General Studies Paper 3

CONTEXT:

• The town of Joshimath in Uttarakhand is witnessing an unprecedented crisis. Wide Cracks have appeared on the roads and on hundreds of residential and commercial buildings in the town. Many structures have been declared unsafe, and the residents have been asked to vacate them. The Authorities have declared Joshimath as a landslide and subsidence-hit zone. The whole town is sinking. While the town is situated in a geologically unstable region, the major reason for sinking is being attributed to large-scale development projects being undertaken in the region. The Government and its agencies have responded to the crisis through various measures, yet they are rightly being criticized for long ignoring the warnings given by various environmental activists and geological experts about uncontrolled development being undertaken in the region.

About Joshimath

• Joshimath, is a town situated in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand. It is located in the Middle Himalayas at an altitude of ~1875 m. Joshimath is a religious and tourist place, and is situated near holy shrine of Badrinath (one of the Char Dhamsin Uttarakhand). It is also proximal to Valley of Flowers National Park and Shri Hemkund Sahib (a holy shrine in Sikhism).

• The Town is situated in a geologically unstable region (Seismic Zone V). It is situated north of Main Central Thrust (of Himalayas) nearby Tapovan Fault. (Vaikrita Thrust and Panduksehwar Thrusts are very close to Joshimath). Its location nearby a fault is one of the reasons making it susceptible to subsidence.

What is Land Subsidence?

• According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Land subsidence is sinking of the ground because of underground material movement. Subsidence can be caused by gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface.
• Subsidence is generally caused by: (a)Resource Extraction: The removal of water, oil, natural gas, or mineral resources out of the ground by pumping, fracking, or mining etc.; (b) Natural Causes: Natural events such as earthquakes, soil compaction, glacial isostatic adjustment, erosion, sinkhole formation, and adding water to fine soils; (c) Infrastructural Load: High load exceeding load-carrying capacity of the underlying soil.

What are the reasons for Joshimath Crisis?

ANTHROPOGENIC

• Development Projects: Various development projects are being undertaken nearby the sinking region. These include NTPC’s 520 MW Tapovan-Vishnugad Hydro Power Project and widening of roads under the Char Dham Project. While NTPC has denied the role of the power project, earlier incidents related to the project indicate the possibility that the project may have a role to play in the current crisis. A tunnel being bore under the town of Auli (near Joshimath) had punctured an aquifer in 2009 leading to large-scale seepage and drying-up of water resources in nearby regions. Water has been seen pouring out from cracks in several locations in the present crisis. 6-km Helang-Marwari bypass (under Char Dham Project) may have weakened slopes and further destabilising the local topography. Studies are being undertaken, but experts have blamed these large-scale projects for the current crisis.
• Tourism: Joshimath has become overnight stopover for pilgrims and tourists visiting Badrinath, Shri Hemkund Sahib or Valley of Flowers. Skiing resort of Auli is located nearby. As such large number of hotels have come up in the town. The underlying soil may lack the load-carrying capacity of the ever-expanding infrastructure.
• Unplanned Urbanisation: Most of the buildings have been constructed without proper studies about the underlying soil.
• Water Withdrawal: Subsidence occurs when large amounts of groundwater are withdrawn from specific types of rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The rock compacts because the water helps to keep the ground in place. When the water is removed, the rocks collapse in on themselves. Increased withdrawal of water due to rising population (tourism) may have contributed to sinking.
• Absence of Proper Drainage: It leads to landslides. The existence of soak pits, which allow water to slowly soak into the ground, is responsible for the creation of cavities between the soil and the boulders. This leads to water seepage and soil erosion.

NATURAL

• First, Joshimath is located in seismic zone V which is more prone to earthquakes besides gradual weathering and water percolation which reduce the cohesive strength of the rocks over time.
• Second, The Mishra Committee Report states that Joshimath is situated on a sand and stone deposit. A majority of the town has been constructed on the debris of landslides, leading to smooth and eroded rocks and loose soil on the surface. These slopes can be destabilised even by slight triggers. Hence such slopes are not suitable for a township.
• Third, The Mishra Committee Report has also pointed out that subsidence in Joshimath might have been triggered by the reactivation of a geographic fault where the Indian Plate has pushed under the Eurasian Plate along the Himalayas.
• Fourth, Undercutting by Alaknanda and Dhauliganga river currents is also contributing to landslides in the region.

What were the major recommendations of the Mishra Committee in the context of Joshimath Crisis?

• Joshimath has been sinking for a long time. The Union Government had appointed MC Mishra (Collector of Garhwal at that time) to find out the reasons for sinking. The 18-member Committee had submitted the report in 1976.
• The Report had pointed out several factors for sinking like location on ancient landslide, erosion of river banks by Dhauliganga and Alaknanda, increased construction activities, lack of proper drainage facilities (water seepage and soil erosion) etc.
• The Committee had given several recommendations:
• First, The most important preventive measure suggested was restriction on heavy construction in the region.
• Second, Construction should only begin after the soil’s weight-bearing capacity and site stability have been assessed. It’s also important not to dig too deep into slopes.
• Third, When repairing roads or building structures, it was recommended that the boulders not be removed by digging or blasting the hillsides. In landslide areas, stones and boulders should not be removed from the bottom of the hill because this would remove toe support, increasing the likelihood of landslides.
• Fourth, It is necessary to fill in any cracks that have appeared on the slopes.
• Fifth, It has also recommended that extensive plantation work be done in the area, particularly between Marwari and Joshimath, to conserve soil and water resources, and has cautioned against cutting trees in the landslide zone.
• Sixth, there should be strict regulations on tree cutting for the township’s timber and firewood needs, and that the locals would be required to have access to alternative fuels.
• Seventh, It is imperative that slopes not be used for agricultural purposes.
• Eighth, Water seepage is abundant in the area. To prevent future landslides, open rain water seepage must be stopped through the construction of a pucca drainage system. Water should not be allowed to accumulate in any depression; instead, drains should be built to transport it to safe areas.
• Ninth, Roads should be metalled and free of scuppers, which drain water from the road surface.
• Tenth, Cement blocks should be positioned in areas of the river bank that are susceptible to erosion in order to stop the bank from eroding.
• Eleventh, In order to prevent erosion and train rivers, measures should be taken, and the hanging boulders at foothills should be given the appropriate support they need. (River training is the construction of structures to direct the flow of a river).

