General Studies Paper-3

Context: The U.S. and China agreed to suspend most tariffs on each other’s goods.

Background

Why were Tariffs Levied?

• Trade Imbalance: The U.S. Trade Representative pointed to a $1.2 trillion trade deficit with the rest of the world as justification for tariffs.
• The Trump administration viewed this as the U.S. being “ripped off” by trading partners who protected and subsidized their own industries while benefiting from open U.S. markets.
  • Strategic Protectionism: The administration believed that talking had not helped change global trade behavior, so high tariffs were seen as a tool to force other countries to open their markets.

Revised Tariffs After Geneva Talks

• Both have reached an agreement on a 90-day pause and substantially move down the tariff levels.
• The deal means “reciprocal” tariffs between both countries will be cut from 125% to 10%.
• The U.S.′ 20% duties on Chinese imports relating to fentanyl will remain in place, meaning total tariffs on China stand at 30%.

Why Was There a Truce?

• China’s Retaliation: Unlike other countries, China responded with its own counter-tariffs and non-tariff barriers escalating the trade conflict.
• Economic Concerns in the U.S.: At peak levels (U.S.: 145%, China: 125%), tariffs became prohibitively expensive for consumers and businesses.
  • Example: A $100 Chinese product became $245 in the U.S.
  • The U.S. economy began contracting in Q1 2025 — even before the full impact of the tariffs had hit.
  • Economists predicted a recession and possibly stagflation (a rare combo of economic stagnation and inflation).
• Consumer Pressure:S. consumers faced rising prices and shrinking product availability, especially at major retailers like Walmart.
  • Public and political pressure mounted as economic conditions worsened.
• China’s Economic Resilience: While China’s exports to the U.S. dropped 21%, its overall exports rose 8%, and GDP grew 5.4% in the same quarter.
  • China’s global trade surplus increased, indicating that it had managed to diversify and offset the U.S. losses.

Way Ahead

• The current agreement is a truce, not a full trade deal.
• Market reactions have been positive — stocks and the dollar rose, while gold and bonds fell, indicating reduced risk perception.
• However, the talks that follow will be complex, and no guarantees exist for a comprehensive trade deal.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India, now among the top global generators of electronic waste (e-waste), faces a critical challenge in managing the growing volume of obsolete electronic devices.

E-Waste in India

• E-waste refers to the discarded electronic and electrical devices that have reached the end of their lifespan or become obsolete due to rapid technological changes, including computers, phones, TVs, and other equipment.
• India ranks as the third-largest producer of electronic waste globally, following China and the United States.
• Growth: India’s e-waste increased by 151.03% over six years, from 7.08 lakh metric tonnes in 2017-18 to 17.78 lakh metric tonnes in 2023-24.

Impact of Improper E-Waste Management

• Environmental Degradation:
  • Water Pollution: Toxic discharge from cyanide and sulphuric acid affects water bodies.
  • Air Pollution: Emissions from lead fumes and plastic burning are severe.
  • Soil Contamination: Hazardous substances leach into the soil, damaging agriculture and biodiversity.
• Social Costs:
  • Informal Sector Dominance: 95% of e-waste is recycled informally, involving mostly women and children.
  • Health Hazards: Average lifespan in informal e-waste workers is under 27 years due to toxic exposure.
• Economic Loss:
  • India is estimated to forfeit over ₹80,000 crore worth of critical metals each year, which could have been recovered and re-used in manufacturing.
  • It is estimated that India loses at least $20 billion annually in potential tax revenue due to the absence of formal accounting and regulatory oversight in the e-waste recycling sector.

Challenges in E-Waste Management

• Lack of Consumer Incentives: Consumers lack economic or logistical incentives to dispose of e-waste responsibly.
• Sparse Collection Infrastructure: There is a dearth of authorised collection centres, especially in Tier-II and Tier-III cities.
• Informal scrap dealers remain the primary point of contact for most consumers.
• Unsafe Recycling Practices: Over 90–95% of e-waste is handled by the informal sector, which uses crude methods such as acid leaching, open burning, and manual dismantling without protective gear.
• Grey Channel Imports: Used electronic goods often enter India under the guise of “donations” or “refurbished items,” which eventually become waste.

