General Studies Paper 2

Context: Decentralized governance has gained importance in the development paradigm with over 123 countries, including India, amending their legislations. This involves transferring authority and responsibility for public functions from central government to subordinate organisations.

India has a historical background of decentralised governance, but the legal framework was established through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992. The 73rd Amendment made it mandatory to establish a three-tier Panchayat system in rural areas. This is expected to enhance human development and improve the welfare of the rural population through administrative and political devolution.

What is human development?

• Human development refers to the process of improving people’s lives by expanding their freedoms, opportunities, and capabilities, enabling them to lead lives they value. It encompasses a wide range of factors such as health, education, economic growth, gender equality, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability.
• The goal of human development is to create an environment where people can fully realise their potential and participate in the decision-making processes that affect their lives.

How is Human Development brought within the ambit of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India?

• Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) was first recommended by the Balwantrai Mehta committee in 1957, and their role in rural development has been emphasized in subsequent government plans and committees. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment formalized PRI as a three-tier system in rural areas and mandated citizen participation in the planning process.
• PRI is also responsible for implementing plans related to economic development, social justice, service delivery, infrastructure development, and livelihood development for rural people. The 11th Schedule of the Constitution specifies 29 subjects to be placed under the purview of PRI.
• This decentralization of power to PRI has helped to promote participatory governance in rural areas and improve human development indicators. PRI can also play a crucial role in addressing climate change and disaster risk management in rural areas.

How do Panchayati Raj Institutions contribute to decentralized governance?

• Public Participation in Decision-Making: Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) foster public participation in decision-making processes at the local level. By involving community members in planning, monitoring, and evaluating various schemes and service delivery programs, PRIs ensure that governance becomes more responsive to the needs and priorities of the people.
• Promoting Social Equity and Inclusiveness: PRIs promote social equity and inclusiveness through the reservation of seats for women and weaker sections of society. This ensures that traditionally underrepresented groups have a voice in local governance, contributing to more equitable and inclusive decision-making. In the case of Madhya Pradesh, the involvement of PRIs in managing education led to a narrowing of the gender gap in primary school enrollment.
• Empowering Local Communities: PRIs empower local communities by transferring responsibilities and decision-making authority from higher levels of governance to the grassroots level. This allows for better-tailored policies and services that address the specific needs and concerns of rural populations.
• Addressing Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management: PRIs can play a crucial role in addressing climate change and disaster risk management at the local level. As immediate providers of public services and natural connectors to local communities, PRIs can raise awareness about climate change, foster disaster preparedness, and help train communities in adaptive and mitigation strategies. This approach to community preparedness can sometimes be more effective than costly public investments in disaster risk reduction.

What is the role of PRI in human development, particularly in rural areas?

In India, PRI plays an important role in enhancing human development, like

• Improvement in education: Panchayats play a vital role in improving access to quality education in rural areas. They collaborate with Village Education Committees to monitor and enhance educational services at the village level. For instance, in Madhya Pradesh, the transfer of school management responsibilities to Panchayati Raj Institutions led to increased enrollment, especially for girls and disabled children, between 2003-04 and 2006-07.
• Healthcare and Social Welfare: Panchayats contribute to the improvement of healthcare and social welfare services in rural areas. They participate in the implementation of health and family welfare programs, such as maternal and child health initiatives, which directly impact human development outcomes. Panchayats also support the implementation of social welfare schemes targeting marginalized communities, including scheduled castes and tribes.
• Livelihood Enhancement and Poverty Alleviation: Panchayats are involved in implementing livelihood enhancement and poverty alleviation programs, such as the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) and Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). These programs aim to provide self-employment and wage employment opportunities, helping to improve the economic well-being of rural populations.
• Community Participation and Empowerment: Panchayats encourage community participation and empower local communities by organizing Gram Sabha and Ward Sabha meetings. These spaces enable villagers to voice their concerns, influence policies, and hold local authorities accountable. For example, studies have shown that Gram Sabha meetings in South India allowed disadvantaged groups to influence resource allocation in their favor.

How do PRIs contribute to education in rural areas?

• Decentralization of School Management: PRIs have enabled the decentralization of school management in rural areas, empowering communities to make education more responsive to their needs. In Madhya Pradesh, the management of school education was transferred to Panchayati Raj Institutions, leading to the creation of Standing Committees on Education and Parent-Teacher Associations with administrative and financial powers.
• Increased Enrollment: The involvement of PRIs in education management has led to a significant increase in enrollment, particularly for girls and disabled children. In Madhya Pradesh, girl enrollment at the primary stage rose from 46.6% in 2003-04 to 47.5% in 2006-07, demonstrating the impact of PRIs on education accessibility.
• Community Participation: PRIs encourage community participation in school management, fostering local ownership and accountability. Through Village Education Committees and Parent-Teacher Associations, community members can provide valuable input on how to improve educational outcomes in their area.
• Addressing Out-of-School Children: Despite the progress made through PRIs, challenges remain, such as the issue of out-of-school children. However, PRIs are well-positioned to identify and address the barriers that prevent children from attending school, ensuring that no child is left behind in their pursuit of education.

How has the shift towards decentralized governance impacted India’s rural development strategies?

