General Studies Paper 2

• The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) notified the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Amendment Rules, 2023, which are an amendment to the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021. The Amendment to IT Rules has generated intense debate, with some arguing that they could curtail freedom of speech and expression online, while others believe that they are necessary to prevent the spread of fake news and other harmful content.

About the recent Amendment to IT Rules

• Introduction of Fact-Check Bodies: The recent amendment to IT Rules introduces the creation of fact-check bodies to identify whether information related to the Central government is accurate or not.
• Regulation of Social Media Intermediaries: The new amendments also regulate social media intermediaries like Facebook and Twitter to take down posts and internet service providers to block URLs marked as fake, failure to do so could lead to social media platforms losing safe harbor protections.
• Identification and Removal of Fake News:The amendment aims to identify and remove fake news to prevent its spread, especially during tumultuous times where it can incite violence and cause panic.
• Ensuring Accountability of Online Platforms:The amendment seeks to ensure accountability of online platforms by requiring them to follow a code of ethics and take measures to prevent the misuse of their platforms.
• Addressing National Security Concerns:The amendment aims to address national security concerns by allowing the government to take down online content that threatens the sovereignty and integrity of India.
• Providing a Legal Framework for Tech Regulation:The amendment provides a legal framework for tech regulation and clarifies the responsibilities of online platforms, social media intermediaries, and the government in regulating online content.

What is the rationale behind the recent amendment to IT Rules?

• The recent amendment to IT Rules aims to regulate social media platforms, online news publishers, and other digital media outlets.
• Regulating Fake News: One of the primary reasons behind the amendment is to regulate the spread of fake news and misinformation through social media platforms and other digital media outlets.  For instance, recently, a malicious disinformation campaign led to law-and-order issues in Tamil Nadu. The news spread false claims about violence against migrant workers from Bihar and was propagated through social media.
• Non-liability of Intermediaries: Section 79 of the IT Act states that an intermediary (Digital media and OTTs) shall not be liable for any third party information, data, or communication shared on their platforms. They enjoy a safe harbour regime.
• Amount of Internet users in the country: The user base of digital media companies and the online gaming industry has expanded rapidly since the pandemic. India, with about 658 million users as of January 2022 has the second-highest number of Internet users, after China. Hence, without proper regulation, the information going on them might trigger national security issues and other challenges.

What are the advantages of amendment to IT Rules?

• The amendments to the IT Rules bring some advantages, including:
• Addressing the issue of fake news: The creation of a fact-checking body can help to address the issue of fake news and misinformation on online platforms, which can potentially cause harm to society.
• Improved accountability: The amendments provide for increased accountability of social media intermediaries, which are required to remove content marked as fake or misleading. This can help to prevent the spread of harmful content and ensure that intermediaries are more responsible for the content on their platforms.
• Protection of citizens’ rights:The rules provide for an appeals process for citizens who feel that their content has been wrongly flagged as fake or misleading, ensuring that their rights to freedom of speech and expression are protected.
• Cybersecurity:The rules provide for the mandatory appointment of a chief compliance officer, a nodal contact person, and a resident grievance officer by social media intermediaries. This can help to improve cybersecurity and prevent the misuse of online platforms for illegal or harmful activities.
• Ensuring Compliance: It seeks to ensure compliance with Indian laws, including those related to national security and public order. This helps to prevent the misuse of social media platforms and other digital media outlets to incite violence or spread hate speech.
• Promoting Self-Regulation: Finally, it aims to promote self-regulation among social media platforms and other digital media outlets. This encourages these platforms to take proactive measures to prevent the spread of fake news and other malicious content, rather than waiting for the government to take action.

What are the challenges associated with the amendment to IT Rules?

• Some of the challenges associated with the amendment:
• Lack of clarity on what constitutes “fake or false or misleading” information:The amendment does not provide a clear definition of what types of information qualify as “fake or false or misleading.” This lack of clarity creates ambiguity and can lead to arbitrary censorship by the government.
• Censorship and Freedom of Speech:The fact-check unit of the central government has been given unprecedented power to censor any content that they deem to be fake or false or misleading, which could potentially infringe upon the freedom of speech and expression of citizens.
• Lack of transparency and accountability: The proposed amendments do not provide any criteria or guidelines for the government to declare information as ‘fake’ or ‘false’, leading to potential misuse of power. Moreover, the lack of due process, notice and hearing for the originators and creators of information may lead to arbitrary takedowns and a lack of accountability.
• Burden on intermediaries: The proposed amendments increase the compliance burden on intermediaries, who may have to take down content based on government orders without any clarity on the criteria for declaring information as ‘fake’ or ‘false’. The additional layer of censorship through the Grievance Appellate Committees may further increase the burden on intermediaries.
• Impact on digital media and online news portals: The proposed amendments do not apply directly to news websites, which are not classified as intermediaries. This may lead to differential treatment of news websites and other online platforms, and potential challenges to the independence of digital media.
• Constitutional concerns:Some critics argue that the fact-checking powers granted to the government under the IT Rules, 2023 may infringe on the constitutional right to freedom of speech and expression guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution of India.
• Short-circuiting established legal procedures:The amendments short-circuit a) The procedures, safeguards and conditions laid out in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India or under Section 69A of the IT Act, b) Madras High Court ruling in T M Krishna v. Union of India and the Bombay High Court ruling in Agij Promotion of Nineteen One Media Pvt. Ltd. & Ors. v. Union of India put a hold on the rules which provided the government with a wider say on content on OTT or digital media platforms.
• Chilling Effect:The mere existence of the fact-check unit and its power to censor content could have a chilling effect on free speech, as people may be hesitant to express their opinions online for fear of being censored or facing legal consequences.
• Potential for Misuse:The fact-check unit’s power could be misused by the government to silence dissenting voices or criticism of government actions, which could have serious implications for democracy and human rights.
• Opposition from civil society and media organizations:The Editors Guild, the Indian Newspaper Society, and other civil society and media organizations have spoken out against the amendment, stating that the determination of “fake news” should not be in the sole hands of the government and that it could allow the government to proscribe any criticism of its actions.
• Conflict of interest: The role played by the fact-checking unit has a significant conflict of interest as it plays the role of judge, jury and executioner.