E-Waste Management Framework

• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Producers, importers, and brand owners are made responsible for managing their product’s end-of-life waste.
• An online EPR E-Waste portal has been developed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) where entities such as producers, manufacturers, recyclers, and refurbishers of the e-waste are required to be registered.
• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has comprehensively revised the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 and notified the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022.
• India’s first e-waste clinic was inaugurated in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
• It’s a facility for segregating, processing, and disposing of e-waste from both households and commercial units.

Concluding remarks

• India’s e-waste challenge reflects a broader conflict between technological advancement and environmental sustainability.
• As the country climbs the digital ladder, it must not let toxic waste undermine its economic and ecological foundation.
• The goal should not merely be to manage e-waste, but to extract value, protect health, and foster green economic growth—all of which are essential to India’s journey toward Viksit Bharat.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Union Government approved an additional 2.8 million tonnes of rice from the Food Corporation of India (FCI) stock for ethanol production, raising the total allocation for the Ethanol Supply Year (ESY) 2024–25 to 5.2 million tonnes.

About

• The decision, under the Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme, aims to accelerate biofuel use, but has reignited concerns over the diversion of food grains from food security to fuel needs.

What is Ethanol and the EBP Programme?

• Ethanol is an alcohol-based biofuel made through the fermentation of sugar, starch, or cellulose derived from crops like sugarcane, maize, and rice. When blended with petrol, it helps reduce vehicular emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.
• The Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme was launched in 2003 and accelerated since 2014. It mandates the blending of ethanol with petrol.
• India has achieved its E20 target — 20% ethanol blending in petrol by 2025 — and now aims to reach 30% blending by 2030.

Significance of the Move

• Energy Security: Helps reduce India’s import dependence on crude oil and promotes energy self-reliance.
• Climate Benefits: Ethanol is a cleaner fuel that emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to pure petrol.
• Rural Economy Boost: Creates demand for surplus agricultural produce, potentially benefiting farmers through better prices.
• Policy Push for Green Energy: Aligns with India’s commitment under the Paris Agreement and targets for renewable energy use.

Concerns Regarding the Move

• Food Security Risk: Diverting 5.2 million tonnes of rice from central buffer stocks could strain the Public Distribution System (PDS), especially during drought years or inflationary periods.
• Price Distortion: Cheap supply of FCI rice (₹50/kg) to distilleries may affect open market prices and hurt the poor.
• Ecological Unsustainability: Rice is a water-intensive crop, and its use for ethanol raises concerns in water-stressed regions.
• Inefficient Use of Resources: Critics argue that ethanol from food grains is not the most efficient or ethical route, especially when alternatives like second-generation (2G) ethanol from waste biomass exist.
• Distortion of Agricultural Priorities: Over-reliance on a few ethanol feedstocks (rice, sugarcane, maize) may affect crop diversification and soil health.

Way Forward

• Focus should shift towards 2G ethanol (from agricultural waste and non-food biomass).
• Establish clear guidelines balancing food security with biofuel goals.
• Improve ethanol production efficiency from non-edible sources.
• Ensure transparent audits on the use of diverted grains and their impact on PDS stocks.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Executive Board of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) decided to allow for “an immediate disbursement” of $1 billion (around Rs 8,500 crore) to Pakistan.

• This disbursal was done as part of IMF’s Extended Fund Facility (EFF) to Pakistan.

What is the Extended Fund Facility (EFF)?

