General Studies Paper 2

Context

• 70 lakh pensioners are still waiting for higher pension under the Employees’ Pension Scheme (EPS), 1995.The Supreme Court reiterated, as a matter of principle, its approval of the idea of higher pension.

Elderly Population:

• The National Elderly Policy defines people in the 60+ age group as elderly.
• According to the Population Census 2011, there are nearly 104 million elderly persons in India.

Problems associated with old age:

• Social: The traditional values and institutions are in the process of erosion and adaptation.
• Financial: Retirement and dependence of elderly on their child for basic necessity.
• Health:
  • Multiple disabilities among the elders in old age.
  • Among persons aged 60 and above, 30% to 50% (depending on gender and age group) had symptoms that make them likely to be

Employees’ Pension Scheme (EPS):

• It is a social security scheme provided by the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO).
• The scheme was first launched in 1995.
• It makes provisions for pensions for the employees in the organized sector after the retirement at the age of 58 years.
• Employees who are members of EPF automatically become members of EPS.
• Both employer and employee contribute 12% of employee’s monthly salary (basic wages plus dearness allowance) to the Employees’ Provident Fund (EPF) scheme.
• EPF scheme is mandatory for employees who draw a basic wage of Rs. 15,000 per month.
• Of the employer’s share of 12 %, 8.33(eight point three three)% is diverted towards the EPS.
• Central Govt. also contributes 1.16(one point one six)%of employees’ monthly salary.

What is the current Issue?

• Circular by Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO): The circular covers only a segment of pensioners-subject to certain conditions.

Background:

• In 2005: Section of Himachal Pradesh Tourism Development Corporation staff demanded higher pension.
• The employer had made the 12% mandatory contributions on their actual pay, which exceeded the statutory ceiling
• entitled to the benefit of the deposit of 8.33(eight point three three)% of their actual salary in the Pension Fund.
• Employees along with their employer did not exercise their option within the cut-off date.
• In 2016: Court rejected the EPFO’s notion of a cutoff date.

• • It held that the cut-off date, as in the EPS rules, was meant to calculate the pensionable salary only.

Conditions imposed by circular of EPFO:

• Payment of contributions on higher or actual wages
• Exercise of joint option while in service
• Refusal by the EPFO to allow higher pension.

Reason for reluctance by PF authorities:

• Apprehension over the sustainability of the pension fund
• Those receiving lower pension have to cross-subsidise pension payouts for those getting or likely to get a higher pension.
• Factors such as:

• • rising actuarial shortfall, lower rate of returns and increasing longevity of pensioners may lead to the situation of pension payouts outstripping receipts.
  • According to the EPFO: It will go against social security.

Initiatives by government for elderly:

• PM Vaya Vandana Yojana
• Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme
• Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana
• Vayoshreshta Samman
• Varishth Pension Bima Yojana
• Integrated Programmes for older persons

Way Forward

• Much of the confusion among pensioners could have been avoided had they been proactive in sharing information or explaining the position to those concerned.
• On the policy front: The Government and the EPFO should increase the minimum monthly pension of ₹3,000 against the existing ₹1,000.

• • It will address the grievances of pensioners who were in the lower wage bracket.

• EPFO can give a one-time opportunity to all those in the higher wage group who retired in Dec 2004 without exercising the option.
• Government should substantially increase its financial support.
• Code on Social Security, 2020: It can have a scheme for those youngsters who have got jobs after September 2014 who have been left out of the EPS on account of their higher wages.

General Studies Paper 4

Context

• India has set 2070 as the target year for achieving the Net Zero transition. The Government has also declared the Long-Term Low-Carbon Development Strategy (LT-LEDS) for the long-term decarbonization of the economy. Agriculture sector is also a significant contributor to the Green House Gas emissions. Although, the Government has not included Agriculture in the long-term decarbonisation strategy document and has opposed various aspects of the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA), it has taken several steps for the decarbonization of the agriculture sector. Several agri start-ups are working in the field of carbon markets for agriculture. In the long term, Decarbonization of Agriculture sector can prove to be a vital level in achieving the Net Zero target.

Contribution of Agriculture Sector to Carbon Emission:

• According to the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), agriculture and related land use emissions accounted for 17% of all Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from all sectors in 2018.
• The Agriculture, Forestry, and other Land Use (AFOLU) sector, as defined by the United Nations (UN) International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), accounts for 24% of global GHG emissions, with agriculture representing the majority of them.
• According to the Third Biennial Update Report submitted by the Government of India in early 2021 to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the agriculture sector contributes 14% of the total GHG emissions (Energy 75.01%; Industrial Process and Product Use 8%; and waste 2.7%, (2016 data)). Within the sector, 61.3% of GHG emissions are linked to the livestock sector, followed by 19.1% from fertiliser applied to agricultural soils, 17.5% from rice cultivation and 2.2% due to field burning of agricultural residues.

Methods for Decarbonization of the Agriculture Sector:

Decarbonization of Agriculture can be undertaken through:

• Agriculture Methods and Practices: Best practices, such as cover crops and regenerative farming, help to reduce synthetic nitrogen inputs. Precision farming, including the use of drones, can monitor soil and plant health, ensuring that the right amount of nitrogen fertilizer is applied at the right rate and right time. Fertile soil enhances farm yields and incomes apart from being a carbon sink. Healthy soil holds more moisture and soil conservation methods reduce erosion.
• Carbon Farming: It is a system of agricultural management that helps the land store more carbon and reduce the amount of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) that it releases into the atmosphere. (also known as carbon sequestration).
• Decarbonizing Livestock Farming: It includes: (a)Capturing the methane and producing bioenergy; (b) Breeding low CH4( methane) producing breeds; (c) Plant‑based alternatives and lab grown meat  have the potential to significantly reduce missions associated with the meat industry.
• Alternate Cropping: This contributes to GHG mitigation and is an emerging area in climate-smart farming. For example, seaweed cultivation as additive to cattle feed reduces biogenic methane emissions, improves feed quality, and enhances milk production.
• Freshwater: Agriculture consumes over 80% of freshwater in India, making conservation critical. Micro-irrigation with automation and adoption of low water-intensive species and farming practices are critical for reducing water consumption and carbon footprint. Areas under water intensive crops must be reduced through crops diversification, examples being oil seeds, pulses, horticulture, and forage crops.
• Agro-forestry: Trees act as windbreaks, reduce soil erosion, enrich soil, and filter water. Studies suggest that 5% increase at 5 yearly intervals to the existing 16 million hectares area can help mitigate India’s projected emissions.
• Bio-energy from Farm Waste: It offers immense potential for mitigating emissions as well as growth in non-farm economic activity. Manure-based community biogas plants can support clean cooking and distributed power. IEA’s India Energy Outlook 2021 estimates the potential being of 30 million tonnes Bio-CNG. BECCS (Bio Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage) involves capturing CO2 from bioenergy plants and permanent storage. This will lead to carbon removal as well as negative emissions.
• Checking Food Wastage: About 30% of food produced each year is lost or wasted. Properly storing and more effectively distributing food in developing countries while educating retailers and consumers in developed countries could avoid 8% of global GHG emissions attributed to waste.
• Carbon Markets in Agriculture: Carbon markets tailored to farming and agricultural activities are emerging with increasing interest from farmers, private sector and governments. However, their size and scale is much smaller compared to carbon markets for industries.
• Other Measures: Greater consumer demand for sustainable alternatives; public-sector incentives for effective land management and R&D investment; expansion of carbon sinks can help in decarbonization. Gene editing holds promise to turn commodity crops into nitrogen-fixing plants, and indoor vertical farms are gaining in popularity for their ability to go soilless while ensuring food safety and meeting demand for local food.