What should be done?

• Need develop a more transparent and participatory process: The government should work with civil society, media organizations, and other stakeholders to develop a more transparent and participatory process for determining what content should be considered fake or misleading.
• Need an independent and non-partisan fact-checking body:The government should ensure that anybody tasked with fact-checking is independent and non-partisan, with clear guidelines for how decisions are made.
• According to judicial guidelines:The government should ensure that any takedown requests are made in accordance with the procedures and safeguards laid out in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India or under Section 69A of the IT Act, which defines and restrict the conditions under which government can take down online content.
• Need to find a balanced approach:The government should engage in dialogue with social media platforms and other intermediaries to find a balanced approach to tackling fake news and misinformation, which takes into account the need to protect freedom of expression and the rights of media organizations, journalists, and readers.
• Need regularly reviewed and updated:The government should also ensure that any regulations or guidelines are regularly reviewed and updated to reflect the evolving nature of online content and the challenges associated with regulating it.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Recently, the government introduced the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill, 2023 in Lok Sabha and proposed changes to the Forest (Conservation) Act, (FC) 1980.

• The aim of the proposed changes is to build forest carbon stock by raising plantations. The Bill also seeks to make land available for compensatory afforestation.

What is the Background and Proposed Changes in FC Act, 1980?

• Background:
  • After Independence,vast areas of forest land were designated as reserved and protected forests.
    • However, many forested areas were left out, and areas without any standing forests were included in‘forest’ lands.
  • In 1996, the Supreme Court suspended the felling of trees across the country, and ruled that the FC Act would apply to all land parcels that were either recorded as ‘forest’ or resembled the dictionary meaning of forest.
  • In June 2022, the government amended  the Forest Conservation Rules to propose a mechanism to allow developers to raise plantations “over land on which the (FC) Act is not applicable” and to swap such plots against subsequent requirements of compensatory afforestation.
• Proposed Changes:
  • Preamble to the Act:
    • It proposes to insert a preamble to the Act to encompass the country’s rich tradition of preserving forests, their bio-diversity and tackling climate change challenges within its ambit.
  • Restrictions on Activities in Forest:
    • The Act restricts the de-reservation of forest or use of forest land for non-forest purposes. Such restrictions may be lifted with the prior approval of the central government. Non-forest purposes include use of land for cultivating horticultural crops or for any purpose other than reafforestation.
    • The Bill adds more activities to this list such as: (i) zoos and safaris under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 owned by the government or any authority, in forest areas other than protected areas, (ii) eco-tourism facilities, (iii) silvicultural operations (enhancing forest growth), and (iv) any other purpose specified by the central government.
  • Land under the Purview of the Act:
    • The Bill provides that two types of land will be under the purview of the Act:(i) land declared/notified as a forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or under any other law, or (ii) land not covered in the first category but notified as a forest on or after October 25, 1980 in a government record.
    • Further, the Act will not apply to land changed from forest use to non-forest use on or before December 12, 1996 by any authority authorized by a state/UT.
  • Power to Issue Directions:
    • The Bill adds that the central government may issue directions for the implementation of the Act to any other authority/ organisation under or recognised by the centre, state, or union territory.
  • Exemptions:
    • It seeks to exempt all strategic linear projects of “national importance and concerning national security” within 100 km of international borders, the LAC, and the
    • The proposed amendment also includes exemptions for “security-related infrastructure” up to 10 hectares,and additional activities such as silvicultural operations, construction of zoos and wildlife safaris, eco-tourism facilities, and any other activities specified by the Central Government.
  • Issues:
    • With the amendments, all those forest lands which do not fall in  the reserved area but are available in government records before 1980 will not come under the purview of the Act.
      • This diverts away from the Supreme Court’s 1996 verdict which had ensured every forest mentioned in government records gets legal protection against 
    • Critics argue that the terms like ‘proposed’, ‘ecotourism facilities’, and ‘any other purposes’ can be exploited or misused for activities damaging forests and ecosystems in forest lands.
      • They also argue that plantations are a significant threat to Indian forests as they replace the natural ecosystems, affect soil quality, and particularly threaten the native biodiversity.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been increasingly used in various industries to automate and streamline processes. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in using AI tools to enhance legislative procedures. These tools can help legislators analyze large amounts of data, identify patterns and trends, and make more informed decisions.

However, there are also concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in legislative procedures, particularly around issues of bias and transparency. Also, there are challenges with current laws in India, which are complex and opaque, making it difficult for AI to function effectively.

• Therefore, it is important to carefully consider the benefits and potential drawbacks of using AI in legislative procedures.

What Role Artificial Intelligence can play in Legislation?

