General Studies Paper 3

• The global dominance of the US dollar in international trade and finance has long been a topic of discussion among policymakers and economists. In recent years, there has been a growing trend towards “De-dollarisation of global trade”, where countries seek to reduce their dependence on the US dollar in international transactions. This shift is driven by a desire to reduce exposure to currency risk and increase economic autonomy. While there are opportunities associated with de-dollarisation, such as increased trade and financial independence, there are also significant challenges, including the potential for increased currency volatility and geopolitical tensions.

What is the De-dollarisation of global trade?

• De-dollarization of trade refers to the process of reducing dependence on the US dollar for international transactions, trade settlements, and financial operations. This can be achieved by using alternative currencies or assets, such as the Euro, Chinese Yuan, or even cryptocurrencies. The primary goal of de-dollarization is to diversify the global economy, minimize risks associated with the US dollar’s dominance, and reduce the impact of US monetary policy and political decisions on other countries.

What is the need for the De-dollarisation of global trade?

• The weaponization of trade:Countries need to reduce their reliance on the US dollar to protect their economies from sudden policy changes or geopolitical tensions that result from US monetary policies and sanctions. This necessity is evident in Russia’s push for de-dollarisation due to the impact of US sanctions on its economy.
• Monetary Sovereignty breach:There is a need for countries to establish greater control over their monetary policies and enhance their financial autonomy. This can be achieved through de-dollarisation, as demonstrated by China promoting the use of the yuan in international trade to increase its economic influence and independence.
• Global Financial Instability:The need for de-dollarisation arises from the desire to create a more diverse global reserve currency system, reducing the risks associated with overreliance on a single dominant currency like the US dollar. The European Union’s efforts to increase the international use of the euro are driven by this need for greater financial stability.
• Exposure to Currency Fluctuations:Dollarisation has increased countries’ exposure to currency fluctuations resulting from the US dollar’s volatility. For example, countries with high levels of dollar-denominated debt can be severely affected by fluctuations in the US dollar’s value, leading to increased debt servicing costs and financial instability.

What are the global efforts towards the De-dollarisation of trade?

• Aftermath of the 2022 Russia-Ukraine conflict:As the US and its allies imposed strict economic sanctions on Russia, including cutting off its access to the SWIFT payment system, Russia had to find alternative ways to conduct international trade and financial transactions. In response, Russia has been accelerating its de-dollarization efforts, increasing the use of alternative currencies like the Euro and Chinese Yuan for international trade, and developing its own payment systems like the System for Transfer of Financial Messages (SPFS) and the Mir payment card system.
• China’s Cross-Border Interbank Payment System (CIPS):Launched in 2015, CIPS is a payment system that facilitates cross-border transactions in the Chinese yuan.
• SDR-like basket currency for BRICS nations:BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) have displayed increased cooperation and intent to change the dollar-dominated financial system.
• African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA):AfCFTA, which started its operational phase in July 2019, aims to create a single market for goods and services across the African continent. One of the key objectives is to promote intra-African trade using local currencies, which can help reduce the reliance on the US dollar for trade settlements among African countries.
• European Central Bank’s TARGET2 System: Launched in 2007, the TARGET2 (Trans-European Automated Real-time Gross Settlement Express Transfer System) is a payment system for the real-time processing of cross-border transfers within the European Union. This system enables EU member countries to conduct trade and financial transactions in euros, reducing their reliance on the US dollar.

How is India pursuing the de-dollarisation of trade?

• Promoting Bilateral Trade Settlements in Indian Rupees:In this respect, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has permitted banks from 18 countries to open Special Vostro Rupee Accounts for settling payments in Indian rupees. This allows partner countries to bypass the US dollar and use Indian rupees for trade transactions, reducing reliance on the US currency and promoting the use of local currencies in international trade. Bangladesh has become the 19th country to settle bilateral trade with India using Indian rupees and Bangladeshi taka.
• Strengthening Trade Pacts with Partner Countries:India has been working on finalizing trade pacts with several partner countries, such as the UAE and Australia, to facilitate the use of Indian rupees in bilateral and global trade. By negotiating trade agreements with countries like the UK and the European Union, India is making efforts to establish the Indian rupee as a more prominent currency in international trade, furthering the de-dollarization process.
• Establishing Currency Swap Agreements: India has also been entering into currency swap agreements with different countries to facilitate trade and investment. For instance, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has signed an agreement to extend up to a USD 200 million currency swap facility to Maldives Monetary Authority (MMA) under the  SAARC Currency Swap Framework.
• Expanding Local Currency Settlement Frameworks: India has been working towards expanding its local currency settlement frameworks with other countries to promote de-dollarization. In 2020, India and Japan expanded their Bilateral Swap Arrangement (BSA) to include local currency settlement, enabling trade settlements in Indian rupees and Japanese yen.
• Encouraging Regional Financial Integration:India has been actively participating in regional financial integration initiatives to promote the use of local currencies in trade. For example, India is a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and has been working towards promoting the use of local currencies within the SAARC region.
• Promoting Cross-Border Digital Payments:India has been investing in cross-border digital payment systems to facilitate trade and financial transactions in local currencies. For instance, India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) launched a Remittance Facility, which allows instant money transfers between the two countries in Indian rupees and UAE dirhams.
• Strengthening Economic Ties with Emerging Economies:India has been focusing on strengthening its economic ties with emerging economies like Brazil, Russia, China, and South Africa (BRICS) to diversify its trade partners and reduce its reliance on the US dollar. India, along with other BRICS countries, is exploring the possibility of creating a new development bank and a common currency for settling trade transactions among the member countries.