Steps have been taken by the Government for Decarbonization of the Agriculture sector:

• The Government has launched multiple programmes like the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture(NMSA) under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), and National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) which are related to low carbon transition.
• The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM) scheme of the Government aims to improve irrigation access and raise farmers’ income through solar-powered irrigation. Setting up of solar power plants on farmlands, wherever possible, and solarising existing grid-connected pumps, could earn additional income to farmers, besides making them net energy producers. Reducing energy usage from fossil fuel sources and moving towards renewables, will reduce carbon footprints in the agriculture sector and enhance livelihoods of smallholders.
• The Soil Health Card Scheme aims to rationalize the use of fertilizers. Soil-testing of over 100 million samples and suitable advice to the farmers have promoted less-carbon-intensive agriculture by rebalancing the use of crop nutrients, such as nitrogenous fertilisers.
• In terms of Land Use, the key elements for decarbonization are halting deforestation, rejuvenating degraded forests, and accelerating afforestation. The Government has launched National Mission for Green India and aims to to create 2.5-3 billion tonnes of carbon sinks by 2030. The total forests carbon stock has been estimated to be 7204 million tonnes.
• The National Policy for Biofuels/ SATAT scheme set a medium-term target of 15 million tonnes of bio-CNG.

Challenges in Decarbonizing Agriculture:

• Poor and Marginal Farmers: A vast majority of farmers in India are poor and marginal. They lack the ability to invest in decarbonization measures.
• Competing Choices: Decarbonisation will require a balance between competing choices such as farmers’ livelihoods as well as food security and drawing down on carbon-heavy agricultural practices. Shift to low-carbon agriculture practices may impact food security in the short term.
• Size of Livestock: India has the world’s largest cattle population at 535.78 million livestock, according to the 20th Livestock Census, 2019. Contribution of livestock sector in total agriculture emissions exceeds 60%. Reducing emissions from such a grand scale is a challenging task.
• Uncertain Techniques: Low carbon options are full of uncertainties, high transaction costs with no clear modalities for payments in the near future. In addition, a technology such as organic farming can be counterproductive if practiced falsely e.g., a field flooded continuously after application of organic matter in organic rice production can emit huge amounts of GHGs.
• Awareness and Incentives: Lack of proper incentives for scaling up low carbon technologies, Inadequate knowledge amongst policy makers and farmers, financial complications for marginal and small farmers pose significant challenges in adoption and scaling-up of low carbon agriculture.
• Challenges to Carbon Markets: Climate mitigation projects in the agriculture sector, particularly those focused on storing carbon in soils, are increasingly being tied to carbon markets. But the impact of these initiatives is highly questionable: (a) Agricultural offsetting schemes can be damaging e.g., some markets incentivize specific practices and can transform agricultural land into tree plantations (mono-plantations). Such plantations (based on single plant) may end up doing greater damage; (b) Many of these offsetting initiatives also have very uncertain benefits for the climate, because their impacts are both extremely difficult to quantify, and highly vulnerable to changes over timeg., carbon stored in soil may get released due to extreme weather or a change in land management practices. In addition, some projects generate carbon credits while allowing for an overall increase in emissions, because they only measure the carbon intensity of an activity, rather than absolute emissions; (c) Such offsetting schemes tend to lock in agricultural models that are detrimental to climate goals. They have high implementation costs and distract from more sustainable, cheaper, and proven options, such as incentivizing agroecological practices. Also, nearly all projects aim to reduce emissions at the farm-level, even though half of agricultural emissions take place outside of the farm and are largely driven by agri-businesses, e.g. through the manufacturing of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. This puts the blame on individual farmers instead of focusing on corporate and agribusiness-led emissions.

Steps should be taken for decarbonization of Agriculture Sector:

• First, Government policies must reorient to reduce agriculture’s power subsidy bills and divert the money towards sustainable farm sector investments like solar power that could address challenges arising from rising use of wasteful energy in agriculture.
• Second, Climate finance need to be enhanced for agriculture sector to address issues having longer gestation period, viz biogenic methane mitigation, agro-forestry etc.
• Third, There is need to generate high integrity, real-time data on status of forests. Suitable studies are needed on a dynamic basis. There is a need to undertake conservation, restoration, and regeneration under an integrated forest management framework.
• Fourth, the Government should develop a strategy totransition towards agroecology and enable the private sector to contribute to the transition without opening the door for greenwashing through offsetting mechanisms.
• Fifth, At the global level, countries should exclude the land sector from international carbon markets under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, and should instead focus on contributing to climate finance transfers and ensuring existing tools are used as levers for the agroecological transition, e.g., through the Green Climate Fund.
• Sixth, Carbon sequestration currently offsets about 20% of global agriculture emissions. Increasing carbon sinks while working to mitigate agriculture emissions could lead to a significant reduction in global carbon footprint.

Conclusion

• Globally, many countries have set ambitious targets to achieve net zero by 2050. India has also set a target of 2070. The Governments are moving aggressively for decarbonizing sectors like energy and transportation. However Net Zero may not be possible without the decarbonzation of the agriculture sector. The onus is more on developed countries. Yet, the Government of India should also take possible steps for decarbonization of agriculture, without compromising food security and livelihoods and incomes of farmers. This will accelerate India’s transition to Net Zero.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• The recent debate in the US on keeping the armed forces apolitical has resonance in India. Some recent decisions of the government like deviating from the “seniority-cum-merit” principle for promotion from the pool of C-in-Cs to the post of chief risk exposing the forces to political partisanship. The events of January 6, 2021, in Washington were the first occasion in the USA, when an orderly post-election transfer of political power faced a serious threat.

