General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Secretary General of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) emphasizes the potential benefits of a Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) between India and Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland (EFTA states).

• The high-level delegates from Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and India met in April 2023, in New Delhi to discuss the prospects of resuming their negotiations towards a TEPA. A joint statement issued at the end of the talks reflects the parties’ common decision to “continue their efforts to resolve all outstanding issues and work towards deepening and strengthening the economic partnership”.
• They aim to deepen and strengthen their economic partnership and contribute to a more inclusive global trading system.

What is EFTA?

• EFTA is an intergovernmental organization that was established in 1960 as an alternative trade bloc for those European states that were unable or unwilling to join the European Union (EU).
• EFTA comprises Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland, which are not part of the EU but have access to its single market through various agreements.

What is the Economic Significance of EFTA States for India?

• Human Resource: Although the EFTA states have a small population of just over 14 million, their economies are among the world’s highest in innovation, competitiveness, wealth creation per inhabitant, life expectancy, and quality of life.
• Trade: They are the 10th largest merchandise traders and 8th largest services traders worldwide, with imports and exports of goods and services close to USD 1.3 trillion in 2021.
• World Leaders: EFTA companies are world leaders in pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, machinery manufacturing, R&D-driven technology products, geothermal-related technologies, marine technology, energy-related services, financial services, banking, and insurance.
• Success History of EFTA’s Trade Agreements: EFTA has a track record of negotiating mutually beneficial trade agreements with 40 partner countries, covering 29 free trade agreements (FTAs).
  • Nearly 22% of EFTA states’ imports come from these FTA partners.
  • Agreements are in place with Hong Kong, Indonesia, the Philippines, South Korea, and Singapore, and negotiations are ongoing with Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam.

What are the Potential Benefits of a TEPA?

• Increased Trade: A TEPA between India and EFTA states would foster a strong partnership and increase trade between trusted democratic partners that share values such as promoting sustainable development and gender equality.
• India’s impressive economic growth and leadership in green technologies would benefit from EFTA states’ complementary support by strengthening trade and investment ties.
• Market Access: Improved market access for goods would boost India’s export potential to EFTA markets, where the EFTA’s export products frequently serve as inputs in Indian export industries.
• Increased Investment: EFTA states have contributed significant investments of over USD 35 billion in India, spanning sectors such as machinery, electrical engineering and metals, pharmaceuticals, banking, financial services and insurance, construction, and fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG). The TEPA is estimated to increase investments in India significantly.
• Mutual Benefits: EFTA states benefit from the highly skilled Indian workforce, notably in the services sector.
  • India benefits from over 400 companies established by EFTA states, generating more than 1,50,000 jobs.
  • A trade agreement would increase predictability in the services sector, creating more business opportunities for skilled Indian service providers.
• Renewable Technologies: India aims to meet 50% of its energy needs with renewables by 2030, with potential for scaling up projects and cooperation in solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power. EFTA states can contribute to India’s green growth aspirations with their cutting-edge technologies.

What are the Challenges?

• Addressing Differences in Economic Structures: The EFTA states are highly developed economies with a focus on high-tech industries and services, while India is a developing economy with a more diverse economic structure.

Bridging the gap between these different economic structures may be a challenge in negotiating a TEPA.

• Market Access Challenges: The agreement must address market access issues and address concerns regarding tariffs, quotas, and non-tariff barriers, to ensure free and fair trade between the parties.
• Regulatory Challenges: Differences in regulations, standards, and legal frameworks can pose a challenge for establishing a smooth trading relationship.

Addressing regulatory barriers and streamlining procedures can be time-consuming and require extensive cooperation between the parties.

• Competitive Challenges: EFTA states are small, but their economies are highly competitive, particularly in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and machinery manufacturing.

Addressing competitive challenges to ensure a level playing field and fair competition is essential.

• Environmental and Social Challenges: Addressing environmental and social challenges, such as promoting sustainable development and gender equality, is crucial in establishing a long-term, successful partnership between the parties.
• Negotiation Challenges: Negotiating a mutually beneficial agreement that meets the interests of all parties involved can be challenging.

This includes addressing outstanding issues and achieving a balanced agreement with strong political involvement and guidance.

Way Forward:

• Address Outstanding Issues: The high-level delegates from EFTA and India should work towards resolving any outstanding issues that may hinder the conclusion of a mutually beneficial TEPA.
• Identify Areas of Mutual Benefit: The parties should identify areas of mutual benefit, such as technology transfer, R&D and innovation, business collaboration, and market access for goods, to increase trade and investment ties.
• Collaborate on Skilled Labour: The TEPA should also focus on increasing predictability in the services sector, creating more business opportunities for skilled Indian service providers and contributing to the economic growth and welfare of both countries.