What are the opportunities provided by the de-dollarisation of global trade?

• Diversification of Risks:De-dollarization helps countries diversify their risks by reducing dependence on a single currency, the US dollar. By using alternative currencies, countries can better manage the impact of fluctuations in the dollar’s value and minimize the effects of US monetary policies on their economies. For instance, during the US-China trade war, China increased its use of the Yuan in international transactions to reduce the impact of tariffs and the dollar’s fluctuation on its economy. Increased
• Monetary Policy Autonomy:De-dollarization allows countries to exercise greater autonomy in their monetary policies, as they become less influenced by the US Federal Reserve’s decisions. For example, Russia’s efforts to de-dollarize its economy since 2014 have allowed it to maintain more control over its monetary policy, even amid economic sanctions imposed by the US and its allies.
• Strengthening Regional Currencies:De-dollarization can strengthen regional currencies by encouraging their use in international trade and finance, boosting their credibility and attractiveness to investors. Such as the promotion of the Chinese Yuan in the Belt and Road Initiative has led to its increased use in international trade and finance, raising its profile as a global currency.
• Encouraging Regional Cooperation:De-dollarization can foster greater regional cooperation among countries by promoting the use of regional currencies, leading to stronger trade ties and economic integration. For example, the BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) have been exploring the possibility of using their national currencies for trade settlements and creating a new global reserve currency as an alternative to the US dollar.
• Reducing Sanctions’ Impact:De-dollarization can help countries insulate themselves from the effects of economic sanctions imposed by the US or other entities, by enabling them to conduct trade and financial transactions through alternative channels. For instance, Iran has been increasingly using barter arrangements, local currencies, and cryptocurrencies to bypass US sanctions and maintain its international trade.

What are the challenges associated with the de-dollarisation of global trade?

• Currency volatility:De-dollarisation can lead to increased currency volatility as countries transition to using new currencies for trade. This can create uncertainty for businesses and investors.
• Limited acceptance of local currencies:Local currencies may not be widely accepted outside of their home countries, which can create difficulties for international trade. Lack of liquidity: Local currencies may have limited liquidity compared to the US dollar, which can create challenges for large transactions.
• Limited use in financial markets:Local currencies may not have the same level of use in global financial markets as the US dollar, which can limit their usefulness for international trade.
• Resistance from established players:Established players in the global financial system, such as the US and other Western powers, may resist de-dollarisation efforts, which can create geopolitical tensions.
• Implementation challenges:There may be challenges in implementing de-dollarisation, including developing new payment systems and addressing legal and regulatory barriers.

Should India focus on the de-dollarisation of trade?

• Yes, India should focus on the de-dollarisation of trade, this can be done through:
• Reducing Dependence on a Single Currency:De-dollarisation will reduce India’s dependence on the US dollar as a global reserve currency, which will help insulate the Indian economy from any potential negative impacts of global events. For instance, in recent years, India has faced difficulties due to the impact of global events like US sanctions on Iran and Russia, and the COVID-19 pandemic. De-dollarisation can help minimize the risks associated with these events.
• Promoting Regional Trade:De-dollarisation can promote regional trade and cooperation, particularly with BRICS nations, which will help India reduce its dependence on Western powers. For example, India has been exploring the idea of using the Indian rupee in bilateral trade with oil-exporting countries and has created a multi-agency task force to compile a list of countries where India could trade in rupees. This will promote regional trade and reduce dependence on the US dollar.
• However, de-dollarisation comes with challenges, including the need for infrastructure to support new payment systems and potential currency volatility. India will need to carefully navigate these challenges to successfully implement a de-dollarisation strategy.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The efforts of the government such as launching Nano Urea and coating all indigenously manufactured and imported urea with neem oil have not been successful in reducing the urea consumption.

What do the current statistics say about the use of urea?

• Sales of urea crossed a record 35.7 million tons (mt) in the fiscal year 2022-23. 

After neem-coating was fully enforced from December 2015, consumption of the urea dipped in the initial two years. However, the trend reversed from 2018-19.

• Urea sales in 2022-23 were about 5.1 mt higher than in 2015-16 and over 9 mt than in 2009-10.

All other fertilisers, except single super phosphate (SSP), have registered much lower increases or even declines.

What is nutrient-based subsidy (NBS) and why hasn’t it been successful?

• The data reveals worsening of nutrient imbalance, with urea consumption rising by over a third since 2009-10. 
• This has been due to a slower rise in the prices of urea. The price increased only by 16.5%, after the introduction of NBS.
• The current government has also brought back price controls on DAP.Companies are not allowed to charge more than Rs 27,000 per tonne.
• These reasons have led to an increase in the sales of fertilisers in the fiscal year 2022-23.

What are the harms of using excess fertilizers?