Chief of Defence Staff (CDS):

• CDS acts as the permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee which will also have three service chiefs as members.
• Function: foster greater operational synergy between the three service branches of the Indian military and keep inter-service frictions to a minimum.
• Head: Department of Military Affairs (DMA)in the Ministry of Defence.
• Single-point military adviser to the Defence Minister on matters involving all three services
• Service chiefs will be obliged to confine their counsel to issues pertaining to their respective services.
• CDS is vested with the authority:

• • Prioritizing inter-service procurement decisions as Permanent Chairman-Chiefs of Staff Committee.
  • Provide directives to the three chiefs.
• CDS is first among equals: He enjoys the rank of Secretary within the DoD (Department of Defence) and his powers will be confined to only the revenue budget.
• He will perform an advisory role in the Nuclear Command Authority (NCA).

Military control in US:

• American ethos does not require the military to remain “apolitical”, but demands a commitment to being “non-partisan” in their professional conduct.
• Regardless of personal political inclinations: military officers, while upholding the constitution, must give the elected civilian leadership their best professional advice and execute their lawful orders.

Threat:

• The US President:

• • Commander-in-chief (C-in-C) and approving authority for general-rank promotions
  • He could manipulate the process to fill senior military leadership positions with party/personal loyalists.

Suggested rules and best practices of civil-military relations:

• Urgent need to counter forces that threaten the military’s nonpartisan ethos
• Veterans and the media to call out offenders who violate norms of non-partisanship.

Military control in India:

• Active-duty military personnel are prohibited from engaging in any kind of political activity by Acts of Parliament and service rules.
• Conduct is circumscribed by the solemn oath of allegiance to the Constitution that each serviceman swears on recruitment/commissioning.
• India’s armed forces: preserve with the “seniority-cum-merit” principle for promotion from the pool of C-in-Cs to the post of chief.

• • Promoting the “senior-most of equals” obviated the possibility of political interference or nepotism in military promotions.

Risks of politicization:

• A selectee who considers himself beholden or indebted to the political establishment, for his out-of-turn promotion, could become a political “echo chamber.
• Latest rules framed for selection of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS). Apart from serving and retired chiefs, to serving and retired officers of 3-star (Lt. Gen/equivalent) rank which makes room for political interference.

Way Forward

• In most of the countries: CDS, as the highest-ranking military officer who presides over the chiefs of staff committee, is chosen from amongst the serving chiefs.
• If the government wanted to enlarge its choices, it could have included recently retired chiefs in the pool.

• • But the age limit of 62 years (at which chiefs retire), has eliminated this option. At the same time

• Placing serving/retired 3-star officers (some who possibly missed promotion to C-in-C rank) in the same candidate-pool as serving chiefs.

• • It not only ignores the inherent merit and vast experience — military as well as politico-strategic — of the chiefs, but also casts into doubt the credibility of our promotion system.

• With a mixed bag of serving and retired officers to choose from, and no methodology available for assessment of professional competence, selection will have to be based on spoken reputation, political loyalty and personal preference.

• • Such subjective and problematic criteria are an invitation to arbitrariness and politicization.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• Union External Affairs Minister Jaishanker led the Foreign Ministers’ session of the Voice of Global South Summit where he said that India has emerged as an education and healthcare hub for the countries of Global South. Jaishankar highlighted India’s capacity-building programmes and its first responder activities in case of Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) situations which showed that the country has emerged as an education and healthcare hub for the Global South countries.

Outcomes of Summit 

• It has provided valuable inputs from the Global South that could facilitate India’s ambition to steer the G20 summit in Delhi to success later this year.
• It underlines the willingness across the Global South to support Indian leadership in addressing the global challenges that have had a massive impact on the condition of many developing countries.
• During the summit, India unveiled three initiatives to assist the Global South in areas ranging from technology to health, medical supplies will be provided to any developing country hit by natural disasters under the “Aarogya Maitri” project.
  • India will establish a Global South Centre of Excellence to undertake research on development solutions for developing countries and call for human-centric globalisation to address their concerns.
  • India will “launch a Global South Science and Technology initiative to share our expertise with other developing nations.”
  • India proposed a ‘Global South Young Diplomats Forum ’to “connect youthful officers to our Foreign Ministries” for synergising the group’s diplomatic voice.

What do you mean by the term Global South?

• The term Global South in common parlance is used for the countries which have low levels of economic and industrial development, which are mainly located in the southern part of the world and are located to the south of the industrialized, developed nations.
• Another way one can understand Global South is the regions of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. 
• Additionally, the phrase ‘Global South’ paints a vision of the world with the historically neglected and minor geopolitical players at its center.

India’s Approach towards the global south

• India, with its enormous population and enormous economic capabilities, is working to unite the nations of the Global South into a powerful front so that an action-oriented approach can be adopted for the countries of the global south.
• India has a lot to offer to the world, especially to the countries of the global south.
• In addition, to India’s Vaccine Maitri, which provided medicines and vaccines to over 100 countries during the pandemic, the world has seen how the nation played a significant role in evacuating citizens from Afghanistan and Ukraine during the times of hostilities in those countries.
• India’s digital public assets like UPI, RuPay, and India stack, which are supporting such a large portion of the Indian population, can be a powerful instrument for the digital transformation of other developing and emerging countries.

What are the issues involved?

• The twin crises produced by the Covid-19 pandemic and the Russian war in Ukraine have had a devastating and disproportionate impact on the Global South.
• Multilateralism is now in dire straits thanks to the growing military tensions among the great powers — between Russia and China on one side and the US, Europe, and Japan on the other.
• Major power conflict has been reinforced by the breakdown of the world trading rules and the weaponization of global finance.
• India’s own past experience with the Non-Aligned Movement and the Group-77 developing nations points to the real difficulty of uniting the Global South in pursuit of common goals.

Way forward and Conclusion 

• The world is fully aware of the untapped potential that exists in the growing economies of the Global South.
• The countries of the Global South should unite and change the unequal “global political and financial governance” structures,
• the world should respond to the priorities of the Global South, recognise the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities for global challenges, respect sovereignty of all nations, rule of law and reform international institutions like the United Nations.
• India certainly needs to contribute in more significant ways to modernising and democratising the global order.
• If the Global South and India worked together, they could make significant advancements in the fight against terrorism, maritime policy, and other fields.
• India looks forward to simple and sustainable solutions from all over the Global South for the betterment of the people.
• The Global South does not have adequate voice in the “eight decades old model of global governance” and it should shape the “emerging order”.

• • As India begins its G-20 Presidency this year, it is natural, our aim is to amplify the voice of the Global South.