• Enhance Legislative Procedures:
  • AI tools can assist parliamentarians in preparing responses for legislators, enhancing research quality, obtaining information about any Bill, preparing briefs, providing information on particular House rules, legislative drafting, amendments, interventions, etc. This can help to streamline legislative processes and make them more efficient.
    • The House of Representatives in the United States has introduced an AI tool to automate the process of analysing differences between Bills, amendments and current laws.
  • Research Quality:
    • AI can assist in conducting thorough research by analyzing large volumes of data, identifying patterns and trends, and presenting the results in a comprehensive manner. This can help lawmakers to make informed decisions based on reliable data and evidence.
  • Assist in Decision-Making:
    • AI can provide decision-making support to lawmakers by analyzing various factors and making predictions about the potential outcomes of different policy options. This can help to improve the accuracy of decision-making and minimize the risk of unintended consequences.
  • Analysing Citizens’ Grievances:
    • Compared to western democratic nations, in India, parliamentarians manage constituencies with a huge population.
    • AI can analyse citizens’ grievances and social media responses, and flag issues and priorities that need immediate attention.
    • It can also assist parliamentarians in seeking citizen inputs for public consultation of laws and preparing a manifesto.
  • Simulate the Potential Effects of Laws:
    • The use of AI in legislative procedures can help in modelling various datasets such as the Census,  data on household consumption, taxpayers, beneficiaries from various schemes, and public infrastructure to uncover potential outcomes of a policy.
    • It can also help in flagging laws that are outdated in the present circumstances and which require amendment.
    • For example, during the Covid-19 pandemic, it became evident that ‘the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897’ failed to address the situation adequately, highlighting the need to revisit and update outdated laws.
    • Several provisions in the Indian Penal Code (IPC) are also controversial and redundant, such as Article 309 (attempted suicide), which continues to be a criminal offence.
    • AI can help identify such outdated laws and streamline the legislative process by focusing on more relevant laws and policies.
      • There are several pieces of criminal legislation that were enacted more than 100 years ago that are of hardly any use today, such as the Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867, the Public Gambling Act, 1867, and the Prisons Act, 1894.

What are the Concerns with the use AI in Legislative Procedures?

• Lack of Transparency:
  • AI models can be highly complex, and it may be difficult to understand how they are making decisions.This lack of transparency could undermine the democratic process if legislators and the public are unable to understand the reasoning behind legislative decisions.
• Bias:
  • AI models are only as objective as the data they are trained on. If the data used to train an AI model is biased, the model may replicate and even amplify that bias in its decisions.
    • This could lead to discriminatory outcomes, such as laws that disproportionately impact certain groups.
  • Accountability:
    • If AI is used in legislative decision-making,it may be difficult to hold anyone accountable for the outcomes. This could pose a challenge to the democratic process, as accountability is a critical component of representative governance.
  • Cybersecurity:
    • Legislative procedures often involve sensitive and confidential information. If AI systems used in these procedures are not properly secured, they could be vulnerable to cyberattacks that could compromise this information.
  • Dependence:
    • Over reliance on AI in legislative procedures could reduce the human element in decision-making and could lead to a loss of expertise and judgment that comes from human interaction and debate.

What are the Related Steps taken around the World?

• Netherlands’s “Speech2Write” System:
  • The Netherlands House of Representatives, for instance, has implemented the “Speech2Write” system which converts voice to text and also “translates” voice into written reports.
  • “Speech2Write comprises automatic speech recognition and automated editing capabilities that can remove filler words, make grammatical corrections and propose editing decisions.”
• Japan’s AI Tool:
  • It assists in the preparation of responses for its legislature and also helps in the automatic selection of relevant highlights in parliamentary debates.
• Brazil’s Ulysses:
  • Brazil has developed an AI system called Ulysses which supports transparency and citizen participation.
• India’s Approach:
  • India is also innovating and working towards making parliamentary activities digital such as the ‘One Nation, One Application’ and the National e-Vidhan (NeVA) portal.

What Should be the Way forward?

• Codify Laws and Regulations:
  • The government should continue its efforts to codify laws and regulations in a comprehensive and accessible manner. This will provide a solid foundation for AI-based solutions to work with.
• Develop a Unified Platform:
  • A unified platform should be developed that provides a complete view of all laws, regulations, and notifications. This platform should be accessible to all stakeholders, including citizens, businesses, and government officials.
• Encourage Collaboration:
  • AI-based solutions for legislation should be developed through collaboration between various stakeholders,including government agencies, legal experts, technology companies, and civil society organizations.
• Ensure Transparency and Accountability:
  • AI-based solutions should be designed to be transparent, explainable, and accountable.Citizens should be able to understand how the AI arrived at a particular decision or recommendation.
• Focus on Citizen-Centric Solutions:
  • AI-based solutions should be designed to meet the needs of citizens.The solutions should be user-friendly and accessible to all, including those with disabilities or limited digital literacy.
• Making Laws Machine-Consumable:
  • There is a need to make laws machine-consumable with a central law engine, which can be a single source of truth for all acts, subordinate pieces of legislation, gazettes, compliances, and regulations.
  • For Example:
    • AI can tell us if an entrepreneur wants to open a manufacturing unit in Maharashtra and what acts and compliances are applicable.
    • If a citizen wants to check the eligibility for welfare schemes, AI can recommend which schemes are eligible, based on details provided by citizens.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The Supreme Court observed in a judgment that preventive detention laws in India are a colonial legacy and confer arbitrary power to the state.

Supreme Court’s recent observation 

• The judgment described preventive detention laws as “extremely powerful”. 
  • They have the ability to provide the state with unfettered discretion.

Preventive detention

• It means the detention of a person without trial. It refers to the detention at the will of the executive.
• In normal day-to-day life, we come across punitive detention which seeks to punish a person for what he or she has done after a trial in a court of law for the offence committed by him or her.
• On the other hand, the objective of preventive detention is to prevent a person from doing something, and the detention in this case takes place on the apprehension that he or she is going to do something prejudicial to the security of the State, public order, maintenance of supplies and services essential to the community, defence, foreign affairs or security of India.
• The legislative power to enact the law of preventive detention is divided by the Constitution between the Union and the State.

Issues 

• Preventive detention looks like an effective tool in the hands of the government to deal with anti-social elements or subversives.
• But this provision has often been misused by the government.
• Both Central and state governments have abused such legislation, with even the judiciary being unable to effectively limit such abuses as the detention of individuals without cause, and the failure to follow even the minimal protections offered by Article 22 of the Constitution.