What steps have been taken to address the Joshimath Crisis?

• First, the Government has halted all construction activities in the region.
• Second, An expert panel consisting of 8 people has made the recommendation that homes in the area that sustained the most damage be demolished, that areas that have become inhabitable be identified, and that people be moved to safer areas as a matter of priority. The Government has already declared certain buildings as unfit for inhabitation. People are being relocated. Interim compensation has been provided to the affected families.
• Third, controlled demolition of most vulnerable buildings is being undertaken.
• Fourth, A group of specialists from the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), the Geological Survey of India (GSI), the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee (IITR), the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, the National Institute of Hydrology, and the Central Building Research Institute (CBRI) will investigate the situation and offer their recommendations.

What should be the approach going ahead?

• First, There is need to balance development needs of the region with the protection of the environment. Development is necessary but not at the cost of local environment or population. Ensuring sustainability should be the top priority.
• Second, The natural assets of the Himalayas, such as biodiversity, local ecology and environmental balance should be at the centre of any development plan for the area.
• Third, Instead of focusing on massive dam construction, attention should be given to smaller projects that can help meet the energy needs of the community.
• Fourth, Taking precautions to protect people’s well-being ought to be the top priority right now. The State government ought to set up a communication channel that is both transparent and continuous with the individuals who have been impacted.
• Fifth, Mishra Committee Recommendations should be implemented for all development projects. No activity should be undertaken on unstable slopes unless structural stability can be ensured.

Conclusion

• The Joshimath Crisis brings out harmful impacts of uncontrolled development in geologically unstable and environmentally sensitive region. The multiple crisis in the region (Kedarnath 2013, Chamoli 2021) necessitate a relook at the present development model. An immediate adjustment is imperative that puts sustainability as the top priority. Otherwise, such crisis will become more frequent and disastrous.

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• The RBI launched a limited test of the retail digital rupee for specific use cases on November 1, 2022.

Key Points

• The pilot Project covers select locations in a closed user group (CUG) comprising about 15,000 customers and merchants across the country.
• The pilot will later be extended to Ahmedabad, Gangtok, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Indore, Kochi, Lucknow, Patna and Shimla.
• Four more Banks will be included soon:

• Bank of Baroda,
• Union Bank of India,
• HDFC Bank and
• Kotak Mahindra Bank

Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)

• It is the legal tender issued by a central bank in a digital form.
• It is the same as a fiat currency and is exchangeable one-to-one with the fiat currency. Only its form is different.
• It will be an electronic version of cash.
• It will be primarily meant for retail transactions. 
• It will be potentially available for use by all which includes the private sector, non-financial consumers and businesses.
• It will be able to provide access to safe money for payment and settlement.
• It will be the direct liability of the central bank.

How will the retail digital rupee work?

• It will be issued in the same denominations as paper currency and coins and will be distributed through banks.
• Users will be able to transact through a digital wallet which would be stored on mobile phones and devices.
• Transactions can be both:

• Person to person (P2P)
• Person to merchant (P2M).

• Payments to merchants can be made using QR codes displayed at merchant locations.
• It will not earn any interest and can be converted to other forms of money like deposits with banks.
• RBI has demarcated the digital rupee into two broad categories:

• General purpose (retail)
• Wholesale

• The RBI has already launched the digital rupee for the wholesale segment to settle secondary market transactions in government securities.
• Wholesale CBDC is designed for restricted access to select financial institutions.
• It has the potential to transform the settlement systems for financial transactions undertaken by banks in the government securities (G-Sec) segment, inter-bank market and capital market more efficiently and securely in terms of operational costs, use of collateral and liquidity management.

Significance 

• It aims at reduction in operational costs involved in physical cash management, fostering financial inclusion, bringing resilience, efficiency and innovation in the payments system.
• It will add efficiency to the settlement system and boost innovation in cross-border payments space.
• It will provide the public with the uses that any private virtual currencies can provide without any associated risks.
• It will curb issues such as money laundering, terror financing, tax evasion, etc.
• E-rupee transactions can be both person to person (P2P) and person to merchant (P2M).

• For P2M transactions, such as shopping, there will be QR codes at the location.
• Users will be able to withdraw digital tokens from banks in the same way they currently withdraw physical cash.
• Users will be able to keep the digital tokens in the digital wallet, and spend them online or in person, or transfer them via an app.

Challenges

• Lack of Consumer Protection:No Dispute Settlement Mechanisms and control of Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).
• Digital Illiteracy:The population of India is currently not equipped to deal with cryptos.
• Security Risks:Cyberattacks on wallets, exchange mechanism (Crypto jacking).
• Shield to Crime: If not regulated and monitored properly, it can be used for illicit trading, criminal activities, & organised crimes.
• Popularity of Cryptocurrencies:RBI has repeatedly flagged concerns over money laundering, terror financing, tax evasion, etc with private cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Ether, etc.
• Low volume: The volume of transactions seems to be low in the test phase, vendors now have another option to accept payment from customers, apart from cash and the unified payment interface (UPI).
• Preferences of Consumers: If there is a delay in a transaction or if it fails, customers prefer paying using other digital payment modes, which are currently faster.

Way Ahead

• E-rupee should be issued in the same denominations as paper currency and coins.
• Different features and applications of the e-rupee token and architecture should be created to enable and ease its usage and transition to e-Rupee.

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• A recent scientific assessment has suggested that the ozone hole is now expected to be completely repaired by 2066.

Key Findings

• Recovery period: 

• The ozone layer over Antarctica, where the hole is the most prominent, will take a long time to heal completely.
• If current policies continued to be implemented, the ozone layer was expected to recover to 1980 values by 2066 over Antarctica, by 2045 over the Arctic, and by 2040 for the rest of the world.
• Over the rest of the world, the ozone layer is expected to be back to where it was in 1980 by 2040 itself.