Strong Political Involvement and Guidance: India and EFTA should prioritize the TEPA negotiations and provide strong political involvement and guidance to ensure a swift process towards a balanced agreement.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, the Supreme Court of India began hearing a series of petitions seeking solemnisation of same-sex marriage under the Special Marriage Act. The Special Marriage Act of 1954 provides a civil form of marriage for couples who cannot marry under their personal law.

In the proceedings the center advised the Supreme Court to defer the case to Parliament on the matter, stating that the law cannot be revised to permit same-sex marriage again.

In this context, there is a need to look into the matter of Same-sex marriage and its related issues.

What are Arguments Against the Same Sex Marriage?

• Religious Definitions of Marriage: Marriage has traditionally been between a man and a woman in many religions. The Special Marriage Act, 1954 was created to overcome the limitations of religious personal laws, not to create a new institution of marriage.
• ‘Legitimate’ Interest of State: The state has a legitimate interest in regulating marriage and personal relationships, as seen in laws regarding age of consent, prohibited degrees of marriage, and divorce. The right to marry is not absolute and subject to state laws. Just like a parent cannot claim absolute control over their child’s education, individuals cannot claim absolute control over their personal relationships.
• The state can claim legitimate interest to regulate, when to marry, how many times to marry, whom to marry, how to separate, and law on bestiality or incest.
• The Right to Privacy: In 2017, the Supreme Court recognized the right to privacy as a fundamental right and stated that sexual orientation is a crucial part of one’s identity that must be protected without discrimination.
• However, privacy exists but it cannot be extended to marriage, which has a necessary public element. Consenting sexual relationships between adults are private, but marriage has a public aspect that cannot be ignored.
• Legislation by Parliament: Only Parliament has the authority to decide on same-sex marriage as it is a matter of democratic right and court should not legislate on the issue. There could be potential unintended consequences in law and the complexity of dealing with the various permutations and combinations of genders falling under the LGBTQIA+ community (which has 72 categories).
• Interpreting the Law: The Special Marriage Act (SMA) cannot be interpreted to include same-sex marriage because the Act’s entire architecture would need to be examined, not just a few words. For example, the Act provides specific rights to a wife, and it’s unclear who would have these rights in a same-sex marriage. Additionally, allowing one party in a same-sex marriage to have a specific right could create a problem for heterosexual marriages.
• Law provides specific rights to a wife like “the law says that the wife acquires the domicile of the husband upon marriage. So, who will be the wife in a same-sex marriage?”
• Issue of divorce, under the SMA, a wife may seek divorce on the ground that her husband has been guilty of rape, sodomy, or bestiality.
• Issues with Adoption of Childrens: When queer couples adopt children, it can lead to societal stigma, discrimination, and negative impacts on the child’s emotional and psychological well-being, especially in Indian society where acceptance of the LGBTQIA+ community is not universal.
• Gendered terms: Argument that gendered terms like ‘mother’ and ‘father’, ‘husband’ and ‘wife’ would be problematic in same-sex marriages.

What are Arguments in Favour of Same Sex Marriage?

