that scandalizes or lowers the authority of the court, prejudices or interferes with judicial proceedings, obstructs administration of justice in any other manner.
• Constitutional and Statutory Basis:
  • Article 129: Supreme Court shall be a court of record and shall have all the powers to punish for its contempt.
  • Article 215: High Courts enjoy similar powers.
  • Contempt of Courts Act, 1971: Statutory framework defining and regulating contempt proceedings in India.
  • Article 142(2): Also empowers the Supreme Court to make orders for the punishment of contempt, subject to any law made by Parliament.
• Safeguards:
  • Truth as Defence: Post-2006 Amendment, truth can be a valid defence if it is in public interest and made in a bona fide manner.
  • Fair and Reasonable Criticism: Constructive and balanced criticism of judicial decisions is permitted.
  • Apology: A genuine, unqualified apology can often lead to dropping of charges.

Issues and Concerns

• Potential restriction on freedom of speech and expression (Article 19(1)(a))
• Vagueness of definitions, especially “scandalizing the court,” which can be subjective.
• Potential for misuse to shield the judiciary from legitimate criticism.
• The fact that similar laws have been abolished in some countries, like the UK.

Recent Developments

• Law Commission 274th Report (2018): Recommended retaining criminal contempt in its current form, citing persistent challenges like non-compliance and erosion of respect for courts.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• According to recent data from the IMF, India has surpassed Japan to become the world’s fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP based on Market Exchange Rates (MER), however Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) rankings suggest India has been the third-largest economy since 2009.

Understanding GDP and India’s Economic Rank

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) represents the total value of all goods and services produced within a nation’s borders over a specific period.
• Governments, economists, and policymakers rely on GDP to assess economic growth, formulate policies, and compare economies globally.

India’s GDP Ranking: MER or PPP Methods

• India’s GDP ranking varies depending on whether it is measured using Market Exchange Rates (MER) or Purchasing Power Parity (PPP).
  • Market Exchange Rates (MER): It converts a country’s GDP into US dollars using current exchange rates.
    • It reflects the economy’s size in global financial markets but does not account for cost-of-living differences.
  • Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): It adjusts GDP based on the relative cost of goods and services in different countries.
    • It provides a more accurate measure of economic strength by considering what people can actually buy with their incomes.
    • PPP is often considered a better measure of economic well-being because it accounts for differences in living costs.

GDP vs Per Capita GDP

• India’s per capita GDP in 2024: $2,711 (market exchange rates), ranking 144th globally.
  • Vietnam, once behind India in 1991, had a per capita GDP of $4,536 in 2024.
• Even in PPP terms, India’s per capita GDP ranks only 127th among 196 countries.

Key Drivers of Growth

• Demographic Advantage: India boasts a young and growing workforce, which contributes to its expanding economy.
• Technological Innovation: The country has made significant strides in digital transformation, boosting productivity and efficiency.
• Infrastructure Development: Investments in roads, railways, and urban expansion have strengthened economic foundations.
• Global Trade and Manufacturing: India’s push to become a manufacturing hub has attracted foreign investments and enhanced exports.

Challenges Ahead

• Income Inequality: Economic progress has not been evenly distributed, with disparities in wealth and access to resources.
• Concerns Related to Employment, Health, Education: While GDP growth is strong, job creation has lagged, raising concerns about sustainable development, income distribution, health, education, or living conditions.
• Policy Reforms: Continued structural reforms are necessary to maintain momentum and address economic vulnerabilities.

Way Forward: Beyond GDP Measures

• There is a need to move beyond GDP and embrace multi-dimensional indicators, such as: Health outcomes, Educational attainment, Access to basic services, Income equality, and Quality of employment to accurately assess India’s development status.

Conclusion

• Both MER and PPP offer valuable insights, but PPP is often considered a better measure of economic well-being, as it accounts for cost-of-living differences and reflects real purchasing power.
• However, MER remains crucial for assessing India’s position in global trade and investment.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

India is facing increasingly severe heatwaves with 2024 and early 2025 seeing record temperatures and early heatwave conditions.