• The Extended Fund Facility is a loan-based support mechanism provided by the IMF to countries that suffer from medium-term balance of payments problems, particularly due to structural deficiencies in their economies.
• Unlike short-term bailouts, the EFF is designed to assist countries in implementing structural reforms that take time to yield results.
• According to the IMF, EFF loans:
  • Offer longer repayment periods
  • Support reforms in fiscal governance, banking, taxation, etc.
  • Target countries with long-standing issues such as poor infrastructure, financial instability, or chronic budget deficits
• It is not financial aid or a grant—countries are expected to repay these funds along with agreed interest.

Resilience and Sustainability Facility (RSF)

• It provides affordable, long-term financing to support low- and vulnerable middle-income countries in implementing macro-critical reforms to address balance of payments risks, particularly those related to climate change and pandemic preparedness.
• It aims to strengthen macroeconomic resilience by supporting policy reforms that reduce these risks and enhance financial buffers.

Why does the IMF consider Pakistan for EFF Assistance?

• Despite its strategic ambitions, Pakistan’s economic fundamentals have steadily deteriorated over the past two decades.
• Stagnant GDP: Pakistan’s GDP in 2023 stood at $338 billion, lower than in 2017.
• Rising Inflation: Double-digit inflation for five consecutive years—culminating in 23.4% in 2024.
• Debt Dependence: Pakistan has availed 28 IMF loans in 35 years and borrowed from China, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Paris Club, Islamic Development Bank, and others.
• Weak Fundamentals: Low savings and investment, poor infrastructure, limited female workforce participation, and consistent fiscal mismanagement.
• According to the IMF, Pakistan’s recent efforts under the EFF have shown signs of progress:
  • Inflation dropped significantly to 0.3% in April 2025
  • Increase in foreign exchange reserves
  • Structural reforms like the Agricultural Income Tax and improved fiscal controls.

India’s Dissent: Strategic and Security Concerns

• India formally conveyed its strong objections to the IMF Board regarding the disbursement, highlighting two major concerns:
• Track Record of Misuse: India pointed to Pakistan’s poor utilization of previous IMF loans, often failing to implement promised reforms or misallocating funds.
• National Security Threats: Citing state-sponsored cross-border terrorism, India warned that the debt financing might be indirectly used to fund military or terror activities against India.
• While the IMF Executive Board does not allow member countries to vote “against” such proposals, India abstained from the decision as a diplomatic expression of protest.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report 2021, released by the Registrar General of India (RGI), highlights that India’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) has remained constant at 2.0 in 2021, the same as in 2020.

• The survey was conducted in 8,842 sample units across all States, covering about 84 lakh sample population.

Sample Registration System (SRS)

• The Sample Registration System (SRS) is a large-scale demographic survey in India used to collect data on births and deaths, providing annual estimates of vital rates like birth rate, death rate, and infant mortality rate.
• Key features of SRS:
  • Dual Record System: The system uses two sources of information: continuous enumeration by part-time enumerators and six-monthly retrospective surveys by supervisors.
  • Sample-Based: SRS operates on a sample of villages and urban blocks, making it cost-effective and efficient.

Key findings of the report

• Bihar has reported the highest TFR at 3.0, while Delhi and West Bengal reported the lowest TFR of 1.4.
• Demographic Shifts (1971–2021):
  • 0–14 age group: Declined from 41.2% to 24.8%, indicating a falling young population.
  • 15–59 age group (working age): Increased from 53.4% to 66.2%, representing a demographic dividend window.
• The elderly population has gone up from 5.3% to 5.9% for the 65+ age group and 6% to 9% for the 60+ age group during the same period. Kerala reported the highest elderly population at 14.4%.
• The mean age at effective marriage for females has increased from 19.3 years in 1990 to 22.5 years in 2021.

Significance of the Findings

• Population Stabilization: A TFR of 2.0 indicates India is approaching population stabilization, which can ease pressure on natural resources, public services, and the environment.
• Demographic Dividend: A larger working-age population provides an opportunity for increased productivity, and economic growth.
• Improved Maternal health: Fewer childbirths per woman, coupled with delayed age of marriage, lead to reduced maternal mortality, better child care, and healthier families.
• Women Empowerment: Lower fertility rates reflect higher education levels, workforce participation, and greater autonomy among women, leading to better social and economic outcomes.