General Studies Paper 1

Context

• The Union of India calls the Bhopal gas leak tragedy the world’s largest industrial disaster. The government demanded more compensation in its curative petition. Thirty-nine years after the incident, a Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court led by Justice S. K. Kaul has reserved its judgment on a curative petition filed by the Centre in November 2010 to enhance the $470 million (about ₹725 crore at the then exchange rate) compensation fixed in a 1989 settlement reached with Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), now a wholly owned subsidiary of Dow Chemicals, with the imprimatur of the apex court. The government has sought an additional amount of ₹675.96 crore in compensation from the pesticide company. The UCC has refused to pay a “farthing more”. The court made it clear that it would not “try” the curative petition like an ordinary suit and reopen the settlement.

Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):

• Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) leaked from the pesticide plant of Union Carbide (now Dow Chemicals), an MNC, in Madhya Pradesh capital Bhopal.
• It is estimated that about 40 tonnes of gas and other chemicals leaked from the Union Carbide factory.
• Methyl isocyanate: It is an extremely toxic gas and if its concentration in the air touches 21ppm (parts per million), it can cause death within minutes of inhaling the gas.
• It is one of the worst chemical disasters globally and still continues to have its ill effects on the people of the affected areas.
• Public Liability Insurance Act (1991):
  • Making it mandatory for industries to get insurance,
  • The premium for this insurance would contribute to an Environment Relief Fund to provide compensation to victims of a Bhopal-like disaster.

Chemical Disaster:

• They are a by-product of
• The Indian chemical industries comprise small, medium and large-scale units.
• The chemical industry includes:
• basic chemicals and their intermediates
• petrochemicals
• fertilizers, paints, pesticides
• bulk drugs and pharmaceuticals (most diversified industrial sectors)

Rules governing the safety of the workers employed in factories and industries:

• Indian Factories Act, 1948.
• The Dock Workers (Safety, Health & Welfare) Act, 1986.
• These legislations regulate the working conditions of individuals employed at sites of industrial activity and prescribe rules for the maintenance of site safety.
• Labour codes.

What is the issue now?

• Supreme Court:It has reserved its judgment on a curative petition filed by the Centre in 2010 to enhance the $470 million, compensation fixed in a 1989 settlement reached with Union Carbide Corporation (UCC).
• The government has sought an additional amount of ₹675 crore in compensation from the pesticide company.
• The UCC has refused to pay a “farthing more”.

What is the basis for the plea for more compensation?

• The basis of the $470 million settlement:there were only around 3,000 death cases in the gas leak incident.
• The government’s curative petition in 2010 said the actual figure is 5,295 deaths.
• Report submitted by the Welfare Commissioner, Bhopal Gas Victims: It shows the number of deaths have increased to 5,479 as on December 15, 2022.
• The Commissioner’s report further said the number of cases of cancer and renal failure were 16,739 and 6,711, respectively.
• The government’s chart shows that the total number of cases of deaths, disability, injuries, loss of property and livestock have increased to around five lakh seventy four thousand from the two lakh “assumed.

Is more relief possible in a curative petition?

• Ashok Hurra versus Rupa Hurra case(2002):
• It is the rarest-of-rare remedies when “the duty to do justice shall have to prevail over the policy of certainty of a judgment and declining justice would be oppressive to judicial conscience and perpetuate an irremediable injustice”.

A party can take only two limited grounds in a curative petition:

• He/she was not given an opportunity to be heard,
• Judges were biased.

What are the rival contentions?

• Attorney General of India:It had urged the court to look beyond the conservative principles of law(beyond the restrictions of the curative jurisdiction).
• Government: Parliament had enacted the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster (Processing of Claims) Act of 1985.
  • It has an obligation to protect the victims’ interests “effectively and equitably”.
• The UCC:
• Settlement was arrived at on the basis of a “consent decree” sourced from a suit.
• The liability of UCC for the tragedy was never established.
• There was no “reopener clause” in the settlement.

Way Forward

• At the heart of the legal dispute is a paragraph from the October 3, 1991 order of the Supreme Court. The paragraph discussed the “unlikely event” of the 1989 settlement funds being found insufficient to satisfy the claims of all the victims. While stressing that the victims should not be left to “fend for themselves”, the court, in 1991, had said the “reasonable way to protect the interests of the victims is to hold that the Union of India, as a welfare state and in the circumstances under which the settlement was made, should not be found wanting in making good the deficiency, if any”.

General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• Tamil Nadu Governor walked out of the Tamil Nadu Assembly when CM Stalin interrupted the governor’s speech after the former had omitted a few words from his govt-prepared special address.

About the Special address

• Both in the K. and in India, it is a time-honoured constitutional convention that the King or the President or the Governor must read out the exact text of the speech or special address which informs the nation or the State of the policies that an elected government intends to pursue.
• Neither House of Parliament can proceed with any public business in any further session unless it is opened either by the King himself or by Lord’s Commissioners acting on his behalf.
• The King’s speech is thus the formal beginning of each new session of Parliament and states the government’s policy and the intended programme of business for the forthcoming session.
  • There has never been an incident of the monarch in the U.K. departing from the official text of his speech.

Adoption in India 

•  As India adopted the Westminster model of parliamentary democracy, the Constituent Assembly decided, on May 18, 1949, to adopt this practice.
• Article 87of the Indian Constitution requires the President to make a special address to both Houses of Parliament assembled on the commencement of the first session of each year.

• • The President has to inform Parliament of the causes of its summons.

• Article 176requires the Governor to make a special address at the first session of each year of every State Legislative Assembly and to both Houses wherever the State also has a Legislative Council.

• • The language of these provisions was borrowed from the rules of the House of Commons.

Controversies 

• The Governor of Tamil Nadu, R.N. Ravi, made constitutional history in the State by omitting certain paragraphs and departing from the official text of his special address at the opening of the Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu for 2023.
• This is not the first time that a governor has refused to read the address sent by the Government.

• • In 1967, Rajasthan Governor Sampuranand did it.

• It is disturbing that serious breaches of constitutional conventions continue to be made by Governors in States ruled by Opposition parties.

• • Article 361 of the Constitution gives the Governor complete immunity from any legal action because our founding fathers hoped that Governors would maintain the highest standards of rectitude and propriety.

• A later governor of West Bengal, Dharma Vira, too had skipped certain portions of the speech sent to him by the government, particularly the portion dealing with his dismissal of the first United Front Government in Bengal.

• • The Calcutta High Court had by then upheld the governor’s decision and termed the dismissal as constitutional.

Views of Lawmakers 

• Jawaharlal Nehru, speaking in the Lok Sabha in 1960, stated that the President’s address is nothing but a statement of policy of the government.