• How it became possible: 

• Successful elimination of some harmful industrial chemicals, together referred to as Ozone Depleting Substances or ODSs.
• Implementation of the 1989 Montreal Protocol.

• Nearly 99 per cent of the substances banned by the Montreal Protocol have now been eliminated from use, resulting in a slow but definite recovery of the ozone layer.

• Ozone: 

• Ozone (chemically, a molecule having three Oxygen atoms, or O3) is found mainly in the upper atmosphere, an area called stratosphere, between 10 and 50 km from the Earth’s surface.
• It is critical for planetary life, since it absorbs ultraviolet rays coming from the Sun.
• UV rays are known to cause skin cancer and many other diseases and deformities in plants and animals.

Damage to the ozone layer

• Origin: 

• The depletion of the ozone layer, first noticed in the early 1980s, used to be the biggest environmental threat before climate change came along.

• Hole or just reduction?

• Though the problem is commonly referred to as the emergence of a ‘hole’ in the ozone layer, it is actually just a reduction in concentration of the ozone molecules.
• Even in the normal state, ozone is present in extremely low concentrations in the stratosphere. Where the ‘layer’ is supposed to be the thickest, there are no more than a few molecules of ozone for every million air molecules.

• Sharp reductions in concentrations of Ozone:

• In the 1980s, scientists began to notice a sharp drop in its presence.
• This drop was much more pronounced over the South Pole.
• It was later linked to the unique meteorological conditions that prevail over Antarctica:

• Temperature,
• Pressure,
• Wind speed and
• Direction

• Biggest hole during months: 

• The ozone hole over Antarctica is the biggest during the months of September, October, and November.

• Main cause deciphered:

• The use of a class of industrial chemicals that contained chlorine, bromine or fluorine.
• The most common of these were the chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, that were used extensively in the air conditioning, refrigeration, paints, and furniture industries.

• Montreal Protocol: 

• It was with this climate change objective in mind that the Montreal Protocol was amended in 2016 to extend its mandate over hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs, that have replaced the CFCs in industrial use.
• HFCs do not cause much damage to the ozone layer — the reason they were not originally banned — but are very powerful greenhouse gases.

• Kigali Amendment:

• The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol seeks to eliminate 80-90 per cent of the HFCs currently in use by the year 2050.
• This is expected to prevent another 0.3 to 0.5 degree Celsius of global warming by the turn of the century.

Timeline 

• Before 1979: 

• Scientists had not observed atmospheric ozone concentrations below 220 Dobson Units (DU; measure of the total amount of ozone in a vertical column of air above the Earth’s surface).

• 1980s and after:

• In the early 1980s, scientists using ground-based and satellite measurements began to realise that the Earth’s natural sunscreen was thinning dramatically over the South Pole each spring.
• This thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica came to be known as the ozone hole.

• In 1979, the maximum depth of the hole was 194 Dobson Units (DU). In 1982, it fell to 173 DU, in 1983 to 154 DU, and in 1985 to 124 DU.
• The image below has been picked from a series published by NASA showing the size and shape of the ozone hole every year from 1979 through 2019.
• Red and yellow areas in the images indicate the ozone hole. The maps show the ozone hole on the day the lowest ozone concentrations were measured each year.
• In 1991, ozone concentration fell below 100 DU for the first time. The deepest hole was in 1994, when concentrations fell to 73 DU on Sept 30.

Significance

• It covers the entire planet and protects life on earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation from the sun.
• Impact on Plants

• Plants cannot live and grow in heavy ultraviolet radiation, nor can the planktons that serve as food for most of the ocean life.

• Health impact of UV-B rays

• With a weakening of the Ozone Layer shield, humans would be more susceptible to skin cancer, cataracts and impaired immune systems.

• Without it, life may have been impossible on earth due to harmful UV-B rays.
• Ozone-Depleting Substances: 

• Their elimination has an important climate change co-benefit as they are powerful greenhouse gases.
• Several of them  are hundreds or even thousands of times more dangerous than carbon dioxide, the most abundant greenhouse gas and the main driver of global warming.
• Global compliance to the Montreal Protocol ensures the avoidance of 0.5 to 1 degree Celsius of warming by 2050.
• That is if the use of CFCs and other similar chemicals had continued to grow the way it did before they were banned, the world would have been 0.5 to 1 degree Celsius warmer than it already is.

Concerns

• Replacements available: 

• The use of ODSs, though extensive, was restricted to some specific industries.
• Their replacements were readily available, even if at a slightly higher cost initially.
• The impact of banning these ozone-depleting chemicals was therefore limited to these specific sectors.
• With some incentives, these sectors have recovered from the initial disruption and are thriving again.

• Carbon footprints: 

• Emission of carbon dioxide is inextricably linked to the harnessing of energy.
• Almost every economic activity leads to carbon dioxide emissions. Even renewable energies, like solar or wind, have considerable carbon footprints right now, because their manufacturing, transport, and operation involves the use of fossil fuels.

• Greenhouse gas emissions: 

• The emissions of methane, the other major greenhouse gas, comes mainly from agricultural practices and livestock.
• The impact of restraining greenhouse gas emissions is not limited to a few industries or economic sectors, but affects the entire economy, and also has implications for the quality of life, human lifestyles and habits and behaviours.

Way Ahead

• Ensuring that existing restrictions on ozone-depleting substances are properly implemented and global use of ozone-depleting substances continue to be reduced.
• Ensuring that banks of ozone-depleting substances (both in storage and contained in existing equipment) are dealt with in an environmentally-friendly manner and are replaced with climate-friendly alternatives.
• Ensuring that permitted uses of ozone-depleting substances are not diverted to illegal uses.
• Reducing use of ozone-depleting substances in applications that are not considered as consumption under the Montreal Protocol.
• Ensuring that no new chemicals or technologies emerge that could pose new threats to the ozone layer (e.g. very short-lived substances).