• Increased Participation: Decentralized governance through PRIs has led to greater community participation in the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of various schemes and service delivery programs, resulting in improved service quality tailored to local needs.
• For instance, in the state of Madhya Pradesh, Village Education Committees were established at the Gram Panchayat level, promoting community involvement in managing school education and leading to a significant increase in enrollment rates.
• Enhanced Accountability and Transparency: The shift towards decentralized governance has promoted better accountability and transparency in local decision-making processes, ensuring that public resources are utilized effectively and efficiently for rural development.
• A prime example is the creation of Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs) in Madhya Pradesh, which were granted administrative and financial powers to manage schools, leading to more effective resource allocation and improved educational outcomes.
• Empowering Women and Marginalized Groups: The reservation of seats for women and marginalized groups in PRIs has helped increase their representation in decision-making processes, giving them a voice in shaping policies that directly affect their lives.
• In Kerala, the Kudumbashree initiative empowered women by involving them in PRI activities, which led to improved access to resources and increased economic opportunities for women.
• Local-Level Planning and Implementation: Decentralization has facilitated local-level planning and implementation of development projects, enabling PRIs to address specific needs and priorities of rural communities more effectively. In the context of climate change and disaster risk management, PRIs have been instrumental in raising awareness and promoting community preparedness.
• For example, in Odisha, PRIs played a crucial role in disaster management during Cyclone Phailin, which helped save countless lives and minimize property damage.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Union Minister for Women and Child Development and Minority Affairs opened a Mahila Samman Savings Certificate (MSSC) account.

About Mahila Samman Savings Certificate Scheme

• It is a new small savings scheme launched specifically for female investors and was announced in Budget 2023 to promote investment among women.
  • Accounts opened under this scheme will be single-holder accounts that can be opened at the Post Office or any registered bank.
• Who can open a Mahila Samman Savings account: Any woman can open a Mahila Samman account that can be opened for herself or on behalf of a little girl.
  • A time gap of three months shall be maintained between the existing account and the opening of other account.
• Limit on minimum and maximum investment: The minimum investment amount is Rs 1000, and the maximum investment authorised under the plan is Rs 2 lakh.
• Interest rate: 7.5% annually
• Payment on maturity:  After two years from the date opening eligible balance will be paid to the depositor.
• Withdrawal from account:The account holder may withdraw up to 40% of the balance after the first year from the date of account opening but before the account matures.
• Premature closure of account: The account shall not be closed before maturity except in the following cases, namely:
  • On the death of the account holder
  • On extreme compassionate ground (i) Life threatening decease of account holder (ii) death of the guardian on production of relevant documents.

When an account is closed prematurely, interest on the principal amount is payable at the rate applicable to the Scheme for which the account was held.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Supreme Court has recently modified its judgment to have mandatory eco-sensitive zones (ESZ) around protected forests.

The previous judgment of SC:

• On June 3, 2022, the apex court had ordered the 1-km buffer zone for protected areas to act as a “shock absorber”.
• Its judgment was to have mandatory eco-sensitive zones (ESZ) of a minimum one kilometre around protected forests, national parks and wildlife sanctuaries across the country.

Issue:

• However, the Centre and several States, including Kerala, had returned to the apex court seeking modification of the June 2022 judgment, saying the judicial direction affected hundreds of villages in the peripheries of forests.

Apex court’s opinion:

• Agreeing, the court said “the purpose of declaring ESZs is not to hamper the day-to-day activities of the citizens. If the direction as issued is continued, it would certainly hamper the day-to-day activities of the citizens residing in ESZs. As such, we find that the direction needs to be modified”.
• Modified judgment:
• SC Bench reasoned that ESZ cannot be uniform across the country and has to be “protected area-specific”.
• The court said a stringent observance of the June 2022 judgment would cause more harm than good. For one, man-animal conflict would only increase rather than abate.

Eco Sensitive Zone (ESZ)

• The Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) are areas in India notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), GoI around Protected Areas, National Park and Wildlife sanctuaries.

Range:

• All identified areas around Protected Areas and wildlife corridors to be declared as ecologically fragile under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (National Wildlife Action Plan, 2002-2016).
• Eco-sensitive zones could go up to 10 Kms around Protected Areas.
• In cases where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, are even beyond 10 Kms width.
• Further, Eco-sensitive zones may not be uniform all around and it could be variable in width and extent.

Prohibited activities:

• Activities like industries that cause pollution Commercial mining, saw mills, establishment of major hydroelectric projects (HEP), commercial use of wood, Tourism, discharge of effluents or any solid waste or production of hazardous substances are all prohibited.

Regulated activities:

• Activities like felling of trees, establishment of hotels and resorts, commercial use of natural water, erection of electrical cables, drastic change of agriculture system, e.g. adoption of heavy technology, pesticides etc., widening of roads.

Permitted activities:

• Activities like ongoing agricultural or horticultural practices, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, use of renewable energy sources, adoption of green technology for all activities are permitted.

Significance of Eco Sensitive Zone (ESZ)

1. Conservation:

• ESZs help in in-situ conservation, which deals with conservation of an endangered species in its natural habitat.
• For example, the conservation of the One-horned Rhino of Kaziranga National Park, Assam.
• They minimize forest depletion and man-animal conflict.