• • He observed: “If the President’s address has anything wrong in it or objectionable in it, it is the government to blame not the President, and it is open to Members to criticise or condemn government because there is some such statement in it which they disapprove of”.

• During the Constituent Assembly debates, Professor K.T. Shah proposed an amendment to Article 87 giving discretion to the President to also make an address on “other particular issues of policy he deems suitable for such address”.
• This amendment was rejected asR. Ambedkar pointed out that the President, under Article 86, had the right to address either House or both Houses of Parliament together and Parliament had to assemble for this purpose.
• Similar power was given to the Governor under Article 175. 

• • Thus, when there is an independent power provided under Article 175, it is a serious impropriety for any Governor (or even the President) to omit several paragraphs from the speech prepared by the incumbent government.

Observations of Court’s 

• The Calcutta High Court, while interpreting this article in Syed Abdul Mansur Habibullah v. The Speaker, West Bengal Legislative Assembly (1966),held that the special address is not an idle or ceremonial formality.

• •  It keeps the members informed about the executive policies and legislative programme of the State government.

• The High Court further observed that the non-delivery of the special addresshampers legislative debates and budgetary criticisms.

• • The HC held that when the governor fails to deliver his address under Article 176 and walks out of the House after laying down the address on the table of the House, this is mere irregularity, not illegality.

• The Supreme Court has held that constitutional conventions are as much a part of the Constitution as its written text. And it is well-settled that constitutional morality consists of not only adherence to the written text of the Constitution but also to constitutional conventions.

• • These conventions fill the interstices of a written Constitution and enable effective coordination between the legislature, executive and the judiciary.

• In Yogender Singh Handa v. State of Rajasthan (1967), the Rajasthan High Court held that some portion read by the governor was good enough to deem the whole address as read.

Conclusion and Way Forward 

• The special address of the Governor is an important constitutional duty, which is performed with the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister at the head.
• The constitutional role of the Governor is that of an elder statesman who brings a sense of gravitas to this high office, and by his oath, must preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law.
• The residents of Raj Bhavans are expected to be above party politics and should not hamper the functioning of a duly elected State government.
• It is a tribute to our Constitution that it continues to be the steel frame of India’s republican democracy and has survived for over 70 years.
• Both governors and chief ministers, as constitutional functionaries, should respect each other and at least have a working relationship.

General Studies Paper 2

• The Report Levels and Trends in Child Mortalitywas released recently by the United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UNIGME). The Report estimates that globally, 5 million children died before their fifth birthday (under-five mortality) in 2021. Of these, 2.3 million deaths occurred in the first month (neonatal deaths). India’s share in under-five deaths is 709,366 (~0.7 million, 14% share) and the share in neonatal deaths is 441,801 (~0.4 million, 19% share). Many of these deaths are preventable. Moreover there are wide variations in the child mortality in India, between various States, and between rural and urban areas. The Government has taken several steps to reduce child mortality in India. While there have been visible benefits of these measures, efforts should be continued to bring the child mortality level to that of the developed countries.

Child Mortality and its status in India:

• Child Mortality is the death (mortality) of children under 5 years of age. According to UNICEF, Child Mortality or Under-5 Mortality Rate refers to the probability a newborn would die before reaching exactly 5 years of age, expressed per 1,000 live births.
• Infant Mortality Rate(IMR) refers to the probability of dying between birth and exactly 1 year of age, expressed per 1,000 live births.
• Neonatal Mortality Rate(NMR) refers to the probability of dying during the first 28 days of life,  expressed per 1,000 live births.
• Trends in India: According to the Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report, 2020released in September 2022, India’s Under-5 Mortality Rate stood at 32 while Infant and Neonatal Mortality Rates were 28 and 20 respectively.

• The NMR ranges from 23 in rural areas to 12 in urban areas. The IMR ranges from 31 in rural areas to 19 in urban areas.
• According to the SRS 2020 Report, 6 States/ UTs have already attained SDG target of NMR(<=12 by 2030). These are Kerala (4), Delhi (9), Tamil Nadu (9), Maharashtra (11), Jammu & Kashmir (12) and Punjab (12).
• 11 States/UTs have already attained SDGs target of U5MR(<=25 by 2030). These are Kerala (8), Tamil Nadu (13), Delhi (14), Maharashtra (18), J&K (17), Karnataka(21), Punjab (22), West Bengal (22), Telangana (23), Gujarat (24), and Himachal Pradesh (24).

Reasons for high Child Mortality in India:

1. Poor Infrastructure: There are structural issues like lack of appropriate facility at primary healthcare centres, delays in referring patients [to specialists] and lack of transportation(especially in rural and remote areas) which lead to high infant deaths.
2. Poor Nutrition: A significant proportion of population lives below the poverty line. Pregnant women in poor families lack access to adequate nourishment during pregnancy which results in complications in pregnancy and child-birth. Poor nutrition during pregnancy also leads to nutrition deficiency in the child.
3. Lack of Skilled Personnel: There is shortage of doctors, nurses, and other staff, especially in rural areas. This hinders regular supervision and timely referral of women to emergency obstetric care when complications are diagnosed.
4. Education and Awareness Deficit: Women in poor families lack awareness about nutrition requirement. They may also be unaware of other precautions required during and after childbirth. They rely more on traditional midwives in comparison to modern healthcare
5. Child Marriage: Child Marriage is still prevalent in many parts of India. It leads to early pregnancy (younger age) and more frequent pregnancies etc. Children born to early pregnancies are more vulnerable to death at early age.
6. Premature Births: Premature birth refers to child born before 37 weeks of pregnancy. Premature or ‘Preterm Babies’ are two to four times at higher risk of death after birth in comparison to those born after 37 weeks of gestation.

Steps taken to reduce Child Mortality:

1. National Rural Health Mission: The launch of facility-based newborn care under the National Rural Health Mission has created Newborn Baby Care Corners at every point of childbirth, Newborn Stabilisation Units at First Referral Units (Community Health Centres) and Special Newborn Care Units at District Hospitals across the country.
2. The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme: The beneficiaries under the Scheme are children in the age group of 0-6 years, pregnant women and lactating mothers. Among its various objectives are to improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age-group 0-6 yearsand to reduce the incidence of mortality, morbidity, malnutrition and school dropout.
3. Capacity Building of Health Care Providers: Various trainings are being conducted under National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) to train doctors, nurses and ANM for early diagnosis and case management of common ailments of children. These trainings are being undertaken under the Integrated Management of Neonatal and Child Illness, Navjat Shishu Suraksha Karyakram(NSSK) etc. Funds and technical support are provided by the Government of India under NHM to the States for conducting these trainings.
4. Management of Malnutrition: Malnutrition reduces resistance of children to infections thus increasing mortality and morbidity among children. National Health Management is emphasising management of malnutrition to reduce child mortality. (a)Nutritional Rehabilitation Centres (NRCs) have been established for management of severe acute malnutrition; (b) Exclusive breastfeeding for first six months and appropriate infant and young child feeding practices are being promoted in convergence with Ministry of Woman & Child Development; (c) Ministry of Health & Family Welfare launched ‘MAA-Mothers’ Absolute Affection‘ programme in August, 2016 for improving breast feeding practices (Initial Breastfeeding within 1 hour, Exclusive Breastfeeding up to 6 months and Complementary Breastfeeding up to 2 years) through mass media and capacity building of health care providers in healh facilities as well as in communities; (d) National Nutrition Mission: It is the government’s flagship programme to improve nutritional outcomes for children, pregnant women and lactating mothers. It aims to reduce stunting and wasting by 2% per year (total 6% until 2022) among children and anaemia by 3% per year (total 9% until 2022) among children, adolescent girls and pregnant women and lactating mothers; (e) Management of Anaemia in Children: National Iron Plus Initiative (NIPI) was launched which was based on the life-cycle approach and covers all age-groups.
5. Home Based Newborn Care (HBNC): As 57 % of child deaths take place in the first 28 days of birth, home based newborn care through ASHA is being provided. The purpose of Home Based Newborn Care is to improve newborn practices at the community leveland early detection and referral of sick newborn babies. The schedule of ASHA for Home Based Newborn Care consists of 6 visits in case of institutional deliveries.
6. Universal Immunisation Program (UIP): It was first introduced in 1985. Immunization is one of the key area under the National Health Mission(NHM). Under UIP, immunization is provided free of cost against 12 vaccine-preventable diseases; Nationally against 9 diseases: Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Measles, Rubella, Hepatitis B, and Meningitis and Pneumonia; Sub-nationally against 3 diseases: Rotavirus diarrhoea, Pneumococcal Pneumonia, and Japanese Encephalitis. Mission Indradhanush (2014) and Intensified Mission Indradhanush (IMI)-2017 (recent version 4.0) have been launched to strengthen and re-energize the programme and achieve full immunization coverage for all children and pregnant women at a rapid pace.
7. Protecting Mothers: Paalan1000: Journey of the First 1000 Days’, focuses on the cognitive developments of children in the first 2 years. PAALAN 1000 parenting app provides caregivers with practical advice on what they can do in their everyday routine and helps resolve the various doubts of parents and directs efforts in the development of a child.
8. Matritva Sahyog Yojana: It is a conditional Maternity Benefit(CMB) Scheme. The scheme is being implemented by the Ministry of Women and Child Development as the centrally sponsored scheme. It was launched for pregnant and lactating women to improve their health and nutrition status by providing cash incentives to pregnant and nursing mothers.
9. Policy Targets: In the National Health Policy (NHP) of 2017, the Government had committed to investing 5% of the GDP on health by 2025. Child Health Goals under SDG include Goal 3.2: By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborn and children under 5 years of age, with aim to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1000 live births. India’s own NHP targets NMR of 16 and U5MR of 23 by 2025.

What more steps can be taken to further reduce Child Mortality?

• First, Since ~50% of all under-5 deaths are among newborns, many can be prevented by reaching higher coverage of good quality antenatal care, skilled care at birth, postnatal care for the mother and the baby, and care of small and sick newborns. Focus should be on both antenatal and postnatal care.
• Second, many child deaths are preventable through cost-effective interventions such as kangaroo care(where babies are kept in skin-to-skin contact with the mother), thermal control, breastfeeding support and basic care against infections and breathing difficulties. Enhancing awareness about these techniques in new mothers can help avoid these preventable deaths.
• Third, The Government should address the neglected challenges like Stillbirths and preterm births. Both are highly sensitive ‘tracer indicators’ of the quality of maternal and child health services in particular, and overall health services in general.
• Fourth, India’s health system needs more Government funding. At present, it is ~ 1.5% of the GDP. Children continue to die from preventable causes; pregnant women do not receive good quality care; aggregate mortality hides the inequities in health outcomes and the primary healthcare system is underfunded. The poorest and marginalised families bear the brunt of these inequities. Enhancing spending on healthcare can rectify these shortcomings.
• Fifth, The States should cooperate with each other and share the best practices amongst themselves in the spirit of cooperative federalism, e.g., the practices of Kerala can be replicated in other states like West Bengal, Bihar, Assam etc.
• Sixth, The Government should provide greater incentives to ASHA workers who can raise awareness among the masses about the modern healthcare systems. Further, the government can enter into agreements with private medical colleges and induce greater numbers of doctors to serve in rural areas.

Conclusion

• Child Mortality has improved a lot in last 2 decades. However, there is still a scope for lot of improvement. Learnings from successful interventions must be used in designing future interventions. Healthcare spending must be enhanced. ASHA workers are a crucial lever in the rural healthcare set-up. Their concerns should be adequately addressed, including enhancing their remuneration. Their role will be crucial in ensuring the achievement of the healthcare targets under the SDGs.

General Studies Paper 2

WHY IN NEWS:

• In the last week of December 2022, the Election Commission of India (ECI) wrote to the major political parties. Through the letter, the Commission invited the parties to attend to attend a demonstration of the prototype Remote Voting Machine (RVM) on January 16, 2023. The Commission has also asked them to send in their comments by January 31, 2023. It is expected that the remote voting facility will improve electoral turn-outs by enabling migrants in different parts of India to vote, without having to physically visit the voting booths in their home constituencies. At the same time there are concerns related to the integrity of the process, which is absolutely essential to ensure free and fair elections. Hence, it important to take a cautious approach, consult all stakeholders and take them on-board before the launch of the remote voting facility.

What is Remote Voting ?

• Remote Voting refers to all means which allow electors to vote from locations other than the polling station assigned to the location where they are registered to vote. The remote voting location can be either abroad or from within the country. It comprises both electronic voting and non-electronic voting mechanisms.
• There have been demands from various political parties that the ECI should ensure that migrant workers and NRIs (Non-Resident Indians) who miss out on voting should be allowed to vote for their constituency from the city they are working in. Many such voters aren’t able to visit their home constituency to vote because of multitude of reasons including professional commitments, cost of travelling etc.

How is the Remote Voting proposed to be implemented in India?

• The ECI has come up with a prototype Remote Voting Machine (RVM). It is a modified version of the existing Electronic Voting Machine (EVM). The RVM has been developed with the assistance of Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and the Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL).