General Studies Paper 3

Context

• According to Solvent Extractor’s Association (SEA) of India, a sharp rise in the import of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil is hurting the domestic oil refining industry.

Reasons for the rise in imports of RBD palm oil

• Import duty difference of only 7.5% between CPO (crude palm oil) and refined oil, encouraging the import of refined oil as compared to the CPO.
• Cutthroat competition: Malaysian and Indonesian exporters of RBD palm oil enjoy advantage (taxes) of $60 over CPO and hence they discount palmolein benefiting their refiners.

Consequences of the rise in imports of RBD palm oil

• Low capacity utilization(30% now versus 60-70% in 2020) of the Indian refining industry. For e.g. Utilization of only 18 million tonnes as against the capacity of 38-40 million tonnes.
• Losses:The refining industry will be suffering losses of Rs. 6000 per tonne on importing crude palm oil and converting it into refined palmolein.
• Contrary to the objective of self-reliance:PM’s clarion call of atma nirbhar and value addition within the country is threatened due to rising imports.
• Harm Make in India:Sustained import trends may cause transformation of the Indian refining industry into mere packers rather than producers and refiners.
• Compromising heavy investments made in the domestic refining sector for capacity enhancement and possibility of rising Non Performing Assets (NPAs) in the sector.
• Threaten oil seeds farmers: After a long time, domestic oilseeds have started selling above minimum support price (MSP) and improved farm incomes. Continued rising imports of RBD might reverse these gains.
• Edible oil inflation

About Palm Oil

• Nature:Palm oil is also known as palm fruit oil. Palm oil is produced from the fruit of the oil palm tree (Scientific name: Elaeis guineensis).

Importance: 

• Production:It may have now surpassed soybean oil as the most widely produced vegetable oil in the world.
• Refining: Palm oil is physically refined without the use of chemical solvents, thereby reducing the risk of residue contamination.
• Nutritional value: Virgin palm oil is rich in carotenoids (pro Vitamin A), tocotrienols and tocopherols (Vitamin E).
• Health benefits: Since it is a vegetable oil; not an animal or dairy product, therefore it does not contain cholesterol. It also does not contain trans fatty acids.
• Value as a natural resource: Oil palm is the only fruit that can give two types of oil-palm oil and palm kernel oil.

Applications/Usage:

• Agriculture and processing:Since its introduction, oil palm is now a leading agricultural crop. Increased planting, cultivation and refinement have led to the introduction of a wide range of processed palm oil products.
• Food and non-food applications: They can be used for frying media and for making margarines, shortenings, soap, oleo chemicals and other products.
• Cooking: It is used as cooking oil, to make margarine and is a component of many processed foods. Palm oil is one of the few vegetable oils relatively high in saturated fats (such as coconut oil) and thus semi-solid at room temperature.

Issues: 

• Palm oil is a major driver of deforestation of some of the world’s most biodiverse forests, destroying the habitat of already endangered species like the Orangutan, pygmy elephant and Sumatran rhino.
• More than 40 percent of potential landscapes for oil palm cultivation in India overlap with biodiversity-rich landscapes, especially in the North-East and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

National Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP)

• It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with a special focus on the Northeast region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The Mission hopes to increase oil palm acreage by an additional 6.5 lakh hectares by 2025-26 and grow production of crude palm oil to 11.2 lakh tonnes by 2025-26 and up to 28 lakh tonnes by 2029-30.
• The proposed scheme will subsume the current National Food Security Mission-Oil Palm programme.

2 major focus areas of the Scheme

• The oil palm farmers produce Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFBs) from which oil is extracted by the industry. Presently the prices of these FFBs are linked to the international Crude Palm Oil (CPO) prices fluctuations.
• Viability Price (VP): For the first time, the Government of India will give price assurance to the oil palm farmers for the FFBs in the form of the Viability Price (VP).

Way Forward

• Budgetary Provisions 2023-24: Increasing the duty difference between CPO and refined palmolein to at least 15%.
• Increasing refined duty from current 12.5% to 20% without any change in crude palm oil duty.
• Restricted List: The government can place again the import of RBD palmolein and refined palm oil under restricted list with immediate effect.

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• Recently a study by the United Nations University Institute on Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), also known as the UN’s think tank on waterwas released.

Study highlights

• Global status:
• Potential reduction in storage: 
  • The study shows that 6,316 billion cubic metre of initial global storage in 47,403 large dams in 150 countries will decline to 4,665 billion cubic metre, causing 26 percent storage loss by 2050.
  • The loss of 1,650 billion cubic metre storage capacity is roughly equal to the annual water use of India, China, Indonesia, France and Canada combined.
• Reduced dam storage in Asia-Pacific:
  • In 2022, the Asia-Pacific region, the world’s most heavily dammed region, is estimated to have lost 13 per cent of its initial dam storage capacity.
  • It will have lost nearly a quarter (23 per cent) of initial storage capacity by mid-century.
  • The region is home to 60 per cent of the world’s population and water storage is crucial for sustaining water and food security.
• India’s dams:
• The study warns that around 3,700 dams in India will lose 26 percent of their total storage by 2050.
• Reason of loss:
  • This storage loss will be due to the accumulation of sediments which can undermine water security, irrigation and power generation in the future.
    • Trapped sediment has already robbed roughly 50,000 large dams worldwide of an estimated 13 to 19 percent of their combined original storage capacity.
  • China’s dams:
  • China, meanwhile, the world’s most heavily dammed nation, has lost about 10 percent of its storage and will lose a further 10 percent by 2050 according to the report.