Heat waves

• They are periods of unusually high temperatures relative to a region’s normal climate.
• The threshold for declaring a heat wave varies by location based on historical temperature patterns.
• Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40 degree C or more for Plains and at least 30 degree C or more for Hilly regions
• Factors like high humidity, strong winds, and prolonged duration can worsen their impact.

Impacts

• According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), India lost an estimated $100 billion in productivity due to heat-related work disruptions, particularly impacting informal and outdoor workers like farmers, construction workers, and delivery partners.
• The World Bank estimates that 75% of India’s workforce (380 million people) work in heat-exposed sectors.
• Heatwaves also harm agriculture, reducing crop yields (e.g., wheat yields drop 5.2% per 1°C rise) and affecting livestock.
  • Urban areas face the “urban heat island” effect, where infrastructure retains heat, worsening nighttime temperatures.
• The CEEW report reveals that 57% of Indian districts are at high heat risk. States like Delhi, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh are particularly vulnerable.
  • Rapid urbanisation and poor housing exacerbate heat risks, especially in Tier-II and Tier-III cities.

Government Steps

• Government response includes heat action plans at city and State levels, NDMA guidelines, and measures like shaded shelters, water supply, and urban greening. Some cities, like Chennai, have mapped urban heat islands for planning.
• However, rural areas remain underprotected, lacking robust healthcare and infrastructure.
• Experts suggest insurance schemes for heat-affected workers, strategic long-term investments, and compensation models for income loss due to heat-related work stoppages
• Heatwaves are a growing climate threat that demands coordinated short-term action and long-term policy solutions focused on resilience, equity, and sustainable urban development.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

India and Japan have formally agreed to deepen maritime relations, reaffirming their shared commitment to regional cooperation in the maritime sector.

Key Highlights of Maritime Cooperation

• Smart Islands and Renewable Energy: Japan has extended support to develop Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands into smart, green islands using renewable energy, disaster-resilient infrastructure, and sustainable maritime ecosystems.
• Port Digitisation and Emission Reduction: The two sides have agreed on using digital technologies in port operations to enhance efficiency, reduce logistical costs, and minimise carbon emissions. This aligns with India’s smart port initiative.
• Employment and Skilling of Seafarers: With over 1.54 lakh trained Indian seafarers, Japan has expressed interest in recruiting Indian maritime professionals to meet its skilled labour shortage in the maritime sector.
• Investment in Maritime Infrastructure: Japan’s Imabari Shipbuilding is proposing a greenfield shipyard project in Andhra Pradesh, reflecting Japan’s intent to bolster India’s domestic shipbuilding capacity, vital for its Maritime India Vision 2030.
• R&D and Technology Transfer: Enhanced cooperation in next-generation ship design, sustainable maritime technologies, and joint R&D through Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL) is on the agenda. This includes clean fuel vessels and automation in shipbuilding.

Significance of the Maritime Agreement

• Strategic Leverage: Strengthens India’s position in Indo-Pacific maritime security and port logistics.
• Green Shipping: Supports India’s vision of carbon-neutral maritime logistics, in sync with Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision 2047.
• Employment Creation: Utilises India’s skilled maritime workforce to plug labour gaps in Japan. Indian seafarers account for nearly 10% of the global maritime workforce.
• Technology Advancement: Facilitates transfer of clean, smart maritime technologies, bolstering India’s innovation base.