 Safeguards

• Article 22(3) of the Constitution provides for preventive detention laws, Article 22(4) contain the following safeguards against abuse of this power:
  • No law providing for preventive detention shall authorise the detention of a person for a longer period than three months. Detention beyond this 3-month period requires clearance from an Advisory Board.
• The 44th Amendment Act of 1978has reduced the period of detention without obtaining the opinion of an advisory board from three to two months. However, this provision has not yet been brought into force, hence, the original period of three months still continues.
• Presently, the following Central legislations which are in force provide for preventive detention:
  • The National Security Act, of 1980.
  • Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act, 1974 [COFFPOSA].
  • Prevention of Black Marketing and Maintenance of Supplies of Essential Commodities Act, 1980.
  • Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1988.

Suggestions 

• There must be greater safeguards so that it may not be misused against people.
• The court must analyse cases arising from such laws with extreme caution and excruciating detail, to ensure that there are checks and balances on the power of the government.
• Judges should ensure that the government has followed every procedure of law while flexing preventive detention powers against individuals.
• Every lapse in procedure must give rise to a benefit to the case of the detenue.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Recently, the Indian Prime Minister marked the 50th anniversary of Project Tiger by putting out a 5th cycle of India’s Tiger Census. Based on the survey, the tiger population in India has grown from 1,411 in 1972 to 3,167 in 2022. The Prime Minister established the International Big Cats Alliance (IBCA) to further safeguard these great cats. At the same time, a commemorative coin was made to mark the end of 50 years of “Project Tiger.”

Note: The IBCA will focus on the protection and conservation of seven major big cats of the world — Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Puma, Jaguar, and Cheetah, with membership in the range of countries harbouring these species.

About the recent increase in tiger population in India  

• India since 2006 has been conducting scientific tiger population estimation once every four years. According to the latest report, the number of tigers has recorded a 6.74% increase from 2,967 in the last census in 2018 to 3,167 in 2022. The number was 1,411 in 2006.
• India is now home to 75% of the global tiger population and also the “largest tiger range country in the world”.
• The rate of increase has slowed down to less than 7% over the period, down from more than 30% in the previous four years.
• The only landscape in India where the tiger population has gone down is the Western Ghats, where declaring of an ecologically sensitive zone has been hanging since 2010.
• The tiger populations have declined in the central Indian states of Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, even though tigers have been spotted for the first time in Himachal Pradesh and in new areas in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

What are the reasons led to the increasing tiger population in India?  

• Conservation Efforts: India has implemented various conservation efforts to protect tigers, including the establishment of protected areas, anti-poaching patrols, and community involvement. For example, Project Tiger was launched in 1973 to protect tigers and their habitats, and it has led to an increase in tiger populations in many areas.
• Habitat Restoration:The restoration of tiger habitat has been a key factor in their population recovery. Efforts have been made to reduce human encroachment and restore natural habitats by reforestation and reducing deforestation. For instance, in Sariska Tiger Reserve, where tigers were once completely wiped out, efforts have been made to restore the habitat and reintroduce tigers.
• Strict laws against poaching:India has implemented strict laws against poaching and the illegal trade of tiger parts. This has reduced the number of tigers killed for their skin, bones, and other body parts.
• Prey Base Management: Managing the prey base for tigers is important to ensure their survival. The increase in prey populations, such as deer and wild boar, has resulted in a rise in tiger numbers. Efforts are being made to improve the prey base by managing their populations and reducing their hunting by humans.
• Reduced Human-Tiger Conflict:Human-tiger conflict has been a significant threat to tiger populations. Measures to reduce such conflicts, such as building barriers, compensation for livestock losses, and relocation of problematic tigers, have helped to prevent the loss of tigers due to human-wildlife conflict.

What is the significance of conserving the tiger population?  

• Ecological importance:Tigers are apex predators in their ecosystem, and their presence helps maintain a balance in the food chain. Their conservation ensures the protection of other species and their habitats, contributing to overall ecosystem health.
• Economic benefits:The presence of tigers in protected areas attracts tourists from around the world, generating significant revenue for local communities and governments. Tiger conservation can also create employment opportunities in ecotourism and related industries.
• Cultural and spiritual significance: Tigers hold a special place in many cultures and religions, and are often considered symbols of power, strength, and beauty. Conserving tigers help preserve cultural and spiritual heritage for future generations.
• Genetic diversity:Tigers are a genetically diverse species, with distinct subspecies found in different regions of the world. Conserving tiger populations helps preserve this genetic diversity, which can be important for the long-term survival of the species.
• Climate change adaptation:Tigers require large areas of intact forest habitat to survive, which also provides important ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and water regulation. Conserving tiger habitats can help mitigate the effects of climate change by preserving these important ecological functions.
• Scientific Research:Tigers are a keystone species and their conservation can provide valuable insights into ecological processes and conservation biology. Studying tiger behaviour and their interactions with other species can help in developing effective conservation strategies for other species and ecosystems.

What are the government initiatives focused on improving the tiger population in India?  