2. Buffer zone:

• The protected areas are based on the core and buffer model of management, through which local area communities are also protected and benefitted.
• ESZs are created as “shock absorbers” for the protected areas, to minimize the negative impact on the “fragile ecosystems” by certain human activities taking place nearby.
• These areas are meant to act as a transition zone from areas requiring higher protection to those requiring lesser protection.

3. Mitigating climate change:

• Biodiversity and climate change are interconnected. Creation of SEZs may help in reducing the rise in temperature.
• Significance of Recent Judgment:
• It can lead to more sustainable development.
• Tribal rights will also be protected with the recent judgment i.e., their culture, diversity etc will be preserved.

Criticisms

Doubts on the methods used:

• The order is criticised for not using a scientific basis for the declaration.
• According to experts, an ESZ should only be declared evolved through participatory planning exercises.

Settlements around protected areas:

• One km area around PA is likely to have low-income housing colonies, historical monuments and livelihood use areas like river floodplains.
• In the case of Kerala, there is a high density of human population near the notified protected areas.

Topographical differences:

• There are several habitat types like mountains, grasslands, forests, oceans. But the order does not mention that.
• In case of Sundarbans, the whole area is eco-sensitive. It is difficult to enforce a 1 km boundary in marine space that is interconnected.
• The destruction of nature in the name of development cannot be allowed to continue.

Way Ahead

• The declaration of protected areas should be a participatory planning process.
• The Centre needs to come up with a plan to incentivise farmers for sticking to green practices in Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs).
• Communities living around Protected Areas in several states should promote the conservation of Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs).

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Odisha has complained to the Ministry of Jal Shakti under the Inter-State River Water Disputes (ISRWD) Act 1956 accusing Chhattisgarh of misleading the Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal (MWDT) by releasing water in Mahanadi river in the Non-Monsoon Season.

• The MWDT was formed in March 2018. The tribunal has been asked to submit its report by December 2025 by the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• There is no inter-state agreement between Odisha and Chhattisgarh regarding Mahanadi basin water allocation.

What is the Concern of Odisha?

• Chhattisgarh has opened 20 gates at Kalma Barrage through which 1,000-1,500 cusecs of water is flowing into Mahanadi’s low catchment area during the non-monsoon season.
• Chhattisgarh’s reluctance to release water during non-monsoon seasons has often resulted in the non-availability of water in the lower catchment of Mahanadi.
• This also affects the Rabi crops and aggravates the drinking problem in Odisha.
• However, this time Chhattisgarh has released water without any intimation, which raised concerns over its management of Mahanadi River water.
• The state faced flood in upper catchment during monsoon and thus, opened gates without any intimation to Odisha.

What is the Mechanism for Inter-State River Water Disputes Resolution?

• As per Article 262, the Parliament has enacted the following:
• River Board Act, 1956: This empowered the GoI to establish Boards for Interstate Rivers and river valleys in consultation with State Governments. To date, no river board has been created.
• Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956: In case, if a particular state or states approach the Centre for the constitution of the tribunal, the Central Government should try to resolve the matter by consultation among the aggrieved states. In case, if it does not work, then it may constitute the tribunal.
• The Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956 was amended in 2002, to include the major recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission.
• The amendments mandated a one-year time frame to set up the water disputes tribunal and also a 3-year time frame to give a decision.

What are the Issues with Interstate Water Dispute Tribunals?

• Protracted proceedings and extreme delays in dispute resolution. Water disputes such as the Godavari and Cauvery disputes in India have faced long delays in resolution.
• Opacity in the institutional framework and guidelines that define these proceedings; and ensuring compliance.
• The composition of the tribunal is not multidisciplinary, and it consists of persons only from the judiciary.
• The absence of water data that is acceptable to all parties currently makes it difficult to even set up a baseline for adjudication.
• The growing nexus between water and politics has transformed the disputes into turfs of vote bank politics.
• This politicisation has led to increasing defiance by states, extended litigations and subversion of resolution mechanisms.

What Measures can be taken to Resolve Water Disputes?

• Bring Inter-state water disputes under interstate council constructed by the president under article 263 and need for consensus-based decision making.
• States must be motivated for water use efficiency in every domain and water harvesting and water recharging to reduce the demand on river water and in situ water source.
• Need of a single water management agency for both ground and surface water on scientific basis and also for technical advice on union, river basin, state and district level for water conservation and water management.
• Tribunals must be fast track, technical and also have a verdict enforceable mechanism in a time bound manner.
• A central repository of water data is necessary for informed decision making. It is important for the central government to take a more active role in resolving inter-state water disputes.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Citizens have reconciled to a failed criminal justice system and thus not only do they elect MPs and MLAs with criminal records but also applaud extra judicial killings.

Criminalization of Politics

• Meaning:
  • It means the participation of criminals in politics. This means that persons with criminal backgrounds contest in the election and get selected as a member of parliament or state legislature
• Major Reasons: 
  • Criminalization of political parties is a result of the connection between criminals and politicians and vote-bank politics
  • Lack of enforcement of laws and judgments
  • lack of ethics, and values, and loopholes in the function of the election commission.
  • It is also linked to political control of state machinery and corruption
  • The political system is unwilling to change the law or the system.