Overview of India–Japan Relations

• Foundation:
  • Historical and Cultural Links: Relations are rooted in ancient cultural exchanges, particularly the shared heritage of Buddhism. Figures like Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, and Justice Radha Binod Pal have played roles in fostering connections.
  • Post-WWII Treaty: India was one of the first countries to sign a peace treaty with Japan after World War II in 1952, waiving all reparation claims, signifying an early foundation of goodwill.
• Strategic Partnership:
  • Indo-Pacific Vision: Both nations share the vision of a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific” (FOIP) and “Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI),” crucial for regional peace, stability, and prosperity.
  • Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad): India and Japan are key members of the Quad, alongside the United States and Australia, which aims to promote security and stability in the Indo-Pacific.
  • Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI): They work together under the SCRI framework to diversify supply chains and reduce reliance on single sources, particularly to counter China’s dominance.
  • Defense Cooperation: This includes joint military exercises (e.g., JIMEX, Dharma Guardian), 2+2 dialogues (ministerial-level discussions), and agreements like the Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA) for logistics support. There’s a growing focus on co-production of defense equipment, such as the UNICORN mast system.
• Economic Engagement:
  • Growing Trade: Japan’s bilateral trade with India totaled US$ 22.85 billion during FY 2023-24.
  • Investment Target: Japan aims for five trillion-yen (Rs 3.2 lakh crore) in public and private investment and financing in India by 2027. Japan is the fifth-largest source of FDI in India, with over 1,400 Japanese companies operating there.
  • Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA): Signed in 2011, CEPA aims to strengthen bilateral trade, though challenges remain in fully leveraging it.
  • Official Development Assistance (ODA): Japan has been India’s largest bilateral donor since 1958, supporting major infrastructure and development projects.
• Infrastructure Development:
  • Flagship Projects: Japan is a crucial partner in major infrastructure projects, notably the Mumbai-Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail (Bullet Train) and metro systems in various Indian cities (e.g., Delhi, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Chennai).
  • North-East Development: Japan actively invests in infrastructure development in India’s Northeast region, aligning with India’s Act East Policy, focusing on road networks, bridges, and urban infrastructure.
  • Partnership for Quality Infrastructure: This Japanese model emphasizes high-quality and sustainable infrastructure.
• Energy and Technology Collaboration:
  • Civil Nuclear Agreement (2017): Facilitates cooperation in civil nuclear energy.
  • Space Collaboration: Joint projects like the Lunar Polar Exploration Mission by ISRO and JAXA.
  • Technology Transfer: Efforts to promote Japanese environmental technologies and sustainable practices in Indian industries.
• People-to-People Ties:
  • Skill Development: Programs like the Technical Intern Training Programme (TITP) and Specified Skilled Worker (SSW) facilitate the supply of skilled Indian manpower to Japan’s aging economy.
  • Cultural Exchange: Continued exchanges rooted in Buddhism, academic programs, and growing youth engagement.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

Recently, the Delhi High Court has issued a ruling safeguarding the personality and publicity rights of the founder of Isha Foundation.

• It highlights the growing concerns over AI-generated deepfakes and unauthorized use of public figures’ identities.

About the Personality and Publicity Rights

• Personality rights refer to an individual’s ability to control the commercial use of their identity. These rights are often divided into two categories:
  • Right to Privacy: Recognised under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
    • Reinforced in the landmark Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017) judgment, which elevated privacy to the status of a fundamental right.
  • Right to Publicity: Prevents unauthorized commercial use of a person’s identity.
    • Elements of Personality Rights are name, image, likeness, voice, and signature etc.

Concerns in Personality Rights

• Lack of Comprehensive Legal Framework: India does not have a dedicated law governing personality rights, relying instead on copyright, trademark, and privacy laws.
  • The absence of clear statutory protections makes enforcement difficult.
• AI-Generated Deepfakes & Digital Manipulation: The rise of AI has led to the creation of deepfake videos and voice clones, allowing unauthorized use of a person’s identity.
• Commercial Exploitation Without Consent: Celebrities and influencers often find their likeness used in advertisements without permission.
  • The right to publicity is meant to prevent such misuse, but enforcement is inconsistent.
• Challenges in Enforcement:
  • Jurisdictional Issues: Online violations often involve international platforms, making legal action complex.
  • Balancing Free Speech & Protection: Courts must weigh freedom of expression against personality rights, especially in satire and parody cases.
  • Rogue Websites & Social Media Violations: Websites that misuse personality rights can reappear under different names, making enforcement difficult.

Legal & Constitutional Provisions.

• Copyright Act, 1957: It grants performers rights over their work, ensuring that their image and voice are not used without permission.
• Trade Marks Act, 1999: It allows individuals to trademark their name or likeness, preventing unauthorized commercial use.
• Tort of Passing Off: It prevents misleading commercial use of a person’s identity, ensuring that their reputation is not exploited.
• Advisories, guidelines, and IT rules: Though India lacks specific legislation for Artificial Intelligence (AI) , IT rules govern the advancement of AI, Generative AI, and Large Language Models (LLMs).