More about dams

• About:
• Dam is a structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water.
• India has 4,407 large dams, the third highest number in the world after China (23,841) and the USA (9,263).
• Types:
  • Large: A dam is considered large if it is higher than 15 m or between 5 and 15 m high, but impounds over 3 million cubic metres.
  • Low:A low dam is less than 30 m high;
  • Medium:A medium-height dam is between 30 and 100 m high, and
  • High:A high dam is over 100 m high.
• Significance of dam construction:
• Water storage infrastructure is critical for development.
• Large dams and reservoirs provide hydroelectricity, flood control, irrigation, and drinking water and often perform multiple functions simultaneously.
• Major threats to dams:
• Ageing:
  • All over the world, many large dams built in the 20th century may start to show signs of ageing, and many may already be operating at or beyond their design life.
  • For India, 2025 is set to be a big year as more than 1,000 dams would turn roughly 50 years or older.
• Accumulation of sediments & siltation:
  • Accumulation of sediments decreases a reservoir’s capacityover the years and determines a reservoir’s life expectancy.
  • Siltation, which is the accumulation of silt and debris behind the reservoir, also leads to a reduction in the storage capacity of the dams.
• Structural issues:
• India’s dams are more vulnerable to deterioration because a large proportion of them are earthen–built by compacting successive layers of earth, and not concrete–and are hence more prone to ageing.
• Flooding:
• The country gets concentrated rainfall every year for a designated time period as opposed to distributed rainfall, which contributes to the dams’ vulnerability.
• In India, the downstream areas are often exposed to flood disasters& flooding has caused 44% of dam failures in India.
• Seismic threat:
• Some of the Himalayan dam systems, including the Tehri Dam, are in an active seismic area given that the Himalayan Mountain system is constantly changing and growing giving rise to several tectonic movements. 

Way ahead

• The Central Water Commission’s recent study on the Srisailam project on the Krishna river also found that the dam’s storage capacity was reduced as a result of siltation.
• There are several more studies that clearly show that the actual siltation rates are several times higher than what was estimated.
• Therefore, a timely assessment of the structure should be carried out with the removal of reservoir silt from dams.

Dam Safety Act, 2021

• About:
• It is an Act to provide for the surveillance, inspection, operation, and maintenance of the specified dam for prevention of dam failure related disasters and to provide for an institutional mechanism to ensure their safe functioning and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
  • These are dams with height of more than 15 metres, or height between 10 metres to 15 metres with certain design and structural conditions.
• 2 national Bodies:
• The National Committee on Dam Safety (NCDS):
  • Its functions include evolving policies and recommending regulations regarding dam safety standards;
  • It will be chaired by the National Water Commissioner.
• The National Dam Safety Authority:
  • Its functions include implementing policies of the National Committee, providing technical assistance to State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), and resolving matters between SDSOs of states or between a SDSO and any dam owner in that state.
• 2 state bodies: 
• State Committee on Dam Safety,
• State Dam Safety Organisation.
• These bodies will be responsible for the surveillance, inspection, and monitoring the operation and maintenance of dams within their jurisdiction.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• What started off as a minor conflict in eastern Ukraine in 2014 has now snowballed into a de facto war between Russia and the collective West within the borders of Ukraine.
• His limited war machine is under enormous pressure, but he can’t retreat unless he is ready to accept political and geopolitical costs.
• There is still a lack of clarity and uncertainty on Russia’s objectives in Ukraine and what it will do next to meet them.

Russia’s Aura has Dipped

• Putin disrupted Georgia’s ambition to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
• He made forays into West Asia neutralizing Israel and Turkey, both American allies.
• He took Crimea without a fight and turned Russia again into an energy superpower.
• But that aura has slipped as Russia’s superior troops have been struggling to cope with battlefield setbacks in Ukraine.

A New World

• After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the U.S. had established a de facto unilateral hierarchy, which is rare in international relations.
• Global politics has historically been dominated by multiple pillars.
• But the U.S. was at the pinnacle of its power in the 1990s.
• In recent years, however, there have been signs of the passing of American unilateralism.
• America’s wars in the Muslim world did not proceed as Washington had expected.
• As the U.S. got stuck in Afghanistan and Iraq, Russia became more aggressive, Iran more defiant, and China more powerful.
• Russia’s intervention in Georgia and its annexation of Crimea.
• Iran’s growing militancy in West Asia
• America’s defeat in Afghanistan.
• These were some signs of a shift in the global order

Essential Anarchy

• After a brief period of unilateral hierarchy, the world is returning to, what Realists call, its essential anarchy.
• In which great powers compete for maximizing their powers.
• But it is not clear what kind of an order, if an order emerges at all, will replace American unilateralism.
• The U.S. seems to have realised that the world has changed.

Approach Pursued by USA

• USA has taken pains to keep the Western alliance together.
• It wants a coalition of democracies against dictatorships.
• It admits that the ‘rules-based order’ faces systemic challenges from Russia and China.
• But at the same time, it doesn’t want a direct conflict with Russia
• It seeks to bleed Russia out in Ukraine, an approach that U.S. President Ronald Reagan had towards the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.

Misadventure of Great Powers

• The U.S. intervention in Vietnam, its invasion of Afghanistan, and the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan are some of the best examples of great powers getting stuck in smaller theatres.
• But historical examples do not deter offensive nations.
• When Mr. Putin ordered his special military operation, it is possible that he expected quick results.
• But he miscalculated the power of Ukrainian nationalism.
• What Ukraine had to do was to survive the initial Russian thrust.
• When that was achieved, it opened avenues for Russia’s rivals in the West to start supplying Ukraine with money.
• Weapons including advanced rocket systems and artillery , intelligence and mercenaries.
• If the war was left to Russia and Ukraine, the former would have, in theory, secured a victory.

China’s Takeaway

• There were enhanced tensions between China and the U.S. over Taiwan last year. U.S. President Joe Biden has repeatedly said that the U.S. would defend Taiwan in the event of an attack from China.
• This signalled a shift in Washington’s policy of ‘strategic ambiguity’.
• One argument in American strategic circles is that defeating Russia in Ukraine would discourage Chinese President Xi Jinping from making any adventurous move towards Taiwan.
• If Russia gets away with Ukraine, that will embolden Mr. Xi, they argue.