• Fertilisers are essentially food for crops. They, like humans, need nutrients for growth and grain yield.
• Initially, the crop yield on the use of fertilisers was good, especially during the Green Revolution. However, with the time, crop yield response to fertiliser use has more than halved.
• For example,1 kg of NPK nutrients yielded 12.1 kg of cereal grains in India during the 1960s, but only 5 kg during the 2010s.
• Further, as per recent research, the Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) in India has fallen from 48.2% in 1962-63 to 34.7% in 2018. The 34.7% NUE was below the global average of 45.3% and 53.3% for North America in 2018.

Way forward:

• First,the consumption of urea can be reduced by increasing its prices. However, it is not easy due to political reasons.
• Second, instead of increasing prices, efforts may be put towards improving NUE. This will enable farmers to harvest the same or more grain yields with fewer bags.
• Nano Urea is also primarily aimed at boosting NUE. For instance, a single 500-ml Nano Urea bottle containing just 4% N can effectively replace at least one 45-kg bag of regular 46% N urea.
• Third,the government should also make incorporation of urease and nitrification inhibitors compulsory in urea. 
• These are chemical compounds that inhibit the activity of urease (a soil enzyme that breaks down urea into ammonium and further to ammonia) and nitrifying bacteria(that convert ammonium to nitrate), making more N available to the crops.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The second phase of the caste survey  beginning in Bihar and several other political debates have brought Mandal Politics once again in news.

What is Mandal Politics and Mandal Commission?

• About:
  • Mandal politics refers to a political movement that emerged in the 1980s,advocating for the inclusion of socially and economically disadvantaged communities, particularly the Other Backward Classes (OBCs), in government jobs and educational institutions.
  • The movement was named after the Mandal Commission.
• Mandal Commission:
  • The Mandal Commission or the second Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission, was established in India in 1979 with a mandate to “identify the socially or educationally backward classes” of India.
    • It was headed by B. P. Mandal and submitted its report in 1980 and was implemented in 1990.
  • The Commission reported that 52% of the country’s population was comprised of OBCs. Initially, the commission argued that the percentage of reservations in government service should match this percentage.
    • However, this would have gone against the Supreme Court ruling in R. Balaji vs State of Mysore case (1963) which had laid down a limit of 50% on.There was already a 22.5% reservation for SCs and STs.
  • Therefore, the figure of reservation for OBCs was capped at 27% which when added to keep the reservation below the 50% mark.
    • The Commission also identified backward classes among non-Hindus.
  • Recommendations of Mandal Commission:
    • OBCs must be provided a reservation of 27% in public sectorand government jobs.
    • They should be provided with the same 27%   reservation in promotions at all levels of public services.
    • The reserved quota, if unfilled, should be carried forward for a period of 3 years.
    • OBCs should be provided age relaxation similar to SCs and STs.
    • Reservations to be made in PSUs, banks, private sector undertakings receiving government grants, colleges, and universities.
    • The government to make the necessary legal provisions to implement these recommendations.
  • Impact of Mandal Commission:
    • Implementation of Mandal Commission by the government resulted in a widespread protest where students committed self-immolation in protest when the government showed its intent to implement it.
    • The implementation was finally challenged in Indra Sawhney vs Union of India case.

What are the Merits of Mandal Commission?

• Increased Representation:The Mandal Commission helped in increasing the representation of SEBCs in government jobs and educational institutions.
  • According to Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, OBC representation against total appointment through direct recruitment was consistently above 27% during 2014-2021.
• Access to Education: The reservation policy enabled many OBC students to gain access to higher education. This resulted in a significant increase in the number of OBC students in universities and colleges.
  • According to the Ministry of Social Justice during the period of 2014-2021, the enrolment of OBCs in Higher Educational Institutions has been consistently increasing since 2014-15.
• Social Justice:The Mandal Commission’s recommendations were based on the principles of social justice and aimed at providing equal opportunities to all sections of society, especially those who have been historically disadvantaged.

What are the Demerits of Mandal Commission?

• Limited Impact on Upliftment:The impact has been limited to a very few communities. According to the Justice Rohini G. Commission, out of almost 6,000 castes and communities in the OBCs, only 40 such communities had gotten 50% of reservation benefits for admission in central educational institutions and recruitment to the civil services.
• Politicisation:The politicians have often used the Reservation as their vote bank politics. During 1980s, the Mandal Commission was highly politicized giving a new form of Politics- Mandal politics.
  • Even today, it is used as a political tool. Recently, a politician while campaigning in Karnataka has demanded to lift 50% limit on SC/ST/OBC reservation.
• Negative Impact on Merit:The reservation policy led to a negative impact on merit as many deserving candidates were left out, and the seats were filled by candidates with lesser merit.

Way Forward

• Periodic Review of Reservation Policy: The policy must be reviewed periodically to assess its impact as directed by the Supreme Court in Indira Sawhney vs Union of India case (1992).
• Improve Early Level of Education:The government must improve education at earlier levels so that the reservations at higher levels could easily be phased out.
• Increase Job Opportunities in Private Sector:The government should thrive to increase job opportunities in private sector to reduce dependence on public sector and reservation for employment

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, China has conducted a meeting of trade ministers of the grouping known as C+C5 — China and the five Central Asian republics, namely Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan.