Judicial Precedents

• Jackie Shroff Case (2024): Delhi HC restrained unauthorised use of his persona by AI chatbots and e-commerce platforms.
• Krishna Kishore Singh v. Sarla A. Saraogi (2021): SC held that publicity rights are distinct from privacy rights and can outlive the individual.
• Arun Jaitley v. Network Solutions Pvt. Ltd. (2011): Delhi HC acknowledged the commercial significance of one’s name, especially in the digital space.

Global Perspective

• The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) recognizes personality rights as an essential part of intellectual property law.
• Many countries, including the United States and European nations, have specific statutes governing publicity rights, ensuring individuals can control how their identity is used commercially.
  • Ensuring Likeness, Voice, and Image Security Act of 2024 (ELVIS Act) was passed in the State of Tennessee, USA to protect musicians from unauthorised use of their voice, i.e. ‘soundalikes’.

General Studies Paper-2

Context                                                       

• Under its ‘Operation Spider’s Web’, Ukraine launched first-person view (FPV) drone attacks on five airbases across Russia.

First-person View Drones

• FPV or first-person view drones are smaller in size and have cameras built in on the front, which sends live video to the operator.
• This enables precise flying and manoeuvrability by the operator from a remote location, almost like an aircraft.
• These drones used Russian mobile-telephone networks to relay their footage back to Ukraine.

Recent Use of Drones

• In the early years of the 21st century, most drone strikes were carried out by the US military in countries such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Syria, Somalia, Yemen, and Libya, using air-to-surface missiles against ground targets.
• Drone warfare has since been adopted by countries like Russia, Ukraine, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Iran, as well as by non-state actors such as the Houthis.
• India, too, has employed drones in recent operations, including the Operation Sindoor and retaliatory strikes against Pakistan.

What is Drone Warfare? 

• Drone warfare refers to a mode of warfare employing unmanned or remotely controlled devices.
  • Such drones have the capability of staying in the air, on land, at sea level, or underwater.
  • The drones may be operated by manual control, and others may utilise auto-pilot systems on their missions.
• Remotely Piloted Aircraft System: It refers to a set of components that include the drone, its ground-based control system.
  • The US, UK, Israel, China, India, Russia, and Turkey, have produced combat drones, or UCAVs (Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles).
  • These are employed in targeted attacks, frequently in locations difficult to access by conventional forces.
• AI: The second stage of drone application is artificial intelligence. AI drones can navigate on their own, detect targets, and even operate in “swarm” groups.

Evolution of UAVs

• In the 1960s, British Commonwealth artillery regiments started developing drones for target identification and extending their range.
• The past two decades saw the US set the trend world-wide with using drones for its counterterrorism action in Iraq, Syria, Afghanistan, and Yemen with precision attacks minimising personnel risks.
• It was the Ukraine war that saw a turning point.
  • Russian and Ukrainian forces both used small drones on a massive scale for real-time intelligence and direct attacks.
• By 2023, small drones had evolved to accommodate multiple payloads – from infrared detectors to electronic warfare equipment.

Significance of Use of Drones in Warfare

• Targeted Strikes: Drones allow militaries to carry out highly targeted attacks, minimizing collateral damage.
• Lower Risk to Personnel: Since drones are unmanned, they eliminate the risk to pilots and reduce the need for boots on the ground.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Drones are cheaper to manufacture, operate, and maintain compared to manned aircraft.
• Real-Time Surveillance and Intelligence: Drones provide continuous, real-time imagery and intelligence gathering, essential for both offensive and defensive operations.
• Strategic Advantage in Asymmetric Warfare: Drones are especially useful against non-state actors and terrorist groups, who may not be reachable by conventional military means.

Way Ahead

• The fact that Ukraine was able to destroy such a large number of Russia’s aircraft deep inside Russia territory demonstrates the effectiveness of such deep-strike programmes and taking the possibilities of drone warfare to another level.
• As technology advances, drones will increasingly be utilised for military and civilian missions.
• Rise of autonomous and AI-driven systems could further revolutionize military doctrine.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Russia is actively pushing for the revival of the Russia-India-China (RIC) trilateral format, a strategic dialogue that has been largely dormant for nearly five years.

What is the RIC format?