Hardware and Voting Process

• The RVMs are ‘stand alone, non-networked systems‘, effectively providing the voter the same experience as currently used EVMs. They will be set up in remote locations outside the State under similar conditions as current polling booths.
• The unique feature of RVMs is that a single Remote Ballot Unit (RBU) can cater to multiple constituencies(up to 72) by using a ‘dynamic ballot display board’ instead of the usual printed paper ballot sheet on the EVMs.
• Based on the constituency number read from the voter’s Constituency card, the Ballot Unit Overlay Display(BUOD) will display the required candidates. These cards will be read using a barcode scanning system.
• After verifying a voter’s identity, their constituency card will be read with a public display showing the constituency details and candidates. This will also be displayed privately, on the BUOD in the RVM’s RBU. The voter will then vote and each vote will be stored constituency-wisein the control unit of the voting machine.

Process of Registration

• The remote voter will have to pre-registerfor the remote voting facility by applying online or offline with the Returning Officer of the home constituency. The special polling stations would then be set up in the places of current residence of the remote voters.

Security

• According to the ECI, the RVM, like the EVM, would not be connected to the internet. The Returning Officer (RO) in the remote location will load the symbols of candidates into the unit using a laptop. These laptops would not be connected to the internet. Representatives of political parties and candidates would be invited to be present when the symbols are loaded onto the unit. The symbols would be visible on a display unit for all to see. This will ensure that the process is transparent and is not susceptible to manipulation.

Benefits of Remote Voting:

• Disenfranchisement of Voters: There are an estimated 600 million internal migrants as of 2020(450 million according to Census 2011). Approximately 85% of migration is within the States.
• Voting Turnout: The electoral turn-out has improved since the time of the first General Elections. The First General Elections (1951-52) witnessed turn-out of 45.7%. In 1960s-70s, the turn-out used to be between 50-60% (61.3% in 1967). In 2014 and 2019 General Elections, the turn-out touched 66.44% and 67.40% respectively. Yet, almost 33% voters failed to cast their vote. In 2019, this translated to almost 300 million (30 crore) registered voters failing to exercise their democratic right.
• Promote Inclusion: Remote voting solutions can help facilitate voting for voters who are unable to travel far because of factors like old age or disability.

Challenges associated with Remote Voting:

• Legal: (a)Amendments will be needed in Representation of the People Act, 1950 and 1951; Conduct of Election Rules, 1961; and The Registration of Electors Rules, 1960; (b) The ‘Migrant voter’ will need to be defined in terms of period and purpose of absence; (c) The process of Remote voting itself will need to be defined as whether ‘remoteness’ means outside the Constituency, District or State.
• Administrative: There are several challenges like: (a)Requirement of comprehensive migrant database and enumerating remote voters; (b) Ensuring secrecy of voting at remote locations; (c) Preventing impersonation; (d) Deciding number and location of remote polling booths; (e) Appointing polling personnel for remote polling stations; (f) Implementing model code in locations outside the poll-bound State; (g) Creating awareness about the remote voting facility among poor and illiterate migrant voters; (h) Placing remote voting in the electoral concept of territorial constituencies or demarcated areas in States for equal representation of votes.
• Technological: (a)Familiarising voters with multi-constituency RVM; (b) Counting votes cast at remote booths and transmitting results to returning officers in poll-bound State.

What are the major concerns related with Remote Voting in India?

• Might favour Big National Parties: Smaller regional parties may lack enough cadre strength to deploy at remote voting locations, for political canvassing as well as monitoring the remote voting process. National Parties are better placed in this regard having nation-wide cadre of political workers. Allowing Remote Voting across the country for State Assembly elections will deny opportunity to regional parties to send in their nominees to booths.
• Urban Apathy: Experts attribute low turn-out typically to ‘urban apathy’, ‘youth apathy’ and ‘migration-based disenfranchisement’. Voting turn-out has been low in urban/metropolitan areas despite low out-migration from these regions. Remote voting will be able to address only the 3rd reason of the above.
• Union-State Rights: The ECI plans to bring in a common electoral roll that can be used for elections to the Lok Sabha, State Assemblies, and Local Bodies. Opposition Parties contend that this would impinge on the federal rights of the States since the preparation of electoral rolls come under the exclusive domain of the State Election Commissions.
• Concern raised by ECI: ECI has also expressed concern that several things have to be defined like ‘migrant voter’, ‘ordinary residence’, ‘temporary absence’ etc. Procedural issues like Implementation of MCC in remote States need to be sorted.

What should be the approach going ahead?

• First, It is critical that any system of remote voting take into account the trust and acceptability of all stakeholders in the electoral system including voters and political parties. Political consensus is a must before the introduction of Remote Voting.
• Second, The issue should be properly debated in the Parliament and the relevant laws should be amended.
• Third, The ECI has to build confidence among the voters and political parties about the transparency and the integrity of the Remote Voting process.

Conclusion

• The ECI is renowned world over for its impeccable record in conducting free and fair elections, at such a grand scale. The ECI has driven unique innovations in electoral processes in India like the EVMs, voting IDs etc. Remote Voting Machines (RVMs) can be a revolutionary development in facilitating enfranchisement of migrant voters. However, the process has to be fool-proof and error free. All political parties should be on-board and be convinced about the transparency and integrity of the process. It should be introduced only after thorough deliberations and political consensus.

General Studies Paper 3

CONTEXT:

• The latest estimates of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) released by the National Statistical Office (NSO) suggest that the Indian economy grew by 3(six point three)percent in the last quarter compared to last year, with full-year growth expected to be around 7 percent.

Gross Domestic product(GDP):

• GDP is a measure of economic activity in a country.
• It is the total value of a country’s annual output of goods and services.
• It gives the economic output from the consumers’ side.

Real and Nominal GDP:

• Nominal GDP is calculated as per the market prices for the year for which the GDP is calculated.
• Real GDP is calculated as per the market prices in the base year.
• The Real GDP negates the inflation in goods and services.

National accounts data shows:

• Average income in India is lower in 2021-22compared to the pre-pandemic year of 2018-19
• Per-capita income declining at 25(zero point two five)percent per annum.

 Cases:

• Case of farmers(the largest occupational group): Farmers’ income declined by 5(one point five) percent per year between 2016-17 and 2020-21.
• Case of casual workers:(monthly data from the labor bureau): Real wages in non-agricultural occupations between September 2017-2022 declined by 9(zero point nine) percent per annum
• almost stagnant for agricultural occupations with real wages rising by 1(zero point one) percent per year.
• Cultivators and rural wage laborers account for 78 percent of all rural workers
  • Their share in the economy is 53 percent.
• Four-fifths of rural workers have not seen any increase in their incomes in the last five years.