Issues of Criminalization of Politics

• Elected members with criminal records:
  • Nearly 40 percent of members of the current Parliament have criminal cases pending against them.
  • Most of them do not feel vulnerable or threatened as they are aware that it will take years for trials to conclude.
• Question of safety & security:
  • The main purpose of governance is to provide safety and security to citizens who elect their representatives for this role.
  • But if the elected members themselves have criminal records, would they be interested in a criminal justice system that is prompt and efficient?
• Low conviction rate:
  • As per the National Crime Records Bureau’s 2021 report, only 10,416 cases of murder were disposed of during the year with just a 42.4 percent conviction rate.
  • The Law minister has admitted to more than 4.7 crore cases pending in various courts.
• Situation in police stations:
  • Politicians play a very powerful role at police stations, compromising both integrity and impartiality of field staff.
  • In due course, ordinary criminals graduate to be dreaded ones and form gangs extorting money, grabbing land, threatening witnesses in criminal cases, etc.

Various Initiatives were taken in this context 

• Over the years, there have been some attempts at decriminalizing politics and alarm calls raised with regard to the imperative need for reform.
• Vohra Committee:
  • The Vohra Committee set up by the Centre in 1993 sounded a note of warning saying that “some political leaders become the leaders of these gangs/armed senas and, over the years, get themselves elected to local bodies, state assemblies, and the national Parliament.”
• Law Commission’s 179th report:
  • The Law commission in its 179th report recommended an amendment to the Representation of people act 1951.
    • It suggested the people with criminal backgrounds should be disqualified for five years or until acquittal.
    • It also recommended that the person who wants to contest the election must furnish details regarding any pending case, with the copy of the FIR/complaint, and also furnish details of all assets.
      • But no action was taken on the recommendation by the government due to a lack of consensus amongst the political parties.
    • Supreme Court’s judgments & orders: 
      • In 2002, the Supreme Court ruled that every candidate contesting election has to declare his criminal and financial records along with educational qualifications.
      • In 2005, the Supreme Court ruled that a sitting MP or MLA will be disqualified from contesting the election if convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for two years or more by a court of law.
      • In 2014, the apex court accepted the Law Commission recommendations and passed an order directing that trials against sitting MPs and MLAs should be concluded within a year of charges being framed and conducted on a day-to-day basis.
        • As a follow-up to these directives, in 2017, the Union government started a scheme to establish 12 special courts for a year to fast-track the trial of criminal cases against MPs and MLAs.
      • The apex court in 2021 directed the political parties to upload on their websites and social media platforms the details of pending criminal cases against their candidates and the reasons for selecting them as also for not giving tickets to those without criminal antecedents.

Suggestions

• Rightful demands:
  • In this bleak scenario, our reaction as citizens should be to demand more courts, judges and judicial infrastructure and not to encourage “encounters”, which we seem to be applauding.
• Stopping the electability of criminals:
  • Checking the nexus between crime, money, and muscle power will be among the first few steps required to be taken.
  • The growing dependence of political parties on criminals for muscle power and “electability” must be stopped.
  • It is high time all political parties came together and developed a consensus on keeping criminals — some with serious charges including kidnapping, rape, murder, grave corruption, and crimes against women — out of the system.
• Vigilant voters:
  • Voters also need to be vigilant about the misuse of money, gifts, and other inducements during election.
• Efficient Use of technology:
  • The use of technology as often stated by the current Chief Justice of India, is a potent weapon to ensure speedy trials.
  • Citizens need to build up public opinion for the introduction of online court hearings at all levels.
    • Courts shall curtail frequent adjournments and reduce the trial duration. Court production of jail inmates can also be online and relieve police from escort duties.
    • For minor ailments, telemedicine facilities can be used for persons in custody.
    • This will result in more police persons being available on the ground.
  • Regular training of Police force:
    • Police officers need to be regularly trained about the Constitution and human rights so that they do not resort to their guns.
      • It is unfortunate that after their basic police training, very few officers undergo in-service courses either in law or investigation.
    • Online training:
      • Of late, online training is becoming popular in many state police organisations.
      • As per the Bureau of Police Research and Development, vacancies in police all over the country range at around 20 percent. Police station officers are thus reluctant to relieve their field staff for training in police academies.
      • Online training modules can bridge the gap.

Way ahead

• The road ahead is long and winding. Sane voices against unconstitutional methods are not only being ignored but decried.
• Technology and public pressure is required for an efficient criminal justice system to be the civilised alternative to the gung-ho gun culture.
• It is in the interest of the most populous country in the world to invest in training its law enforcers and equip its judiciary with sufficient resources.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Rajasthan Government is about to bring the Rajasthan Platform-based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Bill, 2023, which has stringent provisions against errant aggregators, including barring them from operating in the State.