Negative Impacts of Declining TFR

• Ageing Population: A rise in the elderly population will increase the dependency on the working population, demanding increased focus on pension, healthcare, and social welfare systems.
• Potential for Skewed Sex Ratios: In certain areas, fertility reduction without tackling gender bias can exacerbate sex-selective practices, leading to imbalanced sex ratios.
• Demographic Imbalance: States with vast fertility differences, potentially leading to interstate migration, cultural shifts, and resource strain in low-TFR states.

Concluding Remarks

• The stabilization of India’s Total Fertility Rate reflects a significant demographic shift, signaling that the country is moving closer to achieving replacement-level fertility. However, the associated challenges must not be overlooked.
• A balanced approach that promotes equitable development, strengthens social security, and anticipates future demographic needs is essential to ensure that this transition supports a resilient and prosperous India.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India’s national security landscape is evolving rapidly, with geopolitical tensions, border conflicts, and emerging cyber threats necessitating a comprehensive security doctrine.

India’s National Security Framework

• National security is often perceived as the exclusive domain of the military and law enforcement agencies, but it encompasses politics, diplomacy, social stability, and economic resilience with military defense, cybersecurity, intelligence coordination, and counterterrorism efforts to ensure a nation’s long-term safety and sovereignty.
• Chanakya’s Mandala Theory famously states that an immediate neighbor is likely to be an adversary.
• However, it emphasized that a kingdom is only as secure as its farthest borders, meaning that strategic diplomacy and internal stability play an essential role in national security.

Key Aspects of India’s National Security

• Military and Border Security: India maintains a strong defense posture along its borders with China and Pakistan, ensuring territorial integrity.
  • Recent operations, including Operation Sindoor, have reinforced India’s counterterrorism and military readiness.
• Cybersecurity and Digital Defense: India is investing in cyber defense infrastructure to counter cyber espionage and digital warfare.
  • The government has launched AI-driven cybersecurity initiatives to protect critical infrastructure and financial systems.
• Intelligence and Counterterrorism: India continues to monitor and neutralize terrorist threats, ensuring national stability.
• India’s diplomatic efforts focus on strengthening global security partnerships.

Key National Security Doctrines Around World

• National Security Strategy (NSS) of United States: It outlines U.S. defense priorities, focusing on deterrence, counterterrorism, and cybersecurity.
  • It emphasizes alliances with NATO, Indo-Pacific security, and technological superiority.
• Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation: Russia’s doctrine highlights nuclear deterrence, hybrid warfare, and regional security.
  • It prioritizes defense against NATO expansion and cyber threats.
• Active Defense Strategy of China: It focuses on territorial integrity, military modernization, and cyber warfare. It integrates economic security with military expansion, particularly in the South China Sea.
  • As Sun Tzu says in ‘The Art of War’, ‘To win 100 victories in 100 battles is not the acme of skill. To subdue the enemy without fighting is the acme of skill’.
  • China has not fought a single war since its conflict with Vietnam in 1979.

Why Does India Need a National Security Doctrine?

• Strategic Clarity and Preparedness: A national security doctrine would provide clear guidelines for responding to external threats, military conflicts, and cyber warfare.
  • It would help align defense policies with India’s economic and diplomatic strategies.
• Deterrence Against Hostile Forces: India’s Nuclear Doctrine, established in 2003, emphasized a credible minimum deterrent.
  • However, border tensions with China and Pakistan highlight the need for a broader security framework beyond nuclear deterrence.
• Strengthening Defense and Intelligence Coordination: A formal doctrine would enhance inter-agency coordination between the armed forces, intelligence agencies, and cybersecurity units.
  • It would streamline decision-making processes during national security crises.