• Threat to Human Race: Opposing same-sex marriage by saying it will end the human race is unreasonable because adoption is a solution for queer couples who want to raise children.
• Elitist Concept: The demand for marriage equality comes from less economically privileged people who need legal protection. Claiming that it’s a matter for urban elites is deceptive. E.g. The story of Leela and Urmila, two policewomen who were suspended and locked up for getting married in 1987, shows the discrimination faced by LGBTQIA+ people in society.
• Extend Special Marriage Act to Queer Indians: The Special Marriage Act should be extended to include queer Indians by using gender-neutral language like “spouse” instead of “husband” or “wife”. This would grant them the right to marry without asking for special rights.
• The Special Marriage Act allowed for a Bengali Hindu and an Anglo-Indian Roman Catholic to marry in 2006, and they hope this legislation will be extended to queer Indians.
• Cohabitation as a Fundamental Right: The Chief Justice of India (CJI) acknowledged that cohabitation is a fundamental right, and it is the government’s obligation to legally recognize the social impact of such relationships.
• The justices suggested that recognition is needed for such relationships to receive certain benefits, but not necessarily as marriage. The CJI emphasized the importance of providing a sense of security and social welfare for people in such relationships.
• The court suggested labels like “contract” or “partnership” instead of “marriage”. The government said there is no fundamental right to seek recognition of same-sex relationships as marriage.
• The Supreme Court of India discussed the recognition of cohabitation as a fundamental right for same-sex couples, which would entitle them to benefits without being equated to marriage.
• Assimilation of same-sex couples: The CJI has emphasized the need to assimilate same-sex couples into society rather than ostracizing them. The decriminalization of Section 377 of the IPC has recognized the existence of same-sex relationships.
• Government should address the practical issues faced by same-sex couples, such as joint bank accounts and entitlement to pension and gratuity.
• Indian Culture and Value System: In culturally rich India, where social norms and obligations wield significant influence, the acceptance of same-sex relationships still poses a challenge, even after legal recognition.
• It goes against the traditional values and beliefs of the Indian society. However, the recognition of same-sex marriage adds to the diversity of relationships that exist in society.
• Human Dignity: In Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India, the Supreme Court granted same-sex couples the freedom to lead a dignified private life.
• Biological gender is not ‘absolute: The Supreme Court of India says that biological gender is not absolute, and that gender is more complex than just one’s genitals. There is no absolute concept of a man or a woman.
• ‘Bouquet of rights’ being denied: The LGBTQIA+ community is being denied important legal benefits like tax benefits, medical rights, inheritance, and adoption by not being allowed to marry. Marriage is not just about dignity, but also a collection of rights.

Way Forward:

• Raise awareness: The purpose of awareness campaigns is to promote equality and acceptance of all sexual orientations and expand public opinion about the LGBTQIA+ community.
• Legal reforms: Amends in the special marriage Act to allow same-sex couples to legally marry and enjoy the same rights and benefits as opposite-sex couples. Meanwhile bring the contract like agreement so the homosexual people can enjoy similar rights like heterosexuals.
• Dialogue and engagement: Engaging in a dialogue with religious leaders and communities can help bridge the gap between traditional beliefs and modern attitudes towards same-sex relationships.
• Legal challenges: The Indian LGBTQIA+ community can challenge the constitutionality of the current laws that prevent same-sex marriage in court. Such legal challenges can help establish a legal precedent that will pave the way for the legalization of same-sex marriage.
• The legalization of same-sex marriage requires a concerted effort from all stakeholders, including the LGBTQIA+ community, the government, civil society, and religious leaders. By working together, we can create a more inclusive society where everyone has the right to love and marry whomever they choose, regardless of their gender.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: In the recent India-UK Science & Innovation Council meeting, India and the United Kingdom announced the establishment of a ‘NET Zero’ Innovation Virtual Centre aimed at addressing climate change and environmental targets.

What is the NET Zero Innovation Virtual Centre?

• It is a joint initiative of India and the UK to enhance their cooperation on science and technology, especially on climate change and environmental issues.
• It will provide a platform to bring stakeholders from both countries together to work on some of the focus areas such as the decarbonization of manufacturing process and transport systems, and green hydrogen as a renewable source.
• It will support the goal of achieving net zero emissions balancing the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and removed from the atmosphere.
• It will also facilitate knowledge exchange, innovation, research and development, capacity building, and policy dialogue between the two countries.

What are the Key Highlights from the Meeting?

India-UK Science and Technology Cooperation:

• The UK has emerged as India’s 2nd largest international research and innovation partner.
• The joint research program between India and the UK has grown from almost zero to close to £300-400 million.

India’s Economic and Technological Capabilities:

• India is fast moving to become an economic powerhouse driven by its extraordinary technological and innovative capabilities, especially after the Covid vaccine success story.
• Energy efficiency and renewable energy are central pillars where India has already taken the lead through various initiatives like the India Solar Alliance and Clean Energy Mission.
• India is committed to achieving ambitious net-zero targets through consistent efforts towards developing mitigation and monitoring solutions for environmental pollution and techno-based pathways for reducing carbon emissions.

Industry-Academia Collaboration:

The cooperation will provide an opportunity for Indian and UK academia and industry to develop newer products/processes together for the economic growth of both nations.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is making an aggressive push to eradicate drugs in the country. In the past three years, over 89,000 football fields of opium and cannabis cultivation have been destroyed across several states in the country. The government aims to make India “drug-free” by 2047.

What is the Extent of Drug Abuse in India?