• Project Tiger: The ‘Project Tiger’ is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) of the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, providing funding support to tiger range States for in-situ conservation of tigers in designated tiger reserves, and has put the endangered tiger on an assured path of recovery by saving it from extinction, as revealed by the recent findings of the All India tiger estimation using the refined methodology.
• National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA): It is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change constituted under enabling provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended in 2006, for strengthening tiger conservation, as per powers and functions assigned to it under the said Act.It works closely with state governments and other stakeholders to implement various measures for the protection and management of tiger reserves.
• Tiger Census: The government conducts a national tiger census every four years to estimate the tiger population in the country.
• Community Reserves:The government has also established Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves to protect critical tiger habitats outside of the designated tiger reserves. These reserves are managed by local communities and provide alternative livelihoods to local people while conserving the tiger population.
• Eco-Sensitive Zones: The government has declared several areas around tiger reserves as Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) to protect the biodiversity of these areas. Eco Sensitive Zones act as some kind of “shock absorbers” to the Protected Areas by prohibiting, regulating and promoting activities around Protected Areas.
• Project Elephant: While this is not directly related to tigers, Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to protect the elephant population in the country. As elephants and tigers share similar habitats, the initiative has indirectly benefited tiger populations as well. The project aims to protect elephant corridors and habitats, prevent poaching, and mitigate human-elephant conflicts.
• Global Tiger Forum(GTF): It is the inter-governmental international body established in 1993 with members from willing countries to embark on a global campaign to protect the Tiger. It is located in New Delhi, India.
• Global Tiger Initiative(GTI):It was launched in 2008 as a global alliance of governments, international organizations, civil society and the private sector with the aim of working together to save wild tigers from extinction. In 2013, the scope was broadened to include Snow Leopards.

What are the challenges with the increased tiger population in India? 

• With the increased tiger population there are a few challenges also. These include,
• Firstly, with the increase in India’s human population, the natural habitat of tigers has been gradually destroyed. Consequently, there is a higher likelihood of encounters between humans and tigers as the tiger population expands. Managing man-animal conflict at socially and economically tolerable limits will be challenging.
• Secondly, there is a carrying capacity of tiger reserves that can support tigers. Few of the tiger reserves in India are already on the threshold of it.
• Thirdly, the population of tigers is dependent on the prey population, which means that for the tiger population to increase sustainably, there must be a corresponding increase in the prey population.
• Fourthly, there is a lack of corridors which connect adjacent tiger reserves. These are crucial for the long-term viability of individual tiger populations. But these corridors often pass through unprotected government and private lands.

Way forward:

• Habitat Restoration: Restoration of the remaining tiger habitat with a prey base is essential before tigers can occupy it. Prey base in the habitats of states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, and North Eastern States of Arunachal, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Assam should be restored.
• Construction of Corridors for Gene Pool: Habitat linkages in the form of corridors to form metapopulations by connecting these Tiger Reserves is a vital strategy for long-term viability of individual tiger populations. These corridors often pass through unprotected government and private lands. Infrastructure passing through corridor habitats needs to be mitigated appropriately and land conversions monitored through a legal mechanism to ensure that there is no barrier effect to the movement of tigers.
• Conflict Management: Managing the man-animal conflict is easier to achieve in India, where religious and cultural values permit some of the highest levels of tolerance amongst human societies. Sharing revenues from tiger reserves with communities residing in the buffer zone and corridor habitats, compensating for all damage at market rates, and removing problem tigers immediately would prevent a backlash against the species.
• Need genetic rescue plan: India should carry a genetic rescue plan or even the introduction of novel genetic variants using genome sequencing technology.
• Monitoring: Proper monitoring of tiger populations and their habitats is important to track the success of conservation efforts.
• Education and Awareness: Education and awareness campaigns can help in changing people’s attitudes towards tigers and their conservation.
• Government Support: The government needs to provide adequate funding for conservation efforts and ensure that laws and regulations related to wildlife conservation are strictly enforced.
• Curbing Illegal Trade: Illegal trade in tiger parts and products needs to be curbed through strict law enforcement and awareness campaigns.
• Involve Local Communities: Involving local communities in conservation efforts and providing them with alternative livelihood options can help reduce the pressure on forests and wildlife.
• International Cooperation: International cooperation and collaboration are necessary to address issues such as habitat loss, poaching, and illegal trade, which are global in nature.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The next six months are going to be crucial for India-U.S. ties. Prime Minister Narendra Modi is likely to head to the U.S. in June, and U.S. President Joe Biden is expected to visit India for the G20 summit later this year.

What are the areas of divergence between India and the US?

• The U.S. wants India to change its stance on the Ukraine crisis. India wants a stronger position by the US against China.
• India is reluctant to sever its stable relations with Russia. Moscow has just released its foreign policy strategy in which it has identified China and India as its main allies.
• India is also the president of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, a forum that includes China and Russia. On the other hand, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization wants greater participation from Delhi.

What are the areas of convergence between India and the US?

• The India-U.S. Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology is expected to expand strategic technology partnership and defence industrial cooperation between the governments, businesses, and academic institutions of the two countries.
• The Indo-Pacific partnership is aimed at promoting security and economic growth, increasing trade and investment, and enhancing connectivity in the region.
• The partnership is based on the shared vision of a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region that is respectful of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries.
• The partnership involves a range of initiatives. It includes joint military exercises, information-sharing on security issues, and collaboration on economic and infrastructure development projects. It also involves cooperation in areas such as counter-terrorism, cybersecurity, and maritime security.
• One of the key objectives of the Indo-Pacific partnership is to counter the growing influence of China in the region. Both countries share concerns about China’s aggressive actions in the South China Sea, its expanding military presence in the region, and its Belt and Road Initiative.
• In recent years, there has been growing interest in diversifying supply chains away from China. The reasons are geopolitical tensions, trade disputes, and concerns about over-reliance on a single country.
• India’s growing consumer market makes it an attractive destination for U.S. businesses. India has a relatively low-cost labour force and an abundance of skilled workers. The government has also implemented policies aimed at attracting foreign investment and promoting economic growth.
• The U.S. and Indian governments have taken steps to promote closer economic ties and facilitate investment. For example, the S.-India Strategic Energy Partnership, aims to enhance cooperation in areas such as energy security and access, and climate change.

How has the India-U.S. relationship seen ups and downs over time?