Key Elements of a National Security Doctrine

• Defining India’s Strategic Priorities: Identifying core security challenges and long-term defense objectives.
• Cybersecurity and Technological Warfare: Addressing digital threats, AI-driven warfare, and cyber espionage.
• Border Security and Counterterrorism: Strengthening military readiness and intelligence operations.
• Diplomatic and Economic Security: Integrating foreign policy and trade security measures into defense planning.

Conclusion

• India’s security challenges demand a structured national security doctrine that ensures strategic clarity, deterrence, and inter-agency coordination.
• By framing a comprehensive security policy, India can strengthen its defense posture and safeguard national interests in an increasingly complex global environment.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Türkiye’s support for Pakistan on Kashmir, along with defense collaborations, has raised concerns for India.

Türkiye’s Strategic Interests in Pakistan

• Cold War Alliances: Türkiye and Pakistan were part of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD), aligning their policies with Western-led security frameworks.
• Pakistan supported Türkiye’s stance in Cyprus, even offering military assistance during the 1964 and 1971 crises.
• In 1983, Pakistan declared that it would be the first country to recognize Turkish Cyprus if it declared independence, and it further strengthened the ideological bond between both countries.
• Countering Saudi-Emirati Influence: Türkiye, along with Qatar, has sought to challenge Saudi Arabia and the UAE’s dominance in the Muslim world.
  • The Kuala Lumpur Summit (2019), involving Pakistan, Türkiye, Malaysia, and Indonesia, was perceived as an alternative bloc to Riyadh’s leadership.
• Türkiye’s Focus on the Indian Ocean Region (IOR): Türkiye is expanding its presence in the Indian Ocean, establishing its largest overseas base in Somalia (2017).
  • In 2024, Türkiye sold Baykar TB2 drones to the Maldives, signaling growing influence in South Asia’s maritime domain.
  • The Turkish Navy has frequently conducted joint exercises with the Pakistan Navy, with limited engagements with the Indian Navy.

Türkiye-Pakistan Nexus

• Türkiye’s Support for Pakistan on Kashmir: Türkiye has regularly expressed solidarity with Pakistan on Kashmir, calling for international attention to the issue.
  • Pakistan has acknowledged Türkiye, China, and Azerbaijan as its key diplomatic allies during geopolitical crises.
• Türkiye’s Emergence as a Major Arms Supplier: According to SIPRI data, Turkish arms exports surged by 103% between 2015-2019 and 2020-2024.
  • By 2020, Türkiye had become Pakistan’s second-largest arms supplier (after China), providing advanced military equipment.
• Pakistan’s Acquisitions from Türkiye: Under the Military Consultative Group framework (established in 1988), Pakistan has secured multiple defense agreements with Türkiye.
  • The Ada-class anti-submarine corvette, and drone technology transfers highlight Türkiye’s commitment to Pakistan’s military modernization.
• Economic and Strategic Agreements: Pakistan and Türkiye have signed multiple agreements covering trade, defense, and intelligence cooperation.
  • The Pakistan-Türkiye High-Level Strategic Cooperation Council (HLSCC) facilitates joint initiatives in energy, finance, and security.

Türkiye-Pakistan Nexus and Its Impact on India

• Strengthening Ties with Greece and Cyprus: India has consistently engaged and supported the Greece-backed Republic of Cyprus, countering Türkiye and Pakistan’s endorsement of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.
  • Greece, in turn, has backed India’s stance on Kashmir, reinforcing diplomatic solidarity.
• Military Cooperation with Armenia: India has emerged as one of the strongest military supporters of Armenia, particularly in its territorial dispute with Türkiye-backed Azerbaijan.
  • By late 2024, India surpassed Russia as Armenia’s largest arms supplier, a remarkable development in global arms trade.
• Pakistan’s Alignment with Azerbaijan: Pakistan has continued to reject the recognition of the Armenian genocide, aligning with Türkiye-supported Azerbaijan.
  • In 2024, Pakistan signed a $1.6 billion defense deal to supply Azerbaijan with JF-17 Thunder Block III fighter jets, further strengthening its trilateral alliance with Türkiye and Azerbaijan.