• India is facing a serious challenge of drug abuse and trafficking, which affects the health, well-being, and security of millions of people, especially the youth.
• According to World Drug Report 2022, India has the 4th largest quantity of opium seized in 2020 at 5.2 tons, and the 3rd highest amount of morphine was also seized in the same year at 0.7 tons.
• According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), India accounted for 7% of the global opium seizures and 2% of the global heroin seizures in 2019.
• India is also situated between two major drug-producing regions, the Golden Crescent (Iran-Afghanistan-Pakistan) and the Golden Triangle (Thailand-Laos-Myanmar), which makes it vulnerable to illicit drug trafficking.

What are India’s Efforts in Eliminating Opium and Cannabis Cultivation?

• Opium and cannabis are two of the most commonly cultivated and consumed drugs in India.
• Opium is derived from the poppy plant and cannabis from the hemp plant. Both have psychoactive effects and can cause addiction and health problems.
• The government has intensified its crackdown on drugs with various measures such as destroying illegal crops, seizing drugs, arresting traffickers and creating awareness.
• Some of the achievements of the government in this regard are:
• According to the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), opium and cannabis cultivation in area the size of over 89,000 football fields has been destroyed in the past three years.
• The NCB said that in the past three years, 35,592 acres of poppy cultivation and 82,691 acres of cannabis cultivation have been destroyed across the country.
• The States where the crops were destroyed are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tripura, and Telangana.
• The NCB also said that it has seized over 6.7 lakh kilograms of drugs worth over Rs. 3,000 crore in the past three years.
• The seized drugs include heroin, opium, cannabis, cocaine, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy), ketamine, etc.

How is the Government Tackling the Drug Problem?

Legislative Measures: The government has enacted various laws such as the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940; the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985; and the Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (PITNDPS), 1988

• To regulate and prohibit the manufacture, distribution, possession, and consumption of drugs.
• The NDPS Act provides for stringent penalties for drug offenses.

Institutional Measures: The government has created institutions such as the NCB, the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), the Customs Department, etc.

• These institutions enforce drug laws and coordinate with other agencies at national and international levels.
• The NCB is also part of various bilateral and multilateral initiatives such as the SAARC Drug Offences Monitoring Desk (SDOMD).

Preventive Measures:

• The government has launched various schemes and programmes such as National Action Plan for Drug Demand Reduction (NAPDDR), Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (NMBA), etc. to
• These schemes prevent drug abuse and provide treatment and rehabilitation services to drug addicts.
• The NAPDDR aims to reduce drug demand through awareness generation, capacity building, de-addiction and rehabilitation.
• The NMBA aims to create awareness about harmful effects of drugs among school children.

NIDAAN and NCORD Portals:

• It is a database that contains the photographs, fingerprints, court orders, information and details of all suspects and convicts arrested under the NPDS Act which can be accessed by State and Central law enforcement agencies.
• On the National Narcotics Coordination portal (NCORD), the source and destination of drugs are highlighted and information up to the district levels is maintained.

What are the Challenges Associated with Drug Controlling in India?

• Lack of Adequate Infrastructure: There is a shortage of trained personnel, specialized equipment, and proper infrastructure to effectively combat drug trafficking and abuse.
• Proliferation of New Psychoactive Substances: The use of new psychoactive substances is on the rise in India, and these drugs are often not covered under existing drug control laws, making it difficult for law enforcement agencies to regulate them effectively.
• Dark Net Easing Drug Trafficking: As per NCB, the use of the ‘dark net’ and cryptocurrency in illegal drugs is increasing, and in 2020, 2021 and 2022, the agency investigated 59 such cases.
• Poor Awareness and Education: There is a lack of awareness and education about the dangers of drug abuse and addiction, especially in rural areas.
• High Demand: India has a large population, and there is a high demand for drugs, which fuels the drug trade.
• Social Stigmatization: Drug addiction is still highly stigmatized in Indian society, which makes it difficult for individuals to seek help and treatment.

What Measures can be Taken to Eradicate Drug-Abuse?

Strengthening Law Enforcement:

• Strengthening the implementation of the NDPS Act and PITNDPS Act by providing adequate resources, training and modern equipment to law enforcement agencies.
• Creating a more robust surveillance and intelligence gathering system to effectively curb drug trafficking along with improving coordination between agencies.

Enhancing Preventive Measures: Increasing the availability of affordable treatment and rehabilitation facilities for drug addicts and scaling up awareness campaigns to educate people about the dangers of drug abuse and the importance of seeking help.

Addressing Supply Reduction:

• Increasing the focus on intercepting drug supply chains by improving border controls, using advanced technology and increasing international cooperation.
• Reducing drug production through alternative livelihood programs for farmers engaged in illicit cultivation.
• Jharkhand State has launched an alternate livelihood scheme for farmers growing poppy illegally and provides cash incentives to destroy the illegal crops.