• It was the latest in a series of diplomatic engagements by China with the region since the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

What is the China-Central Asia Engagement?

• C+C5:
  • Thefirst C+C5 summit held in Jan 2022 marked the 30^th anniversary of diplomatic relations between China and Central Asian nations.
  • China’s historical trade and cultural links with the region date back to the ancient  Silk Route.
    
• Significance for China:
  • The region provides China with a market for cheap exports and overland access to markets in Europe and West Asia.
  • Central Asia is resource-rich, with massive reserves of gas, oil, and strategic minerals such as uranium, copper, and gold.
  • China has also prioritized its relationship with these countries to ensure peace in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, which forms its frontier with Central Asia.
• BRI and Investments:
  • China has been investing heavily in Central Asia through its Belt and Road Initiative,  which includes projects in oil and gas, transportation, digital technology, and green energy.
  • While China’s investments have provided opportunities for economic growth in the region, there has also been resentment towards China due to its treatment of Muslims in Xinjiang and concerns about its increasing presence and land acquisitions.
    • Despite this, Central Asian governments have not joined international campaigns against China’s treatment of its Muslim minority.
  • China is now the region’s foremost trading partner, with talks underway for further transport and logistics projects linking all countries in the region to China’s seaports.

How are C5s Balancing their Relationships with Russia, China and West?

• Heavily Dependent on Russia:
  • The region is heavily reliant on Russia, which is also the main provider of security through  the CSTO (Collective Security Treaty Organisation).
    
  • However, the CSTO’s unity is weakening, and the conflict in Ukraine has raised concerns about the consequences of Russia’s security relationship with Central Asia.
    • In 2022 Kyrgyzstan cancelled a CSTO military exercise that was to be held on its territory last year, and none of the five Central Asian countries have openly taken Russia’s side in the conflict.
  • Nevertheless, Russia has increased its trade with the region as it seeks to reduce its dependence on European imports.
• China’s Increasing Engagement:
  • China has been increasing its engagement with Central Asia, leading some to speculate that Beijing is taking advantage of Russia’s preoccupation with Ukraine to expand its influence in the region.
  • While Russia may be concerned about Chinese expansion, there was no visible indication of this.
• Seeking towards West:
  • Central Asian countries are seeking to develop trade relations with the West, including the European Union and the United States.
  • However, the region’s landlocked geography and limited transport infrastructure have hindered this effort.

What is India’s Stake in Central Asia?

• Cultural and Ancient Ties:
  • The Silk Route connected India with Central Asia from the 3rd century BC to the 15^thcentury AD. From the export of Buddhism to the lasting influence of Bollywood, India has shared old and deep cultural ties with the region.
• Security:
  • In December 2022, officials from Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan arrived in India for the first India-Central Asia meeting of national security advisors.
    • It highlighted the India-Central Asia relationship, emphasizing their common shared interests, such as stabilizing the security situation in Afghanistan and reinforcing territorial integrity.
  • India has also attempted to boost its security presence in the region by renovating military bases in Tajikistan.
  • If operational, the airbases would offer India a strategic advantage against its two adversaries: China and Pakistan.
    • Tajikistan is located close to the Wakhan Corridor, which connects Afghanistan and China, as well as Pakistan Occupied Kashmir.
  • Extended Neighborhood Policy:
    • In 2022 India demonstrated its commitment to its “Extended Neighborhood Policy (ENP),” which calls to diversify its geopolitical partners and diplomatic goals, and its willingness to engage its Central Asian partners on a multitude of fronts.
      • The ENP was launched in 2014 and seeks to build a web of partnerships and economic cooperation with neighboring countries.
    • The policy emphasizes India’s commitment to promoting regional stability, peace, and prosperity through mutually beneficial cooperation with its neighbors.
  • Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO):
    • India joined SCO, as a full member in 2017.
      • SCO also includes Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.
    • The grouping provides India with a forum to establish security relationships with Astana, Bishkek, and Tashkent,adding on to robust ties with Tajikistan.
  • Connectivity as a Challenge:
    • While India has trading ties with the C5, it is hobbled by the absence of a land route to Central Asia,with Pakistan denying it passage and Afghanistan being uncertain territory after the Taliban takeover.
      • The Chabahar port in Iran offers an alternative route, but it is not fully developed yet.
    • There have been suggestions that India should provide connectivity for people and trade in Central Asia through “air corridors”, as it had done for Afghanistan.

Way Forward

• India must prioritize building long-lasting and reliable partnerships with Central Asian states, particularly in the face of ongoing geopolitical challenges.Security will remain a focal point for bilateral relations, but it is important for India to establish links through transit, trade, investment, and people-to-people
• India should take advantage of the vulnerabilities that the region has been exposed todue to crises such as Russia’s war in Ukraine and the Taliban takeover in Afghanistan.
• Joint counterterrorism efforts can help New Delhi establish itself as a consistent partner and monitor adversaries from a closer range.

However, India must also work on other issues to supplement the security aspect and ensure that the relationship with Central Asia is not susceptible to geopolitical, economic, or domestic pressure.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, the government has launched the fifth round of the Regional Connectivity Scheme – (UDAN 5.0).