Geopolitical Shifts Benefiting India

• S. Indo-Pacific Strategy (2022): It omitted any reference to Pakistan, and, in contrast, India was mentioned five times.
• India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) Bypasses Türkiye: It challenges Türkiye’s role as the bridge between Asia and Europe.
• Türkiye openly criticized IMEC, pushing to pursue its own Asia-Europe corridor—the Iraq Development Road.

India’s Response and Strategic Positioning

• Strengthening Regional Alliances: India has deepened ties with Saudi Arabia, UAE, and other Gulf nations, countering Türkiye’s influence.
  • The India-Greece defense partnership has emerged as a counterbalance to Türkiye’s regional ambitions.
• Diplomatic Engagements: India has reiterated that Kashmir remains a bilateral issue, rejecting Türkiye’s interventionist stance.
  • India continues to engage global partners to reinforce its sovereignty and territorial integrity.
• Military Preparedness: India has enhanced its air defense systems and naval capabilities, ensuring readiness against regional security threats.
  • The S-400 missile system and indigenous defense projects strengthen India’s strategic deterrence.

Conclusion

• The Pakistan-Türkiye nexus presents geopolitical challenges for India, particularly in defense and diplomatic spheres.
• By reinforcing regional partnerships, military capabilities, and diplomatic outreach, India can effectively counter emerging threats while maintaining strategic stability.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, the United States Vice-President highlighted its willingness to cooperate with India more closely on energy and defence.

• India’s foreign policy establishment outlined the need for cooperation on energy, defence, technology and the mobility of people.

India-U.S. Cooperation in Energy and Defence

• Strengthening India’s Energy Security: India’s energy security is anchored in three imperatives:
• Stable and Predictable Energy Resources: Ensuring access to reliable energy supplies to support India’s rapid economic growth.
• Minimizing Supply Chain Disruptions: Strengthening supply chains for critical minerals and energy infrastructure to reduce dependency on geopolitical uncertainties.
• Advancing Sustainability: Expanding the role of nuclear energy and clean technologies to achieve India’s net-zero targets.
• Nuclear energy and critical minerals play a pivotal role in India’s clean energy transition, positioning them as foundational pillars for a stronger India-U.S. energy and technology partnership.

Critical Minerals

• These are those minerals, such as lithium, graphite, cobalt, titanium, and rare earth elements that are essential for economic development and national security.
• These are essential for the advancement of many sectors, including hightech electronics, telecommunications, transport, and defence.
• China controls nearly 90% of rare earth processing, and its recent restrictions on exports highlight the fragility of global supply chains.
• In response, India and the U.S. signed a MoU in 2024 to diversify these supply chains.
• It can bolster economic security, technological innovation, and strategic autonomy.

Nuclear Energy Security

• India’s nuclear energy capacity currently stands at just over 8 GW, contributing only 2% of the country’s installed power capacity.
• To meet the 2047 target of 100 GW, India must commission 5-6 GW annually starting in the early 2030s.
• Studies by CEEW suggest that achieving net zero by 2070 could require over 200 GW of nuclear capacity under certain scenarios.

Strengthening Supply Chain Transparency For Critical Minerals

• India-US Critical Minerals Consortium could explore joint extraction and processing projects across Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia.
• Establishing an India-U.S. Mineral Exchange, a secure digital platform for real-time trade, investment tracking, and mineral traceability.
• Co-developing a Blockchain-based Traceability Standard: It is inspired by the EU’s Battery Passport which would prevent supply chain disruptions and ensure ethical sourcing.
• Joint Strategic Stockpiles of Key Minerals: For leveraging existing storage infrastructure such as India’s Strategic Petroleum Reserves and the U.S. National Defense Stockpile for cost-effective deployment.
• Investment in Energy Infrastructure: Platforms such as the U.S.-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) could advance data-sharing protocols, innovation corridors, and workforce development.