On The Flip Side

• Ukraine war and the West’s collective pursuit to punish Russia has driven the giant bear deeper into the embrace of the Chinese dragon.
• If, during the Cold War, the U.S. strove to exploit the divisions between the Soviet Union and China
• China and Russia, under Mr. Xi and Mr. Putin, respectively, are boasting of their ‘no limits’ relationship today.
• One of the reasons for the U.S. pivot from West Asia and Afghanistan was to focus its resources on tackling the rise of China.

Conclusion

• China is the only revisionist power with the capabilities to challenge the ‘rules- based order.
• S. last year got dragged more and more into Europe and spent enormous resources on Ukraine.
• China would like to see the U.S. being distracted in Europe while it strengthens its ties with Russia and spreads its influence elsewhere.
• For USA it would be appropriate to think whether the time, resources and energy it is spending on Ukraine is worth it?

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• The subsidence (ground sinking) in Joshimath (at an altitude of over 6,000 feet) in Uttarakhand has delivered stern warning for the State’s administration.

Key Points

• About Joshimath Sinking:
  • In 2021, Joshimath was struck in the aftermath of a deluge in the Rishiganga and Dhauliganga rivers.
  • This event is what experts are now suggesting likely triggered the current “sinking and cracking”. 
  • Later that year, Joshimath was battered by a torrential downpour of over 190 mm.
  • Following the rains, residents noticed a movement in the cracks and more frighteningly, new cracks as well, with several cropping up inside homes.
• Impacts:
  • At least 66 families have fled the town while 561 houses have reported cracks.
  • A government official said that over 3000 people have been affected so far.

Land Subsidence

• According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), subsidence is the “sinking of the ground because of underground material movement”.
• It can happen for a host of reasons, man-made or natural, such as the removal of water, oil, or natural resources, along with mining activities.
• Earthquakes, soil erosion, and soil compaction are also some of the well-known causes of subsidence.
• The NOAA also mentions that this phenomenon can “happen over very large areas like whole states or provinces, or very small areas like the corner of your yard.”

Reasons for Joshimath’s Land Subsidence

• Incredibly Fragile Ecology:
  • Joshimath city has been built on an ancient landslide material — meaning it rests on a deposit of sand and stone, not rock, which doesn’t have high load-bearing capacity.
  • This makes the area extremely vulnerable to ever-burgeoning infrastructure and population.
• Blatant Ignorance:
  • The current developments in Joshimath are a combination of ignorance and apathy.
• Unplanned Urbanisation:
  • The unplanned and unauthorised construction has led to the blocking of the natural flow of water, which eventually results in frequent landslides.
• Natural calamities:
  • The area is a seismic zone, which makes it prone to frequent earthquakes.
  • The region also facesfrequent natural calamities such as landslides and flash floods.
• Ignored the Recommendations of Mishra Committee Report (conducted in 1976):
  • The Committee had concluded in its report that the land upon which the town is founded is, in fact, a deposit of sand and stone, the remnants of an ancient landslide.
  • The town is not actually built on the “main rock” of the mountain.
  • The report also pointed out that undercutting by the currents of the Alaknanda river makes the area even more prone to disasters.
• Hydel Projects:
  • The construction of the 520 MW NTPC Tapovan Vishnugad Hydro Power plant has perhaps done more damage to Joshimath’s foundations than anything else.
  • The project being constructed on the Dhauliganga river required a tunnel to be built that cut right through the mountain upon which Joshimath is located.
• Land Erosion: 
  • Due to the running streams from Vishnuprayag and sliding along the natural streams are the other reasons behind the city’s fate.
• Poor Drainage System:
  • The lack of a proper drainage system might have also contributed to the sinking of the area.
• Geographic fault:
  • It might have been triggered by the reactivation of a geographic fault — defined as a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock — where the Indian Plate has pushed under the Eurasian Plate along the Himalayas.

Way Forward

• Prohibition of Major Constructions:
  • Experts recommend a complete shutdown of development and hydroelectric projects in the region.
  • Construction of the NTPC Hydro Power plant and along the Helang Bypass has ceased till further orders.
• Rigorous Replantation:
  • Experts have also suggested replantation in the region, especially at the vulnerable sites to retain soil capacity.
• Redevelopment of Drainage System:
  • Drainage planning is one of the biggest factors that needs to be studied and redeveloped.
  • The state government needs to look into the issue and create a new plan for the drainage system.
• Evacuation of People:
  • The government has to put in an order evacuation plans for 4,000 prefabricated homes to help the residents of Joshimath.
  • The government must build resilience in the vulnerable areas through improved early warning systems, better construction quality etc.
• Coordination Amongst Organizations:
  • There is a need for a coordinated effort between the government and civil bodies with the aid of military organizations to save Joshimath.
• Studies by Technical Resources:
  • Technical resources from nearby areas need to be summoned to Joshimath to find a solution.
  • The state government also needs to take scientific studies more seriously, which clearly spell out the reasons for the current crisis.

Key Facts

• Dhauliganga & Alaknanda Rivers Meet at Vishnuprayag, which is at the base of Joshimath Mountain.
• Joshimath is also famed as the gateway for mountain climbing expeditions, trekking, and several other thrilling activities for those who want to live life on the edge.
• It is from here one has to traverse to the famous trekking destination in Uttarakhand, Valley of Flowers

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• Recently, the Prime Minister of India inaugurated the 17th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas convention.

About Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD)

• Origin:
  • To mark this day, the tradition of celebrating Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) started in 2003.
  • 1st PBD Convention was organized on 9 January 2003 to mark the contribution of the overseas Indian community to the development of India.
  • Since 2015, under a revised format, PBD Convention has been organized once every 2 years (biennial).
• Significance:
  • 9 January commemorates the return of Mahatma Gandhi from South Africa to India in 1915.
  • It is celebrated grandly to strengthen the engagement of the Government of India with the overseas Indian community.
• Concerns with Celebrations:
  • Low/semi-skilled and blue collar workers may not find a place or feel comfortable to participate in the said celebration as the general profile of participants is seen to be of very high level.
  • The participation and involvement should be more broad-based, accommodating the vulnerable sections of the diaspora community too.
• Themes:
  • 17th PBD- “Diaspora: Reliable Partners for India’s Progress in Amrit Kaal”.
  • 16th PBD- “Contributing to Atma Nirbhar Bharat ”.