What is UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik) Scheme?

• About:
  • The scheme was launched by the Ministry of Civil Aviation for regional airport development and regional connectivity enhancement.
  • It is a part of the National Civil Aviation Policy 2016.
  • The scheme is applicable for a period of 10 years.
• Objectives:
  • Improve the air connectivity to remote and regional areas of India.
  • Development of remote areas and enhancing trade and commerce and tourism expansion.
  • Enable common people to access air travel with affordable rates.
  • Employment creation in the aviation sector.
• Key Features:
  • Under the scheme, airlines have to cap airfares for 50% of the total seatsat Rs. 2,500 per hour of flight.
  • This would be achieved through:
    • A financial stimulus in the form of concessions from Central and State governments and airport operators and
    • Viability Gap Funding (VGF)–A government grant provided to the airlines to bridge the gap between the cost of operations and expected revenue.
      • Regional Connectivity Fund (RCF)was created to meet the viability gap funding requirements under the scheme.
    • The partner State Governments (other than UTs and NER states where contribution will be 10%) would contribute a 20% share to this fund.
  • Previous Phases of the Scheme:
    • Phase 1was launched in 2017, with the objective of connecting under served and un served airports in the country.
    • Phase 2was launched in 2018, with the aim of expanding air connectivity to more remote and inaccessible parts of the country.
    • Phase 3was launched in November 2018, with the focus on enhancing air connectivity to hilly and remote regions of the country.
    • Phase 4 of the UDAN scheme was launched in December 2019, with a focus on connecting islands and other remote areas of the country.
  • Key Features of UDAN 5.0:
    • It focuses on Category-2 (20-80 seats)and Category-3 (>80 seats)
    • There is no restriction on the distance between the origin and the destination of the flight.
    • VGF to be provided will be capped at 600 km stage length for both Priority and Non-Priority areas; earlier capped at 500 km.
    • No predetermined routes would be offered; only Network and Individual Route Proposal proposed by airlines will be considered.
    • Thesame route would not be awarded to a single airline more than once, whether in different networks or in the same network.
    • Exclusivity of operation provided to an airline will be withdrawn if the average quarterly Passenger Load Factor (PLF) is higher than 75% for four continuous quarters.
      • This has been done to prevent exploitation of the monopoly on a route.
    • Airlines would be required to commence operations within 4 months of the award of the route; earlier this deadline was 6 months.
    • Novation process for routes from one operator to another has been simplified and incentivized.
      • Novation – The process of substituting an existing contract with a replacement contract, where the contracting parties reach a consensus.

What are Achievements under UDAN Scheme?

(As per the data released in Aug 2022 by the Ministry of Civil Aviation)

• The scheme has also been able to provide a fair amount of air connectivity to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities at affordable airfares and has transformed the way travelling was done earlier.
• The number of operational airports has gone up to 141 from 74 in 2014.
• 68 underserved/unserved destinations which include 58 Airports, 8 Heliports & 2 Water Aerodromes have been connected under UDAN scheme.
• With 425 new routes initiated,UDAN has provided air connectivity to more than 29 States/ UTs across the country.

More than one crore passengers have availed the benefits of this scheme.

General Studies Paper 1

Context: PM inaugurated the First Global Buddhist Summit hosted by the Ministry of Culture in collaboration with the International Buddhist Confederation.

About the Summit

• Theme: “Responses to Contemporary Challenges: Philosophy to Praxis”.
• Aim:The Summit is an effort towards engaging the global Buddhist Dhamma  leadership and scholars on matters of Buddhist  and universal concerns, and to come up with policy inputs to address them collectively.
• Highlights: 
  • The Summit witnessed the participation of eminent scholars, Sangha leaders and Dharma practitioners from all over the world.
  • PM also offered monk robes (Chivar Dana)to nineteen eminent monks.
  • The discussions were held under four themes:
    • Buddha Dhamma and Peace;
    • Buddha Dhamma: Environmental Crisis, Health and Sustainability;
    • Preservation of Nalanda Buddhist Tradition;
    • Buddha Dhamma Pilgrimage, Living Heritage and Buddha Relics: a resilient foundation to India’s centuries-old cultural links to countries in South, South-East and East Asia.
  • The Prime Minister gave the example of Mission LiFE , an initiative by India which he said was influenced by the inspirations of Buddha.
  • On the occasion, an exhibition, the Panch Pradarshanwas was organised depicting the rich cultural legacy of Buddha manifesting in the heritage of Vadnagar city, Gujarat, travel accounts of Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang, work of Buddhist religious leader and master Atisa Dipankara Srijana, and Digital Restoration of Ajanta Paintings.

Buddhism

• Siddhartha, also known as Gautama was  the founder of Buddhism
  • Born: 563 BC in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal).
• He  belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya.
• He left his worldly possessions and princedom in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers.
• He attained enlightenment under the peepal tree in Bodh Gaya in Bihar and gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi which is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).
• He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara.

Coverage 

• Buddhism also spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for monks to live in
• Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia.

Teachings 

• The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness .
  • This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled).
• He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals.
• He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next.
• The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message .