Strengthening International Cooperation:

• Strengthening cooperation with neighboring countries, especially those in the Golden Crescent and the Golden Triangle, to effectively curb drug trafficking.
• Strengthening partnerships with international organizations such as the UNODC and Interpol to exchange information and best practices.

Use of Technology:

• Big Data and analytics and AI to identify and track drug trafficking networks, monitor drug movements, and identify patterns related to drug abuse and trafficking.
• Drones and satellites, to monitor and detect illegal drug cultivation and provide high-resolution images of suspected areas.
• Develop an online reporting system where citizens can report drug abuse and trafficking activities.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: It is disheartening to witness that even 75 years after Independence, Parliament lacks substantial representation of women, with women holding just 14% of the seats.

What are the contributions of women in the field of politics?

• Women played a crucial role in India’s fight for independence, by organising demonstrations, leading rallies, and raising awareness. There were numerous female representatives in the Constituent Assembly as well.
• Just a decade ago, three of India’s largest States, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh, were in the spotlight for being led by women Chief Ministers.
• While Sushma Swaraj led the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, Sonia Gandhi served as both President of the Congress Party and Chairperson of the United Progressive Alliance. Also, India had its first woman President, Pratibha Patil around the same time.

What have been the major developments in India related to women representation in politics?

• The discourse on women’s reservation in India originates from the pre­-Independence era. Several women’s organisations demanded political representation for women.
• In 1955, a government appointed committee recommended that 10% of seats in the Lok Sabha and State legislative assemblies should be reserved for women.
• During the 1980s, the demand for women’s reservations gained momentum. The National Perspective Plan for Women (1988) recommended that 30% of seats in all elected bodies should be reserved for women.
• This recommendation was reiterated in the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, which was adopted in 2001.
• In 1993, the Panchayati Raj Act was amended to reserve 33% of all seats in local government bodies for women.
• In 1996, the Women’s Reservation Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha. The Bill proposed to reserve one third of seats in the Lok Sabha and State legislative Assemblies for women. However, facing strong opposition from some political parties.
• It gained more momentum again in the early 2000s. On March 9, 2010, the Bill was approved in the Rajya Sabha.

What are the global examples of women representation in politics?

• Around the world, women leaders are outperforming their male counterparts.
• The Scandinavian countries have implemented policies and governance structures that support gender equality and women’s empowerment. It includes women’s representation in political and leadership positions.
• Moreover, countries led by women have best policies and governance practices. The deep scars in Rwanda, from the genocide, are being healed by a leadership that comprises women. This has also resulted in key social reforms.
• Norway implemented a quota system in 2003 that required 40% of seats on corporate boards to be occupied by women.

What is the way forward for proper representation of women in politics?

• Babasaheb Ambedkar was of the opinion that the progress of a community can be measured by the degree of progress which women have achieved.
• Women have been waiting for too long for their right to govern. Women’s leadership qualities are not hidden from anyone. So, the denial of opportunity for political representation represents grave injustice.
• As India strives to become a Vishwa Guru, it cannot overlook the pivotal role women can play in nation building and development. The women’s reservation Bill must be passed.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The combined Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI) increased by 3.6 percent (provisional) in March 2023 as compared to the Index of March 2022.

• The production of Coal, Fertilizers, Steel, Natural Gas, and Refinery Products increased in March 2023 over the corresponding month of last year (2022).

Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI)

• ICI measures combined and individual performance of the production of eight core industries viz. Coal, Crude Oil, Natural Gas, Refinery Products, Fertilizers, Steel, Cement, and Electricity.
• The Eight Core Industries comprise 40.27 percent of the weight of items included in the  Index of Industrial Production (IIP).
• The Office of Economic Adviser, Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) releases the Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI).
• Base year: 2011-2012

Summary of the Index of Eight Core Industries 

• Coal – Coal production (weight: 10.33 percent) increased by 12.2 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Crude Oil – Crude Oil production (weight: 8.98 percent) declined by 2.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Natural Gas – Natural Gas production (weight: 6.88 percent) increased by 2.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Petroleum Refinery Products – Petroleum Refinery production (weight: 28.04 percent) increased by 1.5 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Fertilizers – Fertilizer production (weight: 2.63 percent) increased by 9.7 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Steel – Steel production (weight: 17.92 percent) increased by 8.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Cement – Cement production (weight: 5.37 percent) declined by 0.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Electricity – Electricity generation (weight: 19.85 percent) declined by 1.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, India airlifted 754 of its stranded citizens from Sudan.