Indian Diaspora

• Meaning:
  • The term diaspora traces its roots to the Greek diaspeiro, which means dispersion.
• Historical Background:
  • The Indian diaspora has grown manifold since the first batch of Indians were taken to counties in the east pacific and the Caribbean islands under the ‘Girmitiya’ arrangement as indentured labourers.
  • The 19th and early 20th centuries saw thousands of Indians shipped to those countries to work on plantations in British colonies, which were reeling under a labour crisis due to the abolition of slavery in 1833-34.
  • 2023 marks the 150th year of the first such journey of Indians to Suriname.
  • As part of the second wave of migration, nearly 20 lakh Indians went to Singapore and Malaysia to work in farms.
  • The third and fourth wave saw professionals heading to western countries and workers going to the Gulf and west Asian countries in the wake of the oil boom.

Difference Between PIO and OCI

• Numbers:
  • As on December 31, 2021, there were7 crore Indians living overseas.
  • The number includes NRIs, PIOs, OCIs, and students. Excluding students, the number stands at 3.22 crore, including 1.87 crore PIOs and 1.35 crore NRIs.
  • According to the World Migration Report, prepared by the International Organisation for Migration under the United Nations, India has the largest emigrant population in the world, making it the top origin country globally, followed by Mexico, Russian and China.
• Geographical spread:
  • The geographical spread of the Indian diaspora is vast.
  • The countries with over 10 lakh overseas Indians include United States of America (44 lakh), United Kingdom (17.6 lakh), United Arab Emirates (34 lakh), Sri Lanka (16 lakh), South Africa (15.6 lakh), Saudi Arabia (26 lakh), Myanmar (20 lakh), Malaysia (29.8 lakh), Kuwait (10.2 lakh) and Canada (16.8 lakh).
• Remittances:
  • As per the latest World Bank Migration and Development Brief 2022, “For the first time a single country, India, is on track to receive more than $100 billion in yearly remittances.”
  • The World Migration Report notes that India, China, Mexico, the Philippines and Egypt are (in descending order) among the top five remittance recipient countries, “although India and China were well above the rest”.
• Involvement in politics:
  • The vocal political positions taken by a section of the Indian diaspora, particularly in the US and the UK, is a fairly recent phenomenon.
    • For instance, the Hindu American Foundation, a Hindu advocacy group based in the US, was set up in 2003, the same year the Pravasi Bharatiya Convention was launched.
  • Many prominent overseas Indians play an active role in organising global meetings.

Conclusion

• Indians living overseas are “brand ambassadors” of the country on foreign soil.
• Overseas Indians can project the truth about India to the world in a credible and effective manner and counter “propaganda”.

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• Recently, the IndAusECTA (India Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement) Agreement, which was signed last year, has come into force after Ratification and Exchange of Written Instruments.

Major Areas of IndAusECTA

• Trade in Goods
• Trade in Services
• Rules of Origin
• Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures
• Customs Procedures and Trade Facilitation
• Trade Remedies
• Legal & institutional Issues
• Movement of Natural Persons

Current Trade trends between India and Australia

• Imports:
  • India’s imports from Australia amount to 17 US $ billion India’s imports from Australia are primarily (96%) raw materials & intermediate good
  • They are highly concentrated in Coal (74% of Australia’s exports to India) out of which 71.4% is coking coal.
• Exports:
  • India’s exports to Australia amount to 10.5 US $ billion.
  • India’s exports to Australia are broad-based and dominated by finished products (consumer goods).
  • India also spends $ 4 bn approx. each year on education of students in Australia.

Benefits for India

• Benefits under Trade in Goods:
  • Indian goods on all tariff lines to get access to the Australian market with zero customs duty (currently subjected to 5% import duty by Australia).
  • Immediate duty-free access covers all labour-intensive sectors such as Textiles and Apparel, Agricultural and Fish products, Leather, Footwear, Furniture, many Engineering Products, Jewellery and select Pharmaceuticals.
  • Cheaper Raw Materials, Faster Approval for Medicines
  • Immediate Duty-Free Access is projected to potentially create 10 lakh jobs in India and additional exports of $ 10 bn from India to Australia in the next five years.
  • India has offered concessions on Tariff lines of export interest to Australia like Coking coal and Thermal coal, Wines, Agricultural products – 7 of them with TRQ (Cotton, Almonds shelled and in shell, Mandarin, Oranges, Lentils, Pear), Metals (Aluminium, Copper, Nickel, Iron & Steel) and Minerals (Manganese Ore, Calcined Alumina).
  • Exceptions: Many sensitive products such as milk and other dairy products, wheat, sugar, iron ore, apple, walnuts and others, have been kept in India’s Exclusion list.
• Benefits under Trade in Services:
  • Australia has committed its schedule in the negative list and has also made wide-ranging commitments in around 135 sub-sectors with Most Favoured Nation (MFN)status in around 120 sub-sectors.
  • India has for the first time agreed to Negative listing after 5 years of coming into force of the Agreement.
  • India is also making a commitment to Australia in around 103 Service Sub-Sectors with Most Favoured Nation status in around 31 Service Sub-sectors for the first time.
  • The Agreement opens avenues for investment in computer related services, telecom, construction, health & environmental services.
  • More than1 lakh Indian students in Australia will benefit from post-study work visas (18 months – 4 years).
  • The Agreement provides for an Annual Quota of 1,800 for Yoga teachers and Indian Chefs. 
  • It makes an arrangement for Work and Holiday Visas for young professionals.
  • Commitments have also been made to pursue Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) in professional services in 12 Months.