Its Relevance  for Peace in World

• The concept of peace is central to Buddhism. Therefore, the Buddha is called the “Santiraja” ‘king of peace. 
• Leading a Buddhist way of life, is to maintain harmonious, untroubled good life, which consists of “samacariya”, which literally means, a harmonious life or a peaceful way of living with one’s fellow beings.
• The Buddha, with great compassion for the world, required his followers to practice the four boundless states (appamanna)of loving kindness (metta), of compassion (karuna), of sympathetic joy (mudita), and of equanimity (upekkha). 
• This practice of ‘metta’ or universal love,begins by suffusing ones own mind with universal love (metta) and then pervading it to one’s family, then to the neighbors, then to the village, country and the four corners of the Universe.

India’s soft power diplomacy through Buddhism

• Buddhism’s potential utility in foreign policy is derived to a large extent from the manner in which the faith was revived in the aftermath of the Second World War.
• The revival of the faith had a decidedly internationalist outlook to it, and focused on transgressing extant sectarian and geographical boundaries.
• The Buddhist faith, due to its emphasis on peaceful co-existence and its wide pan-Asian presence, lends itself well to soft-power diplomacy.
• In speeches made on official international visits such as to Sri Lanka and China, among others, India’s Prime Minister has made a conscious effort to emphasise shared Buddhist heritage.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The seminal ruling in Kesavananda Bharati, in which the Supreme Court laid down the “basic structure” doctrine on the limits of Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution, recently completed 50 years.

Who was Kesavananda Bharati?

• Born in 1940, Kesavananda Bharati was the head to the Edneer Mutt, a Hindu monastery in Kasargod, Kerala
• He challenged the Constitution (29th Amendment) Act, 1972, which placed the Kerala Land Reforms Act, 1963 and its amending Act into the 9th Schedule of the Constitution.

• The 9th Schedule:

• The 9th Schedule was added to the Constitution by the First Amendment in 1951 along with Article 31-B to provide a “protective umbrella” to land reforms laws in order to prevent them from being challenged in court.
• He argued that this action violated his fundamental right to religion (Article 25), freedom of religious denomination (Article 26), and right to property (Article 31)

Kesavananda Bharati Vs. State of Kerala (1973)

• The case:

• It involved a property dispute which was decided by a special bench of the Supreme Court of India consisting of 13 judges which ruled with a 7–6 majority on 24 April, 1973.

• Judgment:

• While the court upheld the land ceiling laws that were challenged, it struck down a portion of the 25th Amendment (1972) which stated that “if any law is passed to give effect to the Directive Principles” it cannot “be deemed to be void on the ground that it takes away or abridges any of the rights contained in Article 14, 19 or 31”.
• The Court propounded what has come to be known as the “Basic Structure of the Constitution” which could not be abrogated even by a constitutional amendment”.

About the ‘Basic structure’

• About:

• The phrase ‘basic structure’ was recognised for the first time in the historic case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala in 1973 by the Supreme Court.

• Meaning: 

• Indian courts define basic structure as inherent features that are built on the basic foundation, i.e., the dignity and freedom of the individual and of supreme importance which cannot by any form of amendment be destroyed.
• Any law or amendment that violates these principles can be struck down by the SC on the grounds that they distort the basic structure of the Constitution.

• Important features/Basic structure of the constitution:

• Supremacy of the Constitution;
• Republican and Democratic forms of Government.
• Secular character of the Constitution;
• Separation of powers between the Legislature, the executive and the judiciary;
• Federal character of the Constitution.
• Rule of law
• Judicial review
• Parliamentary system
• Rule of equality
• Harmony and balance between the Fundamental Rights and DPSP
• Free and fair elections
• Limited power of the parliament to amend the Constitution
• Power of the Indian Supreme Court under Articles 32, 136, 142 and 147
• Power of the High Court under Articles 226 and 227

Analysis of Basic structure doctrine 

• About:

• Over the decades, the basic structure doctrine has been criticised repeatedly for

• diluting the principle of separation of powers,
• undermining the sovereignty of Parliament, and
• as a vague and subjective form of judicial review.

• A scrutiny of the application of the doctrine over the past half-century reveals that although the highest court has invoked “basic structure” sparingly, it has mostly struck down amendments where judicial powers have been curtailed.

• Application of the doctrine in 50 years: 

• Since 1973, the year of the Kesavananda Bharati judgment, the Constitution has been amended more than 60 times.
• In these five decades, the Supreme Court has tested constitutional amendments against the doctrine of basic structure in at least 16 cases.

• In nine of these 16 cases, the Supreme Court has upheld constitutional amendments that had been challenged on grounds of violation of the basic structure doctrine.
• Six of these cases relate to reservations — including the quota for Other Backward Classes (OBC) and Economically Weaker Section (EWS), and reservations in promotions.
• NJAC:

• The Supreme Court has struck down a constitutional amendment entirely just once — The Constitution (Ninety-ninth Amendment) Act, 2014.

• The Act established the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), the body that would have been responsible for the appointment and transfer of judges, replacing the current Collegium system.

• The amendment was struck down by a five-judge Constitution Bench in 2015 on the grounds that it threatened “judicial independence”, which the court ruled was a basic feature of the Constitution.