Key Reforms for Nuclear Expansion 

• Reducing Deployment Timelines: Standardizing reactor designs, streamlining approval processes, and improving skilled project delivery are essential.
• Strengthening Financial and International Cooperation: India’s power sector exposure stands at $200 billion.
• Collaboration with global firms for technology transfer, co-creation, and waste management solutions is crucial.
• Enabling Private Sector Participation: Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), with their lower capital expenditure, flexibility, and reduced land requirements, can become viable with private sector involvement.
• Amending the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 to encourage private investments in nuclear power plants, fostering technological innovation and financial backing.
• Prioritizing Nuclear Safety and Waste Management: As India leads in SMR manufacturing, adopting centralized waste management and repurposing strategies is essential.
• Long-Term Energy Security Amid Global Uncertainty: The IMF’s latest World Economic Outlook highlights rising trade and tariff tensions, impacting global energy markets.

Challenges and Future Prospects

• Geopolitical Risks: China’s restrictions on rare earth exports highlight the need for secure and diversified supply chains.
• Policy Alignment: Both nations must harmonize regulatory frameworks to facilitate cross-border investments in energy infrastructure.
• Technology Transfer: Strengthening collaborative R&D will accelerate the adoption of next-generation energy solutions.

Conclusion

• The India-U.S. energy partnership is poised to play a crucial role in global energy security and sustainability. By focusing on critical minerals, nuclear energy, and clean technology, both nations can drive economic growth and climate resilience.
• Strengthening bilateral agreements and strategic investments will ensure a stable and sustainable energy future.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Supreme Court observed that if Rohingya refugees are found to be ‘foreigners’ under the Foreigners Act, they will be dealt with as per the law.

About

• Petitioners’ Arguments:
• The Rohingya are recognized as refugees by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and thus deserve protection under the principle of non-refoulement (not returning refugees to a place where they face serious threats).
• Deportation to Myanmar, where they are stateless and allegedly face torture and death, violates Article 21 (Right to Life) and Article 14 (Right to Equality).
• Government’s and Court’s Position:
• India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention, and the Foreigners Act gives the government broad powers to regulate the entry and exit of foreigners.
• Article 19(1)(e) (Right to reside/settle) applies only to Indian citizens, not to foreigners, per the Supreme Court’s interpretation.
• The SC acknowledged basic constitutional protections (like Articles 14 and 21) extend to all persons in India, but not a right to stay or settle in India.
• The bench reiterated that the matter of whether the refugees can stay is subject to legal procedure under Indian law.

Who are the Rohingya refugees?

• The Rohingya are a Muslim minority ethnic group with their roots in the Arakan kingdom in Myanmar.
• The Rohingya are culturally and religiously distinct from the majority Buddhist population in Myanmar.
• The Rohingya claim to have lived in Myanmar’s Rakhine State for generations, but successive governments in the country have disputed their ties, labelling them illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.
• Myanmar has denied them citizenship since 1982, thus making them the world’s largest stateless population.
• Their largest exodus began in 2017 driving more than 7.5 lakh people to seek refuge in Bangladesh to escape the brutality of security forces.

India’s Policy on Refugees

• India has welcomed refugees in the past, with nearly 300,000 people categorised as refugees.
• This includes the Tibetans, Chakmas from Bangladesh, and refugees from Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, etc.
• But India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention or the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugee. Nor does India have a refugee policy or a refugee law.
• All foreign undocumented nationals are governed as per the provisions of The Foreigners Act, 1946, The Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939, The Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920 and The Citizenship Act, 1955.
• As per the MHA foreign nationals who enter into the country without valid travel documents are treated as illegal immigrants.