Highlights of the Bill

• Rajasthan Platform-based Gig Workers Welfare Board: It will design welfare policies and hear grievances of the workers hired on a piece rate basis. The Bill gives powers to the board to decide the quantum of cess that every aggregator will have to pay towards this social welfare corpus. This cess shall be a percentage of every transaction that takes place on the platform.
• Unique ID: All platform-based gig workers registered with any platform shall be automatically registered with the board irrespective of the duration of their engagement with the platform. The board shall generate a unique ID for every platform-based gig worker registered with one or more aggregators in the State. This unique ID will be valid for three years. 
• Penalty: Data of the gig workers employed with the board and sharing data of every transaction that takes place on their platform, can be fined up to ?10 lakh for the first contravention and up to ?1 crore for subsequent ones. 
  • The Bill also empowers the board to recommend suspension of operations of the errant aggregator temporarily or permanently in the State.
• The draft Bill that is with the Law department currently, will be put in public domain soon inviting feedback.

Who are gig workers?

• Non-standard or gig work consists of income-earning activities outside of standard, long-term employer-employee relationships.
• A gig economy is a labor market that relies heavily on temporary and part-time positions filled by independent contractors and freelancers rather than full-time permanent employees.
• The term is borrowed from the music world, where performers book “gigs”that are single or short-term engagements at various venues.
• The gig economy uses digital platforms to connect freelancers with customers to provideshort-term services or asset-sharing.
• Examples include ride-hailing apps, food delivery apps, and holiday rental apps.

Reasons for a rise in Gig Workers

• Post Pandemic:The trend accelerated during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the gig economy experienced significant increases as gig workers delivered necessities to home-bound consumers, and those whose jobs had been eliminated turned to part-time and contract work for income. 
• Freedom to work from anywhere:These types of positions facilitate independent contracting work, with many of them not requiring a freelancer to come into an office.
• Wide Range of Applicants:Employers also have a wider range of applicants to choose from because they don’t have to hire someone based on their proximity.
• Rise of Technology and Internet: Rise of fast internet and smartphones have made it easier to work from anywhere easily.
• Convenient for Small Organisations:Employers who cannot afford to hire full-time employees to do all the work will often hire part-time or temporary employees to take care of busier times or specific projects.
• More income with more work: People often find they need to move or take multiple positions to afford the lifestyle they want. It’s also common to change careers many times throughout a lifetime, so the gig economy can be viewed as a reflection of this occurring on a large scale.
• Benefits Employers: Employers do not need to provide related benefits, such as medical insurance, Provident Fund, and year-end bonuses which make it a better option for them to pay only for work on a unit basis.
• Work for All:Students can choose lower-skilled jobs and work without academic or professional qualifications. Retirees, housewives, etc. may find it difficult to find part-time jobs on weekdays, but now they can make good use of their spare time to earn extra money.

Challenges

• Hurdle in growth of full time employee:While not all employers are inclined to hire contracted employees, the gig economy trend can make it harder for full-time employees to develop in their careers since temporary employees are often cheaper to hire and more flexible in their availability.
• Work-life balance:For some workers, the flexibility of working gigs can actually disrupt the work-life balance, sleep patterns, and activities of daily life
• Can replace Full time employees:The number of full-time employees required by the company can be reduced as freelance workers take over the work.
• No job security: In effect, workers in a gig economy are more like entrepreneurs than traditional workers. While this may mean greater freedom of choice for the individual worker, it also means that the security of a steady job with regular pay and benefits.
• No regular job benefits:Many employers save money by avoiding paying benefits such as health coverage and paid vacation time. because there is no formal employment relationship with the platform company, there are usually no employee benefits in short-term contracts, which are less guaranteed than full-time and part-time jobs, and are difficult to write on resumes.

India and Gig Economy

• In 2020, 7.7 million workers were engaged in the gig economy.
• The gig workforce is expected to expand to 23.5 million workers by 2029-30.
• At present about 47% of the gig work is in medium skilled jobs, about 22% in high skilled, and about 31% in low skilled jobs.
• Trend shows the concentration of workers in medium skills is gradually declining and that of the low skilled and high skilled is increasing.
• It may be expected that while the domination of medium skills would continue till 2030, gig work with other skills will emerge.

Steps Taken by Government of India for Gig Workers

• Code of Social Security, 2020: The Government has formulated the Code on Social Security, 2020 which envisages framing of suitable social security schemes for gig workers and platform workers on matters relating to life and disability cover, accident insurance, health and maternity benefits, old age protection, etc. However, these provisions under the Code have not come into force.
  • Platform workers are those whose work is based on online software apps or digital platforms. Non-platform gig workers are generally casual wage workers and own-account workers in the conventional sectors, working part-time or full time.
• e-Shram Portal:The Government has also launched e-Shram portal in 2021 for registration and creation of a Comprehensive National Database of Unorganized Workers including gig workers and platform workers. 
  • It allows a person to register himself or herself on the portal on a self-declaration basis, which is spread across around 400 occupations.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The visit of Chinese and Russian defence ministers to attend a ministerial meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) in Delhi is attracting attention. India, as the chair of the organisation, has several bilateral issues to discuss with fellow SCO members such as de-escalation of border confrontation with China and supply of Russian spares and arms to India amidst the war in Ukraine.

Many countries are queuing up to join the SCO, which is inclusive and highlights the rise of non-Western security institutions. However, despite growing interest in the SCO from regional states, internal contradictions within the organisation are casting a shadow over its strategic coherence.