• Partially struck down:

• In six instances since 1973, including the Kesavananda ruling itself, the Supreme Court has “partially struck down” a constitutional amendment.

• In all these cases, the provision that was struck down related to the denial of judicial review.

• Just one of these six rulings involve an amendment that was not made during the Indira Gandhi era — in Kihoto Hollohan, which dealt with the Tenth Schedule.

• Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachillhu And Others (1992): 
• The Supreme Court upheld The Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act that introduced the Tenth Schedule or the so-called “anti-defection law” in the Constitution.
• The only portion of the amendment that was struck down was the one that stated that the decisions of the Speaker relating to disqualification cannot be judicially reviewed.

• In 2021, a three-judge Bench of the court struck down a portion of The Constitution (Ninety-seventh Amendment) Act, 2011, but on procedural — not basic structure — grounds.

• The amendment changed the legal regime for cooperative societies

Way ahead

• Proponents of the basic structure doctrine consider it to be a safety valve against majoritarian authoritarianism.

• Without it, it is plausible that Indira Gandhi’s 1975 Emergency could have had far more deleterious effects on the health of Indian democracy.

• However, opponents claim that the doctrine amounts to judicial overreach over the legislature – something that itself is undemocratic.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, the border dispute  between Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, which was going on since 1972 has been resolved permanently.

• Assam and Arunachal Pradesh share an 804-km long boundary.

What are the Major Highlights of the Agreement?

• The agreement is expected to settle the dispute relating to 123 villages covering over 700 kilometres of the border between the two states,taking into account historical perspective, demographic profile, administrative convenience, proximity to the border, and aspirations of the residents.
  • This will be final agreement neither of states will make any new claim in future relating to any area or village
• A detailed survey will be conducted by the Survey of India  in the presence of representatives from both state governments to determine the boundaries after the agreement.

What are the Other Border Disputes Between States in India?

• Karnataka-Maharashtra:
  • The border dispute over Belagavi, Karwar and Nipani in North Karnataka is long-standing. When state boundaries were redrawn on linguistic lines as per the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, Belagavi became part of the erstwhile Mysore state.
    • The Act was based on the findings of the Justice Fazal Ali Commission which was appointed in 1953 and submitted its report two years later.
    • Maharashtra claims that parts of Belagavi,where Marathi is the dominant language, should remain in Maharashtra.
  • In October 1966, the Centre set up the Mahajan Commission to resolve the border dispute in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
    • The Commission recommended that Belgaum and 247 villages remain with Karnataka. Maharashtra rejected the report, and in 2004, moved the Supreme Court.
  • Assam-Mizoram:
    • The border dispute between Assam and Mizoram is a legacy of two British-era notifications of 1875 and 1933, when Mizoram was called Lushai Hills, a district in Assam.
      • The 1875 notification differentiated Lushai Hills from the plains of Cachar and the other demarcated boundary between Lushai Hills and Manipur.
    • While Mizoram became a state only in 1987following years of insurgency, it still insists on the boundary decided in 1875.
      • Assam, on the other hand, wants the boundary demarcated in 1986 (based on the 1933 notification).
    • Haryana-Himachal Pradesh:
      • The Parwanoo region has had the spotlight over the border dispute between the two states.
      • It is next to the Panchkula district of Haryanaand the state has claimed parts of the land in Himachal Pradesh as its own.
    • Himachal Pradesh-Ladakh:
      • Himachal and Ladakh lay claim to Sarchu, an area on the route betweenLeh and Manali.
      • It is considered a major point where travellers stop when travelling between the two cities.
        • Sarchu is in between Himachal’s Lahul and Spiti district and Leh district in Ladakh.
      • Meghalaya-Assam:
        • The problem between Assam and Meghalaya started when the latter challenged the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971, which gave Blocks I and II of the Mikir Hills or present-day Karbi Anglong district to Assam.
        • Meghalaya contends that both these blocks formed part of the erstwhile United Khasi and Jaintia Hills district when it was notified in 1835.
      • Assam-Nagaland:
        • It began soon after Nagaland became a state in 1963.
        • The Nagaland State Act of 1962 had defined the state’s borders according to a 1925 notification when Naga Hills and Tuensang Area (NHTA) were integrated into a new administrative unit.
        • Nagaland, however, does not accept the boundary delineation and has demanded that the new state should also have all Naga-dominated areas in North Cachar and Nagaon districts. S
        • Tensions between Assam and Nagaland flared up soon after the latter was formed, resulting in the first border clashes in 1965.
          • This was followed by major clashes between the two states along the border in 1968, 1979, 1985, 2007 and 2014.

What are the Other Methods of Resolution of Border Disputes in India?