More about Operation Kaveri

• Sudan’s conflict:
  • Sudan has been witnessing deadly fighting between the country’s army and a paramilitary group that has reportedly left around 400 people dead.
• About Operation Kaveri:
  • Under Operation Kaveri, India has been rescuing its citizens in buses from conflict zones in Khartoum and other troubled areas to Port Sudan from where they are being taken to Jeddah in Indian Air Force’s transport aircraft and Indian Navy’s ship
  • From Jeddah, the Indians are being brought home in either commercial flights or IAF’s aircraft.
  • India has set up separate control roomsin Jeddah and Port Sudan and the India embassy in Khartoum has been coordinating with them and the MEA’s headquarters in Delhi.
• Indian diaspora in Sudan:
  • As per official estimates, the total number of Indians in Sudan is around 3,400 with around 1,000 PIOs (Persons of Indian Origin) who have been residing in Sudan for generations.
• Challenges:
  • Many Indians working for the oil and gas industry stay in distant places and it is not easy to find out about them in the given circumstances.
  • This is likely to be a more challenging part of the operation as many are caught up in places like El Fashir in Darfur which is highly volatile at the moment.
  • The focus of Operation Kaveri is now shifting to those groups of Indians who live in distant parts of Sudan away from Khartoum.

More about the Conflict in Sudan

• Background:
  • The roots of the ongoing conflict go back to April 2019,when Sudan’s long-serving authoritarian President Omar al-Bashir was overthrown by military generals following a countrywide uprising against him.
  • Despite Bashir’s ouster, civilians continued their demonstrations seeking democratic elections.
    • It led to an agreement between the military and the protesters under which it was decided to constitute the Sovereignty Council, a power-sharing body of military officers and civilians, and elections at the end of 2023.
  • But, the new arrangement was short-lived as the military overthrew the government in October 2021, and Lt Gen Abdel Fattah al-Burhan became de-facto leader of the country.
    • Burhan announced that the military would hold power until elections are held in July 2023.
  • Over the past few weeks, the RSF (Para-military which was formed in 2013) was redeployed around the country, which the army saw as a provocation and threat.
    • With both sides on edge, a ferocious battle broke out.
  • Reason of recent crisis:
    • Clashes erupted after heightened tensions between the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), a paramilitary groupled by Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo — also known as Hemedti — and the military, headed by Lt Gen Abdel Fattah al-Burhan.
    • The two generals disagree over the proposed transition to civilian rule in Sudan.
  • Repercussions for Sudan:
    • The third largest country in Africa by size has seen repeated pro-democracy protests since the 2021 coup.
    • Some experts fear the tussle could transform into a wider conflict leading to the country’s collapse.
    • Sudan’s economy is struggling, battered by hyperinflation and crippled by massive foreign debt.
    • Billions of dollars given in international support and debt relief, were frozen after the ouster of the government.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The World Health Organization (WHO) has launched a new initiative to be better prepared for future outbreaks of a similar scale and devastation as the COVID-19 pandemic.

More about the PRET Initiative

• Global Meeting for Future Respiratory Pathogen Pandemics:
  • The initiative was announced at the Global Meeting for Future Respiratory Pathogen Pandemics held in Geneva, Switzerland.
• Aim:
  • The Preparedness and Resilience for Emerging Threats (PRET) Initiative is aimed at providing “guidance on integrated planning for responding to any respiratory pathogen such as influenza or coronaviruses”.
• Immediate focus of the mission:
  • While the current focus of PRET will be on respiratory viruses — in the backdrop of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak.
    • Possible threat of an avian influenza outbreak work is already underway to assess what should be the next group of pathogens to be mitigated under this initiative.
  • Approach:
    • The three-pronged approach includes: 
      • Updating preparedness plans that affirm priority actions,
      • Increase connectivity among stakeholders in pandemic preparedness planning through systematic coordination and cooperation and dedicate sustained investments,
      • Financing and monitoring of pandemic preparedness with a special focus on bridging the lacunes highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic.
    • The PRET monitoring framework:
      • The framework is expected to be outlined soon, lists a host of actions which countries will be expected to work on with progress being achieved by December 2025.