What are the Conflicts Among Member Countries of SCO?

Conflicts Exist Between:

India and China over Border Issues:

• After the 18th round of India- China Corps Commander Level Meeting still there is no breakthrough in easing tensions.
• India and Pakistan over Terrorism:
• State sponsored terrorism is cause of tension between India and Pakistan.
• Frequent cease fire violations on India Pakistan border is another cause of concern.

Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan over Border Issues:

• The escalation of conflict between the two countries, as witnessed on September and then again in November 2022, has been a troubling development for the region.
• The conflict has the potential to cause a negative impact on the stability of Central Asia and its neighbouring regions.
• There are several conflicts between Taliban-led Afghanistan and Pakistan which makes the border area of the two countries unstable.
• The SCO’s main objective is to promote peace in Eurasia, but its ability to cope with intra-state and inter-state conflicts among member states is under scrutiny.

What are the Challenges?

China’s Rise:

• China’s rise is increasing the prospects for China’s emergence as the dominant force in inner Asia.
• This has led to external pressures from other regional powers, such as the United States, which has sought to contain China’s rise and limit its influence in the region.

Limited institutional mechanisms:

• While the SCO has a number of bodies, such as the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, and the Council of National Coordinators, these bodies lack the formal decision-making and enforcement powers that are necessary for effective governance.
• SCO lacks a formal mechanism for resolving disputes between member states.

Divergent Interests and Disagreements:

• The SCO includes member states with different political systems, economic models, and strategic priorities such as CPEC, border infrastructure projects etc., which can lead to internal conflicts and disagreements on issues such as economic cooperation and security.

Limited geographical scope:

• The SCO’s geographical focus is limited to Eurasia and neighboring regions, which restricts its ability to engage with global issues and challenges.

Western skepticism and criticism:

• The SCO faces criticism from Western countries for its lack of democratic credentials, its support for authoritarian regimes, and its internal conflicts and border disputes among members.

What is the Importance of SCO for India?

Economic Cooperation:

• The SCO provides a platform for India to enhance economic cooperation with Central Asian countries, which have vast reserves of natural resources.
• India is seeking to increase its trade and investment ties with the SCO countries to diversify its economic partnerships.

Energy Security:

• Central Asia has vast reserves of oil and gas, and India is looking to tap into these resources to enhance its energy security.
• The SCO provides a forum for India to engage with the energy-rich countries of Central Asia and explore opportunities for cooperation in the energy sector.
• The Samarkand Declaration, signed at the 22nd Summit, centralizes connectivity which is a priority for India, as well as energy and food security.

Cultural Cooperation:

• The total Cultural Heritage of the SCO member states, observers and partners include 207 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
• SCO member countries have decided to designate one city (from SCO member countries) as tourism and cultural capital every year under a rotating initiative.
• “Kashi” (Varanasi) has been designated as the first cultural capital of the SCO under this initiative.

Counterterrorism:

• The SCO has a strong focus on counterterrorism cooperation.
• India, which has been a victim of terrorism, can benefit from the collective efforts of the organization to combat terrorism in the region.

What is the Significance of the SCO?

Economic Cooperation:

• The eight member countries of SCO represent around 42% of the world population and 25% of the global GDP. There is an immense tourism potential in the region which can be promoted by increasing awareness about SCO countries.

Connectivity:

• The SCO is promoting connectivity among its member states through infrastructure projects, including the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).

Security Cooperation:

• The main threats which are the focus of the SCO include terrorism, separatism and extremism.
• Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) to promote cooperation among member states in the fight against terrorism, separatism, and extremism.
• RATS provides a platform for sharing intelligence, conducting joint exercises and operations, and coordinating actions to prevent and combat terrorism in the region.

Conclusion

The SCO is an attractive forum for regional states, but its internal contradictions are a cause for concern. Preventing conflict between member states is a higher priority for the SCO, but its record here is not impressive. While China’s growing regional influence may come at Russia’s expense, Russia and China have drawn closer than ever before and have little reason to quarrel over Central Asia. Russia’s muscle and China’s money provide a sensible basis for their strategic division of labour in Central Asia to keep the Western powers out of the region.

General Studies Paper 4

Context: India’s ambitious Cheetah Translocation Project is facing a new set of challenges as two cheetahs have died, bringing the number of cheetahs left in the project to 18 out of the initial 20. Uday, a six-year-old male cheetah, died on April 23, 2023, in Kuno National Park, and Sasha, a five-year-old female cheetah, died on March 27, 2023, in the same park. Therefore, the government is now considering alternative conservation models, such as the South African model of conserving cheetahs in fenced reserves.

Were these Deaths Expected?

The project anticipated a high mortality rate, and its short-term goal was to achieve a 50% survival rate for the first year, which is 10 out of 20 cheetahs.

However, experts pointed out that the project had overestimated Kuno National Park’s carrying capacity for cheetahs, and this added pressure on the project staff to look for alternative sites.