• Ups – The nuclear deal, liberalisation of markets, and the outsourcing of Indian techies for U.S. companies are a few key moments of the relationship.
• Indian Americans are among the most successful immigrants in the U.S. India needs the knowledge, skill and investment of the diaspora to regain its global position.
• The Green Revolution had transformed India from a shortage economy to one with surplus food with help from the US. The U.S. has also played an important role in making India an IT superpower. Many persons of Indian origin are working in Silicon Valley companies.
• The U.S. and India are also partners in combating climate change. This involves a wide range of initiatives. It includes promoting renewable energy, joint research and development projects, and investment in renewable energy infrastructure. The two countries are also aligned on the importance of space technology.
• Downs – In the past, there was a trust deficit between India and the U.S. India feels that the U.S. has not given support to it and has instead provided support to Pakistan.
• The American pull-out from Afghanistan does not inspire confidence in the U.S. as a trusted partner. The U.S. has been flagging issues related to terrorism, human rights and democracy in India.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Space Age began in 1957 with the launch of satellite Sputnik 1, and in 1961, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the world’s first person in space.

• Neil Armstrong made history by walking on the moon in 1969.

Second Space Age:

• There is no precise date for its beginning, the contrast in today’s space domain is stark.
• The origins of the Second Space Age can be traced to the Internet.
• In India, the process began accelerating as the 1990s saw the emergence of private TV channels, together with cable TV followed by direct-to-home transmissions.
• The demand for satellite transponders and ground-based services exploded.
• Majority actors in space are private companies.
• Last year, there were 180 rocket/space launches:
• 61by SpaceX
• 90% of global space launches since 2020are by and for the private sector.

Background of space technology development:

• Between the 1950s to 1991, a period dominated by the Cold War
  • 60 to 120 space launches took place annually
  • 93% of these were by the United States and the erstwhile USSR

India’s space journey:

• India made an entry into the First Space Age in the 1960s.
• The first sounding rocket, a U.S. supplied Nike-Apache, was launched at Thumba (Kerala) in 1963.
• In 1969, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was set up.
• ISRO’s first major project was Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) that involved leasing a  satellitein 1975-76 for educational outreach across 2,400 villages covering five million people.
• Satellite technology was a new mass communication tool.
  • This led to the INSAT series in the 1980s, followed by GSAT
  • It provided the backbone for the country’s tele-communication and broadcasting infrastructure.
• Remote sensing capability development: The use of space-based imagery for:
• weather forecasting
  • resource mapping of forests
  • analyzing agricultural yields
  • groundwater and watersheds,
  • fisheries
  • urban management.
• Oceansat and Cartosat series: The field of satellite-aided navigation emerged later
  • It began with GAGAN, a joint project between ISRO and the Airports Authority of India
    • to augment Global Positioning System (GPS) coverage of the region
    • improve air traffic management over Indian airspace.
    • Expanded to a regional navigation satellite system called Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC).
  • Development of satellite launch capabilities: Beginning with the SLV-1 in the 1980s
  • ISRO developed the PSLV series that has become its workhorse with over 50 successful launches.

Space potential:

• The last 15 years witnessed another transformation
  • India was in lockstep with the developed world.
• The age of mobile telephony, followed by smartphones shows how data-rich society India is.
• Broadband, OTT and now 5G promise a double-digit annual growth in demand for satellite-based services.
• In 2020,the global space economy was estimated at $450 billion, growing to $600 billion by 2025.
• The Indian space economy,estimated at $6 billion in 2020, is expected to be $13 billion by 2025.
• The Indian space industry could easily exceed $60 billion by 2030,directly creating more than two lakh jobs.
• End-user revenue, only a fifth is generated by the government.
• Media and entertainment account for 26% of India’s space economy
• Consumer and retail services account for another 21%.
• In terms of space activities,
  • downstream activities such as satellite services and associated ground segment are dominant
    • Accounting for over 70% of India’s space economy
  • Upstream activities of satellite manufacturing and launch services contribute the smaller share.
  • India has been an early adopter of digital app-based services.
• Role of Private sector:
• According to the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA): There are 8,261 satellites in orbit, of which nearly 5,000 are active.
• Till 2010, about 60 to 100 satellites were launched annually.
  • In 2020, 1,283 satellites were launched.
• Starlink operates a constellation of over 3,500 satellites and has a million paying customers.
• Starlink and OneWeb (in which Airtel has a stake) project constellations of 40,000 satellites each.
• Amazonhas launched Project Kuiper to bring low-latency broadband connectivity around the globe.

Indian Private Sector:

• The Indian private sector is responding to the demands of the Second Space Age.
• From $3 million in 2018, it doubled in 2019and crossed $65 million in 2021.

Role of ISRO:

• ISRO manages four to five launches annually.
• It manages 53 operational satellites– 21 for communication, 21 for earth observation, eight for navigation and the remaining as scientific experimental satellites (China operates 541).
• ISRO has missions such as Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan and Gaganyaan (manned space mission).
• ISRO has always been an open organization that has worked closely with the Indian private sector.
• Start-ups:Their revenue stream depends on space-related activities and they need a different relationship with ISRO and government.
• ISRO today is the operator,user, service provider, licensor, rule maker and also an incubator.

Way Forward

• ISRO has steered India through the First Space Age and needs to do what it can do best now within its resources and its high-quality manpower — research.
• commercializing the PSLV and SSLV launch services and New Space India Limited (NSIL) was set up to replace Antrix.
• The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) was set up in 2020 as a single-window-clearance for the private sector.
  • However, it is unclear whether it will emerge as the licensing authority or a regulator.
  • An Indian Space Association (ISpA) was created as an industry association.
• Need of legislation (a space activities act): This provides the legal grounding that policy papers lack.
  • It helps set up a regulatory authority and create an enabling environment for raising venture capital funding into the Indian space start-up industry.
• The window of opportunity for India to join the Second Space Age exists and it should not be lost.
• The country’s private sector has the talent and experience to shorten that distance if India creates the enabling policy environment.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: Cooperatives have arich history in India and have been an integral part of the country’s development since Independence. With over 10 lakh cooperatives, of which 1.05 lakh are financial cooperatives, India’s cooperative movement has enormous potential to promote growth, formalize the economy, and reduce inequality.
• However, there are issues with the current system of dual control over cooperative banks,leading to jurisdictional disputes that have hindered their orderly growth. Despite this, cooperatives remain a crucial element of India’s economic landscape and are a key tool for improving the standard of living of the poor.
• In order to thrive in acompetitive landscape, cooperative banks need to improve their governance. Alternatively, State governments should focus on supporting non-financial cooperatives instead of getting involved in conflicts over financial cooperatives.