• Initiated in the late 1990s by former Russian Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov, the RIC format was conceived as a strategic counterweight to Western dominance.
• It facilitated over 20 ministerial-level meetings, promoting cooperation in foreign policy, economics, and security.
• The format lost momentum following the 2020 Galwan Valley incident, which significantly strained India-China relations.

Reasons for Russia’s Push to Revive RIC

• Easing India-China Tensions: Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov has explicitly stated that the time is ripe for RIC’s revival due to signs of de-escalation in India-China border tensions.
• Countering Western Influence: Russia views the increasing influence of Western alliances like NATO and the Quad (US, Japan, Australia, India) as a threat to regional stability.
• Strengthening Eurasian Security Architecture: Russia aims to promote a “single and equitable system of security and cooperation in Eurasia” through the revived RIC. This aligns with Moscow’s broader objective of establishing a multipolar world order and reducing reliance on Western-centric institutions.

Importance of Russia-India-China (RIC) Trilateral Format

• Geographic and Economic Scale:
  • The RIC countries collectively occupy over 19% of the global landmass & contribute to over 33% of global GDP.
  • All three nations are members of crucial international groupings such as BRICS, G20, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).
• Promotion of Multilateralism and a Multipolar World Order:
  • RIC offers a significant non-Western voice on global issues.
  • Russia and China are permanent members of the UN Security Council, giving the RIC considerable diplomatic and strategic leverage on the international stage.
• Eurasian Integration and Connectivity:
  • The RIC format can complement and potentially accelerate major regional integration projects like International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) & Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), led by Russia.
  • It will enhance regional stability across Eurasia.

Challenges to the RIC Revival

• Lingering India-China Border Disputes: Despite recent diplomatic engagements, unresolved border issues between India and China remain a significant hurdle. A persistent trust deficit could impede the effectiveness of the RIC.
• India’s Strategic Alignments: India’s active participation in the Quad and its deepening ties with Western nations demonstrate its strategic balancing act. Navigating close alignment with both RIC and Western alliances could pose diplomatic complexities for India.
• Russia-China Dynamics: Russia’s growing closeness with China, especially in the wake of the Ukraine conflict, might raise concerns in India about the impartiality of the RIC platform and its potential to become unduly influenced by Beijing.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, New Zealand’s Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs visited India and emphasized India’s role as a ‘geopolitical giant’ and an ‘indispensable security actor’.

About India-New Zealand Relations

• India and New Zealand established their diplomatic relations in 1952. Both countries are members of the Commonwealth, sharing democratic values and governance principles.
• They collaborate on regional and global security issues, particularly in the Indo-Pacific. They emphasize freedom of navigation, maritime security, and counterterrorism efforts.
• New Zealand identified India as a priority country in its ‘Opening Doors to India’ policy notified in October 2011, which was reiterated in 2015.

Strategic and Defence Cooperation 

• In March 2025, both nations signed a Defence MoU to enhance military cooperation, including staff college exchanges and naval port calls.
• New Zealand’s participation in ‘Combined Task Force 150’ highlights its commitment to maritime security in the Indian Ocean.
  • Combined Task Force 150 is based in Bahrain and focuses on maritime security in the Middle East and piracy in the Indian Ocean and Gulf of Aden.
• INSV Tarini, an Indian Naval Sailing Vessel (INSV), a circumnavigation mission under ‘Navika Sagar Parikrama-II’ made a port call at Port Lyttelton recently.
  • Earlier, two Indian Naval Ships, INS Sahyadri and INS Kolkata, made port calls in New Zealand in 2023, with one ship visiting Wellington and the other Auckland.

Economic and Trade Relations

• Bilateral Trade (2023-24): $1.75 Billion
  • NZ exported US$ 0.84 Billion & imported US$ 0.91 Billion of total goods and services.
  • India primarily imports wool, iron & steel, fruits & nuts, and aluminum, while exporting pharmaceuticals, mechanical machinery, and textiles to New Zealand.
• Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (CFTA): It was announced by both nations, aiming to enhance market access and strengthen supply chain integration in March 2025.
• It is expected to grow with New Zealand’s participation in India’s Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI).