Reasons for India’s Policy on Refugees

• Resource Strain: Hosting refugees puts pressure on resources, especially in areas where infrastructure is already stretched thin.
• Social Cohesion: Large numbers of refugees can strain social cohesion, potentially leading to tensions with host communities.
• Security Concerns: Refugee influxes can raise security concerns, including the potential infiltration of extremist elements and difficulties in monitoring movements across porous borders.
• Diplomatic Relations: Hosting refugees strain diplomatic relations with neighboring countries or countries of origin.
• Economic Impact: Refugees compete for low-skilled jobs, affecting the local job market, while their potential contributions to the economy through entrepreneurship or labor may not be fully realized.

Way Ahead

• India’s approach to refugees is shaped by a tradition of humanitarianism, regional geopolitics, and national security concerns.
• Though India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol, it has historically provided refuge to various displaced communities.
• As global displacement continues to rise, there is an increasing need for India to establish a clear and consistent national refugee policy that balances humanitarian obligations with security and demographic concerns.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India’s latest Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) data was released by the Registrar-General of India.

Maternal death

• It is the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.
• One of the key indicators of maternal mortality is the Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) which is defined as the number of maternal deaths during a given time period per 100,000 live births during the same time period.
• The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim at reducing global MMR to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.

Recent Findings

• Maternal Mortality Ratio in India dropped to 93 per 100,000 live births in 2019–21, down from 97 (2018–20) and 103 (2017–19).
• The highest MMR occurs in the 20-29 age group, and the second highest in the 30-34 age group.
• Several States, including Madhya Pradesh (175), Assam (167), Uttar Pradesh (151), Odisha (135), Chhattisgarh (132), West Bengal (109), and Haryana (106), have high MMRs.

Issues and Concerns

• Maternal mortality remains a critical public health issue in India.
• It serves as a key indicator of healthcare quality and accessibility, reflecting the effectiveness of maternal health services.
• Most maternal deaths occur due to complications from pregnancy, childbirth, or abortion, not from accidental causes.

Government Initiatives to Reduce MMR

• India has committed to the UN target for Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for MMR at 70 per 1,00,000 live births by 2030 and NHP (National Health Policy) 2017 target for MMR less than 100 per 1,00,000 live births by 2020.
• India has accomplished the National Health Policy (NHP) target for MMR.
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) supports all States/UTs in implementation of Reproductive, Maternal, New-born, Child, Adolescent health and Nutrition (RMNCAH+N) strategy under National Health Mission (NHM) based on the Annual Programme Implementation Plan (PIP) submitted by States/ UTs to reduce MMR & Neonatal Mortality Rate.
• Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): Launched in 2005, it promotes institutional deliveries among poor and marginalized women (SC/ST/BPL) to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality.
• Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): A maternity benefit scheme offering ₹5,000 for the first live birth to eligible women. Under PMMVY 2.0 (from April 2022), additional incentives are given if the second child is a girl, to promote positive behavioural change.
• Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakaram (JSSK): Started in 2011, it eliminates out-of-pocket costs for pregnant women and sick newborns by providing free delivery, transport, medicines, diagnostics, and diet in public facilities.
• Surakshit Matritva Aashwasan (SUMAN): Launched in 2019, it ensures free, respectful, and quality healthcare for all pregnant women and newborns, aiming to eliminate preventable deaths.
• Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA): Initiated in 2016, it provides free antenatal care on the 9th of every month.
• The e-PMSMA extension targets high-risk pregnancies with individual tracking and financial incentives. Over 5.9 crore women have benefited by March 2025.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• India has made significant progress in reducing maternal mortality, successfully achieving the National Health Policy (NHP) target of an MMR below 100 by 2020. However, continued efforts are required to reach the SDG target of MMR below 70 by 2030.
• Strengthening healthcare infrastructure, expanding maternal health programs, and addressing socioeconomic barriers will be critical in further reducing maternal mortality in the country.