What are the Challenges with the Financial Cooperatives in India?

• Regulation and Supervision:
  • The regulatory and supervisory framework for financial cooperatives in India is fragmented, with different types of cooperatives being governed by different authorities. This can lead to inconsistencies and gaps in regulation and supervision, which can create vulnerabilities in the financial system.
    • When it comes to cooperative banks  (both urban and rural) there is dual control leading to jurisdictional disputes.
    • While incorporation, management, audit, super session of board and liquidation are administered by the Registrar of Cooperatives, banking licence, prudential regulation, capital adequacy, etc., are prescribed by the RBI.
  • Governance and Management:
    • Many financial cooperatives in India areplagued by poor governance and management, which can lead to mismanagement, fraud, and There have been instances where cooperatives have failed due to poor governance, resulting in losses for depositors.
      • Poor corporate governance has been the main reason behind thefailure of many cooperative banks. Since 2004-05, there were 145 mergers of non-scheduled Urban Cooperative Banks(UCBs), nine in 2021-22.
      • The collapse of  the Punjab and Maharashtra Cooperative (PMC) Bank in 2019 was mainly due to financial irregularities, failure of internal control, and under-reporting of exposures.
    • Capital Adequacy:
      • Financial cooperatives in India often struggle to maintain adequate levels of capital,which can affect their ability to absorb losses and continue operating during periods of financial stress. This can also limit their ability to expand their operations and offer new products and services.
    • Credit Risk Management:
      • Financial cooperatives in India typically lend to Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs)and individuals who may have limited credit history or collateral. This makes credit risk management a critical challenge for cooperatives, as defaults and loan losses can significantly impact their financial stability.
    • Technology and Innovation:
      • Many financial cooperatives in India lag behind in terms of technology and innovation,which can limit their ability to compete with larger banks and fintech firms. Cooperatives need to invest in modern technology and digital infrastructure to enhance their operational efficiency and offer new products and services to their customers.
    • Competition:
      • Financial cooperatives in India faceintense competition from other financial institutions, including commercial banks, small finance banks, and fintech companies. This makes it challenging for cooperatives to attract and retain customers, especially those who are looking for more advanced and sophisticated financial services.

What is the Need to Focus on Non-Financial Cooperatives?

• Promoting Equality and Democratic Participation:
  • Non-financial cooperatives are based on the principle of “one member, one vote,” which means that all members have an equal say in the decision-making process. This promotes democratic participation and helps to ensure that everyone has an equal voice,regardless of their financial resources.
• Encouraging Community Development:
  • Non-financial cooperatives often serve specific communities or groups of people,such as local farmers or small business owners. By providing goods or services to these communities, non-financial cooperatives can help to support local economic development and build stronger communities.
• Fostering Sustainable Practices:
  • Non-financial cooperatives are often focused on promoting sustainable practices, such as fair trade or organic farming.By prioritizing environmental and social sustainability, non-financial cooperatives can help to create a more just and equitable society.
• Empowering Workers and Consumers:
  • Non-financial cooperatives are often owned and controlled by workers or consumers,giving them a greater sense of ownership and control over their work or consumption. This can help to promote worker empowerment and consumer rights, leading to a more equitable and just society.

How Government Plans to Develop Non-Financial Cooperatives?

• Ministry for Cooperation:
  • The Government has recently created a separate Ministry for Cooperation to promote and develop the cooperative sector in the country. The Ministry is mandated to provide a supportive policy and regulatory environment for cooperatives, strengthen the cooperative movement, and increase their reach across the country.
• Fiscal Incentives for FPOs:
  • The Government provides fiscal incentives such as tax exemptions, credit guarantee schemes, and subsidies for Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs).
• Schemes for Handicrafts and Handlooms:
  • The Government has launched several schemes to promote and develop the handicrafts and handloom sector, which is an important source of livelihood for rural artisans.
• Government’s Electronic Marketplace (GeM):
  • After the electronic national agriculture market (eNAM), the Government’s electronic Marketplace (GeM), version 4, is a successful innovative online platform dedicated to the marketing of several goods and services produced by MSMEs and non-financial cooperates.
    • As of now, more than 62,000 government buyers, 49 lakh sellers, 10,000 products, and 290 services are registered on this platform.
  • One-District-One-Product Scheme:
    • It aims to promote the unique products of each district in the country and develop them as brands.
  • Welfare Schemes for Dairy Development:
    • Government has launched several welfare schemes for dairy development and fisheries, which are important sources of livelihood for rural households.
      • Milk cooperatives are a grand success in India.
    • Cooperatives as a Business Model:
      • Cooperatives can be pursued as a business model in several areas such as post-harvest processing, warehousing, and packaging.
    • Use of Technology:
      • The Government has the vision to use technology for rural development under several schemes such as Digital India, Bharat Net, and e-Governance.
    • Growing Opportunities for Start-ups:
      • Opportunities are growing for start-ups in rural areas, which can be pursued under non-financial cooperates.