Education and Cultural Exchange

• New Zealand hosts approximately 300,000 persons of Indian origin, contributing to its diverse cultural landscape.
• Additionally, around 8,000 Indian students pursue higher education in fields such as information technology, hospitality, science, engineering, and architecture.
• Tourism and sports, particularly cricket, hockey, and mountaineering, have played a significant role in fostering goodwill between the two nations.

 Key Concerns in Bilateral Relations

• Trade Barriers: India’s exit from the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) due to concerns over agricultural imports has impacted trade negotiations.
• Geopolitical Challenges: New Zealand’s strong trade ties with China ($24 billion) raise strategic concerns for India.
• Political Sensitivities: India has expressed concerns over anti-India activities in New Zealand, including protests by certain groups.
  • While New Zealand upholds free expression, such issues require careful diplomatic handling.

Conclusion

• New Zealand’s renewed focus on India reflects a broader shift in its foreign policy, emphasizing realism, diplomacy, and the significance of small states in global affairs.
• As both nations continue to collaborate on defence, security, and trade, their partnership is set to play a vital role in shaping the Indo-Pacific’s future.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to a new study published in the journal Science, If the world gets warmer by 2.7°C due to the current trajectory of climate policies, only 24% of the world’s present-day glaciers will remain.

What are glaciers?

• They are essentially large and thick masses of ice that are formed on land due to the accumulation of snow over centuries.
• They hold 70 per cent of the Earth’s freshwater, currently encompassing around 10 percent of the planet’s land area.

Key findings of the study

• Massive Glacier Loss: The study cautioned that even if temperatures stopped rising today, the world’s glaciers would still lose 39% of their mass, compared to 2020 levels, and that would lead to a sea level rise of 113 mm.
• Disproportionate Impact on Some Regions: Glaciers in Scandinavia, the Rockies in Western Canada and the US, and the European Alps are particularly vulnerable.
• A recent glacier collapse in Blatten, Switzerland, which buried parts of a village, highlights this vulnerability.
• High Sensitivity to Incremental Warming: For every 0.1°C increase in global temperature between 1.5°C and 3°C, there is a 2% global glacier loss, with steeper regional impacts.
• Hindu Kush Himalaya Under Threat: The study estimates that only 25% of ice will remain in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region at 2°C warming. This region feeds key river systems– Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra –vital to South Asia.

Impacts of Glaciers loss

• Water Security in South Asia: Himalayan glaciers serve as perennial sources for India’s major rivers.
  • Their depletion threatens agricultural output, drinking water supplies, and hydroelectric generation, particularly during the dry season.
• Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Risk: The glacier melt contributes to global sea-level rise, endangering coastal populations, particularly in low-lying nations like the Maldives and coastal Indian cities.
• Ecosystem Disruption: Glacial melt impacts mountain biodiversity, alpine ecosystems, and can lead to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
• Socioeconomic Consequences: Loss of water sources may lead to climate-induced migration, conflict over resources, and increased poverty in already vulnerable regions.

Global Initiatives to conserve glaciers

• Paris Agreement 2015, aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels.
• High Mountain Summit (WMO): Recognizes mountains and glaciers as climate sentinels and promotes early warning systems and enhanced data sharing.
• International Cryosphere Climate Initiative (ICCI): Established in 2009 as a result of the COP-15, it is a network of senior policy experts and researchers that works with governments and organizations.
  • It creates and implements initiatives designed to preserve the Earth’s cryosphere.
  • National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) is a government initiative aimed at addressing climate change and its impacts on the Himalayan region.
  • It focuses on developing sustainable strategies, and addressing issues like glacial melt, natural hazards, and biodiversity loss.
• The Arctic Council: It is a forum for Arctic countries to collaborate on environmental protection, sustainable development, and climate change mitigation in the Arctic region.
  • Global Ice Monitoring Initiatives like the World Meteorological Organization’s Global Cryosphere Watch (GCW) and the European Space Agency’s CryoSat mission use satellite-based remote sensing to monitor changes in glaciers and ice sheets.

Concluding remarks

• The accelerating loss of glaciers due to rising global temperatures is a stark reminder of the urgent need for coordinated climate action.
• While global initiatives such as the Paris Agreement and IPCC reports provide a strategic framework, their success hinges on timely implementation and increased ambition by all nations.