Causes of Death:

• A South African study found that predation was the biggest killer, accounting for 53.2% of cheetah mortality. Lions, leopards, hyenas, and jackals were primarily responsible.
• Cheetahs suffer very high cub mortality – up to 90% in protected areas – mainly due to predation.
• In Africa, the lion is the chief predator of cheetahs; in India, where lions are absent (except in Gujarat), leopards are likely to slip into that role in potential cheetah landscapes.
• Other causes of mortality can be holding camps, immobilization/transit, tracking devices, and other wildlife killing cheetah (cubs) including warthogs, baboons, snakes, elephants, crocodiles, vultures, zebras, and even ostriches.

South African Model for Conserving Cheetahs:

• In South Africa, a conservation strategy called meta-population management was used to protect cheetahs.
• This strategy involved moving cheetahs from one small group to another to ensure that they have enough genetic diversity and to maintain a healthy population.
• This approach was successful in maintaining a viable population of cheetahs in South Africa; in 6 years, the meta-population grew to 328 cheetahs.

What are the Options Available to the Project?

• The authorities are exploring the possibility of preparing Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary in the Chambal River valley as the second home for cheetahs.
• Another option is to move a few cheetahs from Kuno to the safety of an 80-sq-km fenced area in Rajasthan’s Mukundra Hills Tiger Reserve.
• However, both options would mean shifting the project’s goal from establishing the cheetah in an open landscape to managing the African imports as a few pocket populations in fenced-in or restricted areas.

Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary

• It is located in Madhya Pradesh on the northern boundary of the Mandsaur and Nimach districts, adjoining Rajasthan
• The landscape is characterized by vast open landscapes and rocky terrain
• The vegetation includes northern tropical dry deciduous forest, mixed deciduous forest, and scrub
• Some of the flora found in the sanctuary are Khair, Salai, Kardhai, Dhawda, Tendu, and Palash.
• The fauna includes Chinkara, Nilgai, Spotted Deer, Striped Hyena, Jackal and crocodiles.

Mukundra Tiger Reserve

• It is situated near Kota, Rajasthan, in a valley formed by two parallel mountains, Mukundra and Gargola.
• The valley is bounded by four rivers – Ramzan, Ahu, Kali, and Chambal – and drained by their tributaries.
• Protected area:
• Mukundra Hills was declared a Wildlife Sanctuary in 1955 and a National Park (Mukundra Hills (Darrah) National Park) in 2004.
• It was declared a Tiger Reserve in 2013, becoming the third in Rajasthan after Ranthambore and Sariska.
• Parks and sanctuaries:
• Mukundra TR consists of three Wildlife Sanctuaries – Darrah, Jawahar Sagar, and Chambhal – and covers four districts of Rajasthan: Kota, Bundi, Chittorgarh, and Jhalawar.

Way Forward

• The success of the cheetah project should align with India’s traditional conservation ethos. India’s conservation approach emphasizes protecting naturally dispersing wildlife in viable non-fragmented habitats.
• The Cheetah Project can choose to cut the risk by settling for the South African model of retaining a few pocket populations in fenced-in reserves.

However, keeping cheetahs in leopard-proof enclosures might not be a sustainable solution. Also, repeated sedate-and-recover interventions to restrict cheetahs to sanctuaries and national parks can harm the animals.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Ministry of Jal Shakti has recently released the report of India’s first water bodies census.

More about the census 

• About:
  • India’s first water bodies census contains a comprehensive database of ponds, tanks, lakes, and reservoirs in the country.
  • The census was conducted in 2018-19, and enumerated more than 2.4 million water bodies across all states and Union Territories.
• Background:
  • The Centre earlier maintained a database of water bodies that were getting central assistance under the scheme of Repair, Renovation and Restoration (RRR) of water bodies.
  • Recommendation for the census:
    • In 2016, a Standing Committee of Parliament pointed to the need to carry out a separate census of water bodies.
  • The government then commissioned the first census of water bodies in 2018-19 along with the sixth Minor Irrigation (MI) census.
• Objective of carrying out census:
  • The objective wasto collect information “on all important aspects of the subject including their size, condition, status of encroachments, use, storage capacity, status of filling up of storage etc.”.

About “Water Bodies”

• What consists of “Water Bodies”?
  • First Census Report considers “all natural or man-made units bounded on all sides with some or no masonry work used for storing water for irrigation or other purposes (e.g. industrial, pisciculture, domestic/ drinking, recreation, religious, ground water recharge etc.)” as water bodies.
    • According to the census, the water bodies “are usually of various types known by different names like tank, reservoirs, ponds”.
  • A structure where water from ice-melt, streams, springs, rain or drainage of water from residential or other areas is accumulated or water is stored by diversion from a stream, nala or river will also be treated as a water body.
• Excluded Water Bodies
  • Seven specific types of water bodies were excluded from the count. They were:
    • Oceans and lagoons;
    • Rivers, streams, springs, waterfalls, canals, etc. which are free flowing, without any bounded storage of water;
    • Swimming pools;
    • Covered water tanks created for a specific purpose by a family or household for their own consumption;
    • A water tank constructed by a factory owner for consumption of water as raw material or consumable;
    • Temporary water bodies created by digging for mining, brick kilns, and construction activities, which may get filled during the rainy season; and
    • Pucca open water tanks created only for cattle to drink water.