Current Issues:

• Rural households and the poor that have seen a decline in incomes.
• Better-protected regular workers in urban areas have not fared better.
• Employment-Unemployment Surveys of the National Statistical Office (NSO) and the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS): suggest that real earnings of regular workers have declined across categories(male and female, rural and urban).
• Between 2011-12 and 2017-18: earnings of rural regular workers declined by 3(zero point three) percent per annum while it declined at a faster pace of 7(one point seven) percent per annum in urban areas.
• Between 2017-18 and 2020-21: further declines by 7(zero point seven) percent in rural areas and 3(one point three)percent in urban areas.
• In 2020-21:
• average rural regular worker was earning only 96 percent of the salary in 2011-12 in real terms
• Urban; It was only 86 percent in urban areas.
• Together with cultivators and rural casual wage workers(account for 83 percent of all workers in the country).
• All of them have seen their real earnings decline in the last five years.

PLFS data:

• Real earnings of households from all forms of employment declined(between 2018-19 and 2020-21):decline in per capita incomes reported by the national accounts.
• PLFS estimates of earnings from employment: The decline was largely in the urban areas where earnings declined by 2(four point two) percent per annum.
• Rural areas: per capita earnings from employment actually rising by 7(two point seven) percent.
• Consumption expenditure:
• The consumption expenditure of the urban areas declined by 4 percent whereas it increased in rural areas.
• Urban areas: highly educated among the regular workers have seen faster decline in real earnings compared to illiterates and bare literates.

Consumer Confidence Surveys (CCS) of the RBI:

• Urban economy: Shows distress in the urban economy.
• It tracks the economic situation in 13 major urban centers
• It seeks the perception of respondents on the current as well as future economic situation.
• Last five years: the net response to the economic situation has been negative.
• Case with incomes: more respondents reporting a decline in incomes compared to those who report improvement.
• Case of non-essential spending continues to remain negative until the last data.

Annual financial statement (AFS)

• The Constitution of India does not specifically use the word Budget.
• Article 112 provides for laying before Parliament an ‘Annual Financial Statement’ providing a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure for the upcoming year in relation to estimates for the current year as also actual expenditure for the previous year.
• This statement evidences the receipts and expenditure of the Government in three separate parts under which accounts are maintained i.e. the Consolidated Fund (Article 266), Contingency Fund (Article 267)and Public Account (Article 266).
• AFS distinguishes the expenditure on revenue accounts from the expenditure on other accounts, as mandated in the Constitution of India. It comprises Revenue budget and Capital budget.
• The estimates of receipts and expenditure included in the Annual Financial Statement are for expenditure net of refunds and recoveries

 Way Forward

• The distress in the economy is no longer a rural phenomenon: It is far more widespread with even the better protected and middle classes in urban areas experiencing it due to declining incomes.
• The challenge for the government is not just to protect the poor and vulnerable through increased spending on social protection given the inflationary spell.
• It also needs to raise incomes for the majority of rural and urban population.
• Increasing disposable income among the middle classes is the only way to increase discretionary demand in the economy.
• The budget has the unenviable task of reviving the economy even at the cost of the short-term objective of fiscal management.

General Studies Paper 3

Artificial intelligence(AI):

• It is a branch of computer science dealing with the simulation of intelligent behavior in computers.
• It describes the action of machines accomplishing tasks that have historically required human intelligence.
• It includes technologies like machine learning, pattern recognition, big data, neural networks, self algorithms etc.

g: Facebook’s facial recognition software which identifies faces in the photos we post, the voice recognition software that translates commands we give to Alexa, etc are some of the examples of AI already around us.

Deep Fakes:

• It is a method for manipulating videos, images, audios utilizing powerful computers and deep learning.
• It is used to generate fake news and commit financial fraud among other wrong doings.
• It overlays a digital composite over an already-existing video, picture, or audio; cybercriminals use Artificial Intelligence technology.

Issues with deep fakes:

• Deep fake videos can be used to spread misinformation and propaganda.
• They compromise the public’s ability to distinguish between fact and fiction.
• There has been a history of using deepfakes to depict someone in a compromising and embarrassing situation.
• For instance, there is no dearth of deep fake pornographic material of celebrities.
• Deep fake photos and videos do not only amount to an invasion of privacy of the people reportedly in those videos, but also to harassment.
• Deep Fakes have been used for financial fraud:
• Example: scammers used AI-powered software to trick the CEO of a U.K. energy company over the phone into believing he was speaking with the head of the German parent company.

How deep fakes can be used as weapons against countries?

• Deepfakes can be used to influence elections.
• Deep fakes can also be used to carry out espionage activities.
• Doctored videos can be used to blackmail government and defense officials into divulging state secrets.
• The Ukrainian President revealed that a video posted on social media in which he appeared to be instructing Ukrainian soldiers to surrender to Russian forces was actually a deep fake.
• India: Deep fakes could be used to produce inflammatory material, such as videos purporting to show the armed forces or the police committing ‘crimes’ in areas with conflict.
• Deep Fakes could be used to radicalize populations, recruit terrorists, or incite violence.

Laws and regulations globally:

• Taiwan’s cabinet approved amendments to election laws to punish the sharing of deep fake videos or images.
• China: It has introduced regulations prohibiting the use of deep fakes deemed harmful to national security or the economy.
• These rules apply to content creators who alter facial and voice data.

Laws in India:

• Section 500 of the IPC provides punishment for defamation.
• Sections 67 and 67A of the Information Technology Act punish sexually explicit material in explicit form.
• The Representation of the People Act, 1951: prohibits the creation or distribution of false or misleading information about candidates or political parties during an election period.
• The Election Commission of India registered political parties and candidates to get pre-approval for all political advertisements on electronic media, including TV and social media sites, to help ensure their accuracy and fairness.

Way Forward

• Deepfakes could enable individuals to deny the authenticity of genuine content, particularly if it shows them engaging in inappropriate or criminal behavior, by claiming that it is a deep fake.
• ‘Liar’s Dividend ‘(professors Danielle Keats Citron and Robert Chesney):This refers to the idea that individuals can exploit the increasing awareness and prevalence of deepfake technology to their advantage by denying the authenticity of certain content.
• There is often a lag between new technologies and the enactment of laws to address the issues and challenges they create.
• The legal framework related to AI in India is insufficient to adequately address the various issues that have arisen due to AI algorithms.
• The Union government should introduce separate legislation regulating the nefarious use of deepfakes and the broader subject of AI.
• Legislation should not hamper innovation in AI
• The proposed Digital India Bill can also address this issue.
• We can’t always rely on the policy of self-regulation.

We must add rigor and responsibility to developing AI technology, enforce ethical guidelines, conduct regular audits for fairness, identify and address biases, and protect privacy and security.