• Protective Features to guard against Unintended Consequences:
  • The #IndAusECTA also has certain ‘protective features’ aimed at guarding both countries against unintended consequences on trade.
  • Stringent Rules of Origin –
    • Value Addition of 35% + Change in Tariff Subheading (CTSH)
    • In calculation of Value Addition, 2 different values agreed to (35% or 45%) depending on method of calculation (based on whether profit is excluded or included)
  • Product Specific Rules negotiated for 807 products
    • Requirement of ‘melt and pour’ for iron & steel products included in the Product Specific Rules for these products.
  • Strict Operational Customs Procedures
    • A specific clause included to ensure only items made in Australia count for value addition, no other country products
    • A Bilateral Safeguard Mechanism will be available for 14 years in case of surge in imports:
  • A special clause on Review has been agreed upon to enable either country to request a Review for parts of the Agreement which may be a cause of concern, after 15 years
    • Review compulsory if requested (it shall happen)
    • Must be completed in 6 months
  • End to Double Taxation:
    • A provision in the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) was used to tax this remittance.
    • However, the Agreement has removed the discrepancies with regard to use of DTAA for taxation of Indian firm royalties, fees and charges.
    • Australia has no domestic provision for charging tax on royalties, fees and charges by firms sending these to parent companies.
  • Boost to Economy:
    • Exports are expected to increase by 10 billion by 2026-27 with a creation of approximately 10 lakh jobs.
    • The total bilateral trade is expected to cross US $ 45-50 billion by 2035.
    • The coming into force of the India Australia ECTA is expected to consolidate and help in the growth of market share of Indian products and services.

Way Ahead

• There is a lot of potential for exporting finished goods to Australia, since they hardly manufacture anything, they are largely a raw material and intermediate producing country.
• India can get cheaper raw materials which will not only make India more competitive globally but also enable it to serve Indian consumers better; enabling it to provide more quality goods at more affordable prices
• Ind – Aus ECTA brings together two major economies of the world, – India the 5th largest economy and Australia the 14th largest economy.
• The trade between the two countries is hugely complementary, this offers opportunities on both sides and will pave the way for a win-win solution for both India and Australia.

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• The governments of India and the U.K. recently marked Pravasi Bharatiya Divas on January 9, 2023 by initiating the Young Professionals Scheme.

More about the news

• About:
  • The Young Professionals Scheme was conceived as part of an India-U.K. The Migration and Mobility MoU signed in May 2021, was announced in November at the G20 summit in Bali.
• Key highlights of the scheme:
  • The scheme will permit degree-holding citizens aged between 18 and 30 to live and work in each other’s countries for a period of two years.
    • They would be able to either work, study, or visit, for two years.
    • The scheme will run for a period of three years initially.
  • The scheme allows for exchange visas for up to 3,000 individuals per year.
  • It isn’t even necessary for an applicant to have a job in hand when he/she applies for the visa.
    • So, the successful candidates could look for a job, educational or cultural opportunity once they arrived in their host country. Or they could just visit.
  • Challenges:
    • The signing of the agreement belies more complex issues around the movement of persons across borders.
      • Part of the Migration and Mobility agreement of 2021 seeks to address the return of illegal migrants to their home countries.

India-UK Relations

• About:
  • UK-India relationship is rooted in India’s colonial history with the British and the relationship shared by both countries even after India’s independence.
  • The bilateral relationship was upgraded to a strategic partnership in 2004.
• Political:
  • They share a modern partnership which was upgraded to a strategic partnership in 2004.
  • The UK supports India’s proposal for permanent membership of the UNSC and is also an important interlocutor for India on global platforms.
• Economic Engagements:
  • Trade: 
    • UK is among India’s major trading partners and as per trade statistics of MoC&I, India’s trade with the UK in 2017-2018 was US $14.497 billion.
  • Investment: 
    • UK is the 4th largest inward investor in India, after Mauritius, Singapore and Japan with a cumulative equity investment of US $26.09 billion (April 2000-June 2018), accounting for around 7% of all foreign direct investment into India. India continued to be the third largest investor in the UK and emerged as the second largest international job creator with Indian companies having created over 110,000 jobs in the UK.
  • Defence:
    • In 2015, the two countries agreed to elevate their Defence relationship by establishing capability partnerships in strategic areas.
    • The institutionalized dialogue to discuss defense cooperation viz. Defence Consultative Group Meeting, is held annually at Defence Secretary level.
    • Ajeya Warrior (army-to-army biennial exercise), the Konakan (joint navy-to-navy annual exercise) and the Indradhanush (joint air-to-air exercise) happen between India and UK.
  • Education:
    • Over the last 10 years, the relationship has grown substantially with the introduction of bilateral mechanisms such as the India-UK Education Forum, UK-India Education and Research Initiative (UKIERI), Joint Working Group on Education, Newton-Bhabha Fund and Scholarship schemes.
  • Science and Technology:
    • Joint investment in UK-India research has grown from less than £1 million in 2008 to over £200 million.
    • A India-UK Clean Energy R&D Centre with a focus on solar energy storage and a collaborative R&D programme in energy efficient building materials were announced.
    • New research partnerships worth £80 million including a new Joint Strategic group on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) with a joint investment of up to £13 million have also been established.
  • Cultural Linkages: 
    • Cultural linkages between India and UK are deep and extensive, arising out of shared history between the two countries.
    • There has been a gradual mainstreaming of Indian culture and absorption of Indian cuisine, cinema, languages, religion, philosophy, performing arts, etc.
    • 2017 was celebrated as the India-UK year of Culture to mark the 70th anniversary of Indian independence.
  • Indian Diaspora:
    • The Indian Diaspora in the UK is one of the largest ethnic minority communities in the country.
    • As per the 2011 census, approximately 1.5 million people of Indian origin live in the UK equating to almost 1.8 percent of the population and contribute 6% of the country’s GDP.
  • Roadmap 2030:
    • The “Roadmap 2030” for India-UK future relations was launched during India-UK Virtual Summit for-
      • Revitalised and dynamic connections between people;
      • Re-energised trade, investment and technological collaboration that improves the lives and livelihoods of the citizens;
      • Enhanced defence and security cooperation that brings a more secure Indian Ocean Region and Indo-Pacific and
      • India-UK leadership in climate, clean energy and health that acts as a global force for good.