Challenges faced globally, during COVID pandemic

• All countries had insufficient health capacities. This left the world acutely vulnerable to future health emergencies.
  • All countries remain dangerously unprepared for future epidemic and pandemic threats, including threats potentially more devastating than COVID-19.
• 65% of assessed countries had not published and implemented an overarching national public health emergency response plan for diseases with epidemic or pandemic potential.
• 73% of countries did not have the ability to provide expedited approval for medical countermeasures, such as vaccines and antiviral drugs, during a public health emergency.
• Most countries, including high-income ones, have not made dedicated financial investments in strengthening epidemic or pandemic preparedness.

India’s Health Sector

• About:
  • India’s health care system consists of both public and private components:
    • The government healthcare system concentrates on establishing primary healthcare centers (PHCs) in rural areas while maintaining a small number of secondary and tertiary care facilities in major cities.
    • Majority of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary care facilities are run by the private sector, with a focus on metropolises and tier-I and tier-II cities.
  • In the Economic Survey of 2022, India’s public expenditure on healthcare stood at 2.1% of GDP in 2021-22 against 1.8% in 2020-21 and 1.3% in 2019-20.
• Challenges:
  • Unequal distribution: 
    • India’s health care system is concentrated in urban areas with very little presence in the rural areas where majority of the population lives.
  • Low Budget Spending: 
    • India’s public expenditure on healthcare is only 2.1% of GDP in 2021-22 while Japan, Canada and France spend about 10% of their GDP on public healthcare.
  • Lack of Medical Research: 
    • In India, R&D and cutting-edge technology-led new projects receive little attention.
  • Low doctor-patient ratio: 
    • The doctor patient ratio in India is about 1:1500 much higher than the WHO norm of one doctor for every 1,000 people.
  • Initiatives: 
    • Pradhan Mantri-Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM): 
      • It aims to strengthen India’s health infrastructure and improve the country’s primary, secondary and tertiary care services.
    • Ayushman Bharat: 
      • Ayushman Bharat follows a two- pronged approach:
        • Creation of health and wellness centres to bring health care closer to homes.
        • Formulation of a Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) to protect poor and vulnerable families against financial risk arising out of health episodes.
      • Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission:
        • It aims to connect the digital health solutions of hospitals across the country. Under this, every citizen will now get a digital health ID and their health record will be digitally protected.
      • National Ayush Mission:
        • It is a centrally sponsored scheme for the development of traditional medicines
      • Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY):
      • It aims to correct regional imbalances in the availability of affordable/reliable tertiary healthcare services and also to augment facilities for quality medical education in the country

Suggestions for effective pandemic preparedness:

• Prioritizing health security:
  • Prioritize the building and maintaining of health security capacities in national budgets as they are important for responding to routine health threats and can provide important benefits to countries’ overall health and development.
• Transparency in capacities and risk factors:
  • National decision-makers need readily available information about their country’s plans and other capacities, and increased transparency is essential for a global prevention, detection, and response to epidemics and pandemics.
• Conducting post COVID pandemic surveys:
  • Conduct comprehensive after-action COVID-19 pandemic reports so that they can learn from this crisis and ensure that capacities developed during the pandemic are expanded and sustained for future public health emergencies.
• Global support:
  • Support countries in addressing the urgent global need to strengthen health systems as part of countries’ public health capacity-building efforts.
• Community engagement and equity:
  • Just as health emergencies have impacts across many sectors, so must our preparedness and response efforts span sectors, disciplines and pathogens.
  • It is critical, too, that community engagement and equity are the centre of our efforts, especially for those populations that are marginalised and most at risk.

Way ahead

• The PRET Initiative ushers in anew era for pandemic preparedness and represents an evolution of WHO’s core activities to support all member states in strengthening health emergency preparedness, prevention, and response capacities and capabilities.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, the World Bank published the World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees & Societies. The report estimated a 120% income gain for Indians who migrate to another country for work, compared to a 40% rise in the case of internal migration.

What are the Highlights of the Report?

• An Increase in Income: Under-skilled Indian citizens migrating to the US noticed a hike in their income of nearly 500%, followed by the UAE by almost 300%. Those migrating to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations other than UAE stand to gain less.
• Overview of Global Migration and Refugees: There are currently 184 million migrants globally, which is 2.3% of the population, including 37 million refugees. There are four types of migrants:

1. Economic migrants with strong skill match (e.g., Indian IT professionals in the US or construction workers in GCC nations)
2. Refugees with skills in demand at the destination (e.g., Syrian entrepreneurs in Turkey)
3. Distressed migrants (e.g., Some poorly skilled migrants at the US southern border)
4. Refugees (e.g., Rohingya in Bangladesh)

• Top Migration Corridors: India-US, India-GCC and Bangladesh-India have been identified to be among the top migration corridors globally along with Mexico-US, China-US, Philippines-US and Kazakhstan-Russia.
• Increase in Remittances: The remittances have increased to some of the countries with a large migrant population, including India, Mexico, China and the Philippines. India received the highest ever foreign inward remittances of USD 89,127 million in FY 2021-22. In 2021, total global remittances were estimated at USD 781 billion and have further risen to USD794 billion in 2022.
• A Decline in Working-Age Adults: The share of working-age adults will drop sharply in many countries over the next few decades. Spain is projected to shrink by more than one-third by 2100.