Way Forward:

• Embrace Technology:
  • In today’s digital age,it’s important for financial cooperatives to keep up with technology trends and offer digital services such as mobile banking, online account opening, and remote deposit capture. This can help attract new members and retain existing ones, especially younger generations who are more tech-savvy.
• Expand Services:
  • Financial cooperatives can expand their services beyond traditional savings and loans to include investment products,insurance, and financial education.
  • This can help members achieve their financial goals and strengthen their loyalty to the cooperative.
• Collaborate with other Cooperatives:
  • Financial cooperatives can collaborate with other cooperatives, including credit unions, to share resources, expertise, and best practices. This can help improve efficiency and reduce costs.
• Focus on Non-Financial Cooperatives:
  • While financial cooperatives, such as credit unions and microfinance institutions, are also important for providing access to credit and other financial services, they can sometimes become a source of conflict and controversy.
  • Given the potential benefits of non-financial cooperatives, it may be more productive for state governments in India to focus on supporting these types of organizations,rather than getting involved in conflicts over financial cooperatives.
    • This could involve providing funding and technical assistance to help establish and grow non-financial cooperatives,as well as promoting these organizations through public education and outreach campaigns.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The article discusses various issues with the Bhutan and China boundary demarcation and stand of India on the issue.

What are the issues with the demarcation of Bhutan-China boundary?

• There are issues over the natural borders. The Chumbi Valley is one of them.
• The valley is important for strategic and economic reasons and has a significant relational value given its proximity to the Amochhu river. The valley is also known as the Bhutanese route to Tibet. 
• The valley reflects two broad principles guiding the demarcations of borders in the Himalayas:
• The Thalweg Doctrine:It emphasises the idea of map-making by identifying rivers as the central point and measuring the boundary from the lowest point of a riverbed.
• The water-parting principle:It identifies territory with a concerned watershed, where the boundary is determined by the highest elevation surrounding that particular lake or river segment.
• These both principles have been merged in the ongoing border negotiations between China and Bhutan.
• The dispute in the north-west sector of the China-Bhutan border has revolved around the watershed of the Chumbi Valley, and the height of certain Himalayan ranges such as Mt Gipmochi.

What are the issues over Mt Gipmochi?

• China has legally claimed the boundary line from Mt Gipmochi, through the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1890. The Amochhu river flows adjacent to Mt Gipmochi. 
• However, both India and Bhutan have rejected these claims and stated that the boundary line should follow from Batangla, Merugla and Sinchula ranges as these peaks are higher than Gipmochi.
• The Chinese have ignored these assertions and have continued to build villages along the west bank of Amochhu river.
• Therefore, the Thalweg Doctrine is the compromise formula for solving the disputed claims.
• How has India responded to the border dispute between Bhutan and China?
• Since, the bilateral relations between Bhutan and China is of strategic importance to India, India has said that the tri-junction would be resolved trilaterally.
• In this regard, the 15th round of Sino-Indian Special Representative (SR) dialogue, 2012,becomes significant.
• The India-China agreement on the Working Mechanism on Consultation and Coordination was made in SR dialogue of 2012.
• However, China has said that the SRs discussed bilateral, regional and global issues. Terms such as “tri-junction” and “consultation with third countries” are absent in the 15th round of SR dialogue of 2012.
• China has also said that issue lies more with the 1890 Convention than with the SR dialogue of 2012.

Way forward:

• It is important that a trilogue is initiated. Opening communication channels can minimise uncertainties as questions of peace and conflict cannot be resolved by potential stand-offs (like Doklam) in the future.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The Ministry of Education released a pre-draft version of the National Curriculum Framework for School Education.

About Framework 

• The National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF) is developed based on the vision of theNational Education Policy (NEP) 2020, and to enable its implementation.
• It addresses education for the age group 3 to 18 years, across the entire range of diverse institutions in India.
  • This is across the four Stages in the 5+3+3+4 Curricular and Pedagogical restructuring of School Education as envisioned in NEP 2020.
• The National Steering Committee under the chairmanship of K. Kasturirangan was set up by the Ministry to undertake and develop NCFs.

Key Highlights

• It leans towards making students acquainted with true sources of knowledge, which have been a philosophical preoccupation of ancient Indians.
• These sources focus on six  pramanas:
  • Pratyaksa, interpreted as perception through five senses;
  • Anumana, which uses inferences to come to new conclusions
  • Upamana, which is knowing through analogy and comparison;
  • Arthapatti, which involves knowing through circumstantial implication,
  • Anupalabdhi, which includes perception of non-existence, and
  • Sabda, which the document explains is “something an individual can only directly know a fraction of all reality through direct experience and inference but must rely on other experts was acknowledged thousands of years ago”.
• It recommends developing moral values for the child through a balanced diet, traditional games, yoga asanas, as well as a wide variety of stories, songs, lullabies, poems, and prayers to develop a love for cultural context.
• It focuses on the importance of questioning by giving examples of the Upanishads, and includes examples from Katha Upanishad.
  • It terms debates between Adisankara and Mandana Misra as legendary.
• It also stresses on identifying and explaining important phases of the Indian national movement against British rule, with special reference to Gandhian and other subaltern movements.
• It also recommends teaching concepts of Buddhism, Jainism and Vedic and Confucian
  

Objectives of this NCF

• It aims to help in positively transforming the school education system of India as envisioned in NEP 2020, through corresponding positive changes in the curriculum including pedagogy.
• It aims to help change practices in education and not just ideas
• It is this holistic overall transformation of the curriculum that will enable us to positively transform overall learning experiences for students.

Current Status 

• This is a pre-draft of the NCF-SE which still requires several rounds of discussion within the National Steering Committee (NSC).
• Feedback from diverse stakeholders will further help NSC to look critically into different modalities and approaches.

It suggested 3 approaches to assessments: Assessment –

• ‘Of learning’ (measurement of achievement of student learning),
• ‘for learning’ (evidence of student learning gathered by the teacher that provides inputs to guide the teaching-learning processes) and
• ‘as learning’ (when assessments are introduced as non-threatening tools for self-reflection and introspection).