• Through Exclusive Original Jurisdiction of SC:
  • The Supreme Court has exclusive original jurisdiction as per Article 131 of the Constitution of India, which means no other court can hear these cases:
    • It can hear disputes between the Government of India and one or more States.
    • It can hear disputes between the Government of India and any State(s) on one side, and one or more other State(s) on the other.
    • It can hear disputes between two or more States if the dispute involves a question of law or fact on which the existence or extent of a legal right depends.
  • Limitations on Jurisdiction:The Supreme Court’s jurisdiction does not extend to disputes arising out of treaties, agreements, covenants, engagements, or similar instruments entered into before the commencement of the Constitution and continuing in operation, or if the instrument provides that the jurisdiction shall not extend to such disputes.
• Through Inter-State Council:
  • Article 263of the Constitution empowers the President to establish an Inter-state Council   if it appears that the public interests would be served by such a Council.
  • It serves as a forum for discussion and resolution of disputes between states, as well as for investigating and discussing subjects of common interest among states or between the Union and one or more states.
  • In 1990, the Inter-state Council was established through a Presidential Order.
    • In 2021, the Council was reconstituted.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Supreme Court recently dismissed the Kerala government’s appeal against the order of the Kerala HC directing the relocation of Arikomban (Wild Elephant), the “rice tusker” of Munnar, to the Parambikulam tiger reserve.

What are the Arguments in Favour of Elephant Translocation?

• The Kerala High Court highlighted that the availability of natural food and water resources in the relocation site would deter the elephant from foraging in human settlements.
• The court also emphasised that the elephant will be radio-collared,and its movements monitored by forest/wildlife officials, which would effectively remove the surprise element of any conflict situation.

What are the Arguments Against Elephant Translocation?

• India’s first radio-telemetry study of a translocated problem elephant was conducted in 2006 on a large male shifted from the cropland of West Midnapore in South Bengal to the Mahananda Sanctuary in Darjeeling district.
  • Almost immediately, the elephant started damaging houses and raiding crops in villages and Army areas.
• A study on translocated problem Asian elephants was conducted in 2012, in which a team of biologists monitored 12 male elephants translocated 16 times to different national parks in Sri Lanka.
  • The study found: Translocation caused wider propagation and intensification of human-elephant conflict, and increased elephant mortality.
• Vinayaga,a bull that gained notoriety as a crop raider, was translocated from Coimbatore to the Mudumalai-Bandipur landscape in December 2018.
  • It soon started using gaps in the elephant-proof trench to raid crops,until he was driven back.

Way Forward

• Relocation Impact Assessment:
  • It is important to carefully consider the specific circumstances and characteristics of each problem elephant and its potential relocation site.
    • Thorough research and analysis should be conducted to assess the availability of natural food and water resources, habitat suitability, and potential risks and challenges of translocation.
  • Monitoring and Management:
    • Proper monitoring and management plans should also be in place, including post-relocation monitoring and measures to mitigate any potential conflicts.
    • While translocation of problem elephants may be considered as a strategy to mitigate human-elephant conflicts,it should be approached with caution and based on sound scientific research, community engagement, and comprehensive management plans to minimise potential risks and ensure the well-being of both elephants and local communities.
  • Alternative to Translocation of Elephants:
    • Capturing and transforming wild elephants with the help of ‘kunkis'(a trained elephant used to capture wild ones) presents a promising approach for translocation.
    • This method can offer several benefits, including increased safety during capture operations, reduced stress on translocated elephants due to familiarization with trained ‘kunkis’, and improved success rates of translocation efforts.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The article deals with the issues of the employment status of Muslim women.

What are the statistics about Muslims in higher education?

• AISHE 2021 data on higher education enrolment in the country showed that there were more women than men from the Muslim community in undergraduate courses. Out of 1,000 Muslim students in higher education, 503 are women.
• But, there has been an absolute decrease in Muslims in higher education. The number of students from the community in higher education decreased to 19.21 lakh in 2020-21 from 21 lahks in 2019-20.

What are three disturbing trends shown by PLFS related to the employment status of women?

• The female labour force participation (FLFP) rate has stagnated at very low levels in our country. Women’s employment is seen as a supplemental source of income.
• The share of women employed in unpaid labour has increased even for highly educated women. In 2017-18, 6.2% of women with graduate or higher levels of education worked as unpaid helpers. By 2021-22, this share had increased to 11.2 per cent.

What are the issues with the employment status of Muslim women?

• Muslim women are absent from the workforce.
• The female labour force participation rate of Muslim women in the country is 15%, as compared to 26.1% for Hindu women.
• Over the past three years, Muslim women have had the lowest LFP rate amongst all religious groups in the country.
• Only 12.4% of working Muslim women are salaried as compared to 16.2% of Hindu women.

What is the way forward to have more Muslim women in workplaces?

• Employers need to ensure women’s inclusion in the workplace. They should also take an intersectional approach. 
• Research shows that Muslim women face significant discrimination in hiring at entry-level roles. There is a need to incorporate mechanisms to address biases in hiring. 
• There is a need to avoid faith stereotyping, and design inclusive networking opportunities and company events. It is necessary to promote cultural awareness, create an inclusive schedule for employees with faith-related needs. Women should be offered compassion and support.
• Government and policymakers need to make those jobs available that women want. They need to create ecosystems that are supportive of employed women. This involves creating space for women from all communities in policy conversations.
• Families and society need to prioritise women’s employment so that women can have agency, express themselves, and expand their sources of happiness. 
• The stereotype of men being the sole breadwinner of the family puts a lot of pressure on them. Women can be brought in to share this burden.