What are the Challenges in this Regard?

• Global Inequalities: As per the World Bank, migration issues are becoming even more widespread and urgent due to severe divergences between and within countries— in terms of real wages, labour market opportunities, demographic patterns and climate costs.
• Lack of Citizenship: A significant number of people do not have citizenship in the country where they reside. Less than half of the global migrant population, about 43%, live in low- and middle-income countries. This underscores the global nature of the issue of statelessness and highlights the need for action to address it.
• Distressed Migration: Some migrants move without skills that match the needs in the destination country and they are not refugees either. Such movements are often distressed irregular and take place under harrowing circumstances.

Way Forward:

• Match-Motive Framework: The “match” aspect is grounded in labour economics and focuses on how well migrants’ skills and related attributes match the needs of the destination countries. “Motive” refers to the circumstances under which a person moves in search of opportunity. This determines the extent to which migrants, origin countries and destination countries gain from migration: The stronger the match, the larger the gains.
• Manage Migration Strategically: Origin countries should make labour migration an explicit part of their development strategy.
• Balancing Skill Demand and Social Inclusion: Destination countries should encourage migration where the skills migrants bring are in high demand, facilitate their inclusion and address social impacts that raise concerns among their citizens.
• Ensuring Protection: Provide international protection to refugees in a manner that can be sustained, financially and socially because most refugee situations last many years.
• Manage Cross-border Relations Differently: Bilateral cooperation can be used to strengthen the match of migrants’ skills and attributes with the needs of destination economies.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Countries around the world are adopting climate mitigation technologies to tackle climate change. However, climate finance still remains a hindrance towards adopting such technologies.

What are different climate mitigation technologies being adopted and what are the concerns associated with them?

• Renewable Power: The most mitigation technologies being adopted are solar, wind, hydropower, etc. The cost of solar panels, wind turbines, storage batteries and other components have declined dramatically such that the cost of renewable power is now comparable to fossil-fuel based power. However, despite the low cost of renewable power, renewable energy still accounts for only around 15% of global power generation.
• Green Hydrogen: The cost of green hydrogen has been dependent on the cost of electrolyzers, which has come down, making green hydrogen commercially viable and attracting large-scale corporate investment, including in India. However, despite this, the rollout of green hydrogen on a scale is just starting.
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CSS): CCS technologies are needed to capture carbon and store it till it can be broken down for commercial use. However, existing CSS technologies are very expensive. Much investment is required in R&D to reduce costs before CSS technologies become commercially viable.
• Carbon Sink: Terrestrial and underwater forests are the natural carbon sinks that contain the carbon load in the atmosphere. But the level of emissions has gone far beyond the capacity of natural ‘carbon sinks’ to absorb the additional carbon load. Hence, to lower the ambient carbon load and eventually reverse global warming, it is necessary to invest heavily in R&D to create technologies that synthetically imitate and improve the capacity of natural carbon sinks.
• These all imply that vast amounts of capital are required to successfully address the climate crisis.
• As per the Emission Gap Report 2022, the current annual investment in climate finance of about $571 billion needs to rise to at least $1.7-2 trillion.

What measures can be taken for climate finance?

• First, Global public sector finance can be considered to finance global public goods.
• However, the report of the G20-appointed Committee to Review the Multilateral Development Banks’ (MDBs) Capital Adequacy Framework indicates that MDBs may at best generate additional assistance of $1 trillion for all purposes. There is doubt even over this amount.
• Second, Private capital may be relied upon and may act as an alternative to public capital. However, most of this capital originates in advanced countries and would not easily flow to tropical developing countries.
• Third, along with private capital flows, developing countries must focus on creating a suitable ecosystem including universally accepted concepts, definitions and standards for climate finance, appropriate rating systems and technical assessment methodologies.
• Fourth, developing countries will also require de-risking of such private capital flows, along with its attendant moral hazard. MDBs can play a crucial role by providing credit guarantees.