Water bodies Census Data highlights

• Districts with highest number of water bodies:
  • As per the report, West Bengal’s South 24 Pargana has been ranked as the district having the highest (3.55 lakh) number of water bodies across the country.
  • The district is followed by Andhra Pradesh’s Ananthapur (50,537) and West Bengal’s Howrah (37,301).
• Encroachment of water bodies:
  • The census found that 6% of enumerated water bodies— 38,496 out of 24,24,540 — had been encroached upon.
    • More than 95% of these were in rural areas — which is logical because more than 97% of the water bodies covered by the census were in the rural areas.
    • In almost 63% of encroached water bodies, less than a quarter of the area was under encroachment;
    • In about 12% water bodies, more than three-quarters of the area was under encroachment.
  • Uttar Pradesh accounted for almost 40% (15,301) of water bodies under encroachment, followed by Tamil Nadu (8,366) and Andhra Pradesh (3,920).
    • No encroachment was reported from West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Chandigarh.

Threats faced by water bodies in India

• Increasing temperatures: 
  • India is witnessing a repeat of 2021 conditions, when temperatures touched 40 degrees Celsius as early as February in some parts of the country.
• Climate Change’s Impact:
  • Climate change impacts are about heat — increased and scorching temperatures — and about variable and extreme rain.
  • Both have a direct correlation with the water cycle.
• Possibility of El Nino conditions:
  • Globe saw the event of triple dip La Niña in the last few years — the Pacific water currents that are known to bring cooler temperatures globally.
    • But global warming has offset this cooling effect of La Niña.
  • Situation is bound to be worse in El Nino conditions.
• Varying Rain Pattern:
  • The number of rainy days in India will further go down, but extreme rainy days will increase.
  • This will have a huge impact on India’s plans for water management.

Significance of Water Security for India & way ahead

• To Address Rising Demand: 
  • With total water demand in India expected to rise by over 70% by 2025, a huge demand-supply gap is expected in the coming years.
• Ensuring Health:
  • Poor water quality and lack of adequate access to sanitation are also major causes of disease and poor health.
  • Proper access to potable water will minimise health issues and medical expenses.
• Supporting Economy: 
  • Adequate water security will act as a potentially significant booster on economic growth as it will reduce the costs for water infrastructure.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The recent controversy surrounding the Tamil Nadu Governor’s   actions regarding the passage of Bills in the  State Assembly  has led to a resolution being passed urging the President of India to intervene. Several Bills passed by the Assembly have been pending as the Governor has not made any decision.

The Assembly passed a resolution urging the President of India to fix a timeline for assent to be given to Bills passed by the Assembly.

This has raised questions over discretionary power of governor with respect to unlimited delay in giving assent to the bills which are duly passed by state legislature.

Can the Governor withhold His Assent to a Bill in Exercise of His Discretionary Powers?

• While a plain reading of Article 200 suggests that the Governor can withhold his assent, experts question whether he can do so only on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
• The Constitution provides that the Governor can exercise his executive powers only on the advice of the Council of Ministers under Article 154.
• The larger question is why a Governor should be allowed to withhold assent when the Bill is passed by the Assembly.
  • The Supreme Court of India recently addressed the issue of Governors sitting on Bills that they do not agree with, leading to an indefinite delay in State Legislative Assemblies. The Court referred to the provision of Article 200 of the Constitution, which mandates that Governors should not delay over Bills sent to them for assent after they had been passed by Legislative Assemblies.

What are the Issues with Pending Bills?

• Delay in Decision-Making:
  • The Governor’s failure to take a decision on the Bills passed by the legislature leads to a delay in decision-making, which affects the effective functioning of the state government.
• Delay in Implementation of Policies and Laws:
  • When the Governor fails to make a decision on a Bill passed by the assembly, it delays the implementation of policies and laws.
  • This delay can have significant consequences, especially when the Bill is related to public welfare.
• Undermines the Democratic Process:
  • The Governor, who is appointed by the Centre, can use his powers to delay or reject Bills passed by state assemblies for political reasons, which undermines the democratic process.
• Public Perception:
  • The public often views pending Bills with the Governor as a sign of inefficiency or even corruption in the state government, which can damage the government’s reputation.
• Constitutional Ambiguity:
  • There is ambiguity in the Constitution regarding the Governor’s power to withhold assent.
  • Although the Constitution grants the Governor the power to withhold his assent, it is unclear whether he can do so only on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
• Lack of Accountability:
  • When the Governor withholds assent, he does not provide any reason for his decision.
  • This lack of accountability undermines the principles of transparency and accountability in governance.

Way Forward:

• Timeframe for assent:
  • The Supreme Court can consider fixing a reasonable time frame for Governors to take a decision on a Bill passed by the Assembly, in the larger interest of  federalism in the country.
  • This can prevent undue delay and ensure that governance of the state is carried out in accordance with constitutional provisions.
• Dialogue between the Centre and States:
  • There is a need for a dialogue between the Centre and States to address this issue and ensure that the constitutional provisions are upheld.
• Public awareness and activism:
  • It is important to raise public awareness and activism on this issue and demand that the constitutional provisions are followed in a transparent, fair, and timely manner.
• Civil society groups, media, and citizen forums can play a crucial role in this regard by highlighting the issue and putting pressure on the authorities to act in the public interest.