General Studies Paper 2

In News

• The study titled “Report on municipal finances” was published by the RBI.

Key Points

• Budgetary allocations & fund transfers:
  • The combined budget of all the municipal corporations in India is much smaller than that of the Central and State governments.
  • The report reveals how municipal bodies are increasingly dependent on fund transfers from the State and the Centre, while their revenue earning capacity is limited. 
• Revenue raising of municipal corporations:
  • Their revenue raising powers are curtailed according to the study.
  • The municipal corporations don’t borrow much, leaving them gasping for funds.
  • The share of own revenue(both tax and non-tax) in the total revenue of urban local bodies in India has declined, while that of government transfers has increased.
    • Spendings:

About 70% of it gets spent on salaries, pensions and administrative expenses with the rest left for capital expenditure.

• Tax earnings of municipal corporations:
  • Taxes earned by municipal corporations in India are grossly inadequate to meet their expenditure needs.
  • In India, the own tax revenue of municipal corporations, comprising property tax, water tax, toll tax and other local taxes, formed 31-34% of the total revenue in the FY18-FY20 period.
    • This share was low compared to many other countries and it also declined over time.
  • State-wise variations:
    • Large variations can be observed if the municipal corporations’ own tax revenue is sliced State-wise.
    • The own tax revenue of municipal corporations as a share of the State’s GDP in 2017-18 crossed the 1% mark in Delhi, Gujarat, Chandigarh, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh, while it was 0.1% or less in Karnataka, Goa, Assam and Sikkim.
  • Dependence on property taxes:
    • Another major issue with the municipal corporations’ revenue raising capabilities was their dependence on property taxes.
    • In 2017-18, the property taxes formed over 40% of the municipal corporations’ own tax revenue.
    • Despite such dominance, property tax collection in India was much lower compared to OECD countries due to undervaluation, and poor administration, the report argues.

About  Urban local bodies (ULBs) in India

• Establishment of ULBs in India:
  • The 74th Constitution Amendment Act was passed in 1992 mandating the setting up and devolution of powers to urban local bodies (ULBs) as the lowest unit of governance in cities and towns.
• Types of ULBs:
  • There are several types of Urban Local bodies in India such as Municipal Corporation, Municipality, Notified Area Committee, Town Area Committee, Special Purpose Agency, Township, Port Trust, Cantonment Board etc.
• Functions: 
  • These local bodies are entrusted with functions related to welfare, public health and safety, infrastructural works, and other activities related to city development.
• Fiscal empowerment:
  • Constitutional provisions were made for ULBs’ fiscal empowerment.
  • The ULBs’ key revenue sources are taxes, fees, fines and charges, and transfers from Central and State governments, which are known as inter-governmental transfers (IGTs).
  • The share of own revenue (including revenue from taxes on property and advertisements, and non-tax revenue from user charges and fees from building permissions and trade licensing) to total revenue is an important indicator of ULBs’ fiscal health and autonomy.

Challenges faced by ULBs 

• Fiscal challenges:
  • Three decades since, growing fiscal deficits, constraints in tax base expansion, and weakening of institutional mechanisms that enable resource mobilisation remain challenges.
    • Revenue losses after the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) and the pandemic have exacerbated the situation.
  • Lack of finances:
    • The transfer of duties from the national and subnational governments to local governments has not always been accompanied by a corresponding transfer of financial authority.
    • The generated funds are mostly spent on revenue expenditure, leaving a much smaller pie for capacity building.
  • Over-reliance on property taxes:
    • Over-reliance on property taxes has prevented local governments from fully utilising other revenue streams such as trade permits, entertainment taxes, mobile tower taxes, solid waste user fees, water fees, and value capture finance.
    • Property taxes are also not efficiently collected.
  • Other:
    • ULBs across the country lack autonomy in city management and several city-level functions are managed by parastatals (managed by and accountable to the state).
    • Municipal administration in India suffers from staffing issues which leads to a failure in delivering basic urban services.
    • Other concerns include
      • Overstaffing of untrained manpower,
      • Shortage of qualified technical staff and managerial supervisors, and
      • Unwillingness to innovate in methods for service delivery.

Suggestions & Way ahead

• The scale of municipal finances in India is undoubtedly inadequate. A ULB’s own revenue resources are far below the estimated potential.
• As noted in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, an effective city government is essential for sustainable development.
  • Tapping into property taxes, other land-based resources and user charges are all ways to improve the revenue of a ULB.
  • inter-governmental transfers (IGTs) assume significance in the fiscal composition of ULBs, and a stable support from Central and State governments is crucial till ULBs improve their own revenues.
  • Measures need to be made to also cover operations and maintenance expenses of a ULB for better infrastructure and service.

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• Over the years, different aspects of RBI’s functioning have been examined by different committees.
• But none of them have attempted a comprehensive examination of RBI’s role in the Indian economy.
• The last such effort was in 1931, when a 21-member central banking enquiry committee led by BN Mitra made its case for a modern central bank in the country, leading to the RBI Act in 1934.

Risk Management Ability

• The first challenge relates to RBI’s risk- management ability.
• A central bank is the first line of defence against a financial crisis.
• This calls for fire-fighting abilities when a crisis strikes.
• More importantly, it calls for thoughtful regulation that can insulate an economy from global shocks.
• And watchful supervision that can detect signs of financial stress.
• Ahead of the 2008 global financial crash, RBI’s conservatism saved India from the worst of the financial crunch that paralysed the rest of the world.
• Yet, RBI failed to tell us about the growing pile of bad loans in the domestic banking system, which ballooned to toxic levels in the 2008-12 period.
• RBI’s regulatory forbearance hid the real extent of the problem till it was too late.

Consumer Protection

• The second challenge relates to consumer protection.
• This has been a weak spot historically, with RBI barely taking notice of rampant mis-selling by banks.
• The digital age raises new risks for first time users and new entrants into the formal financial system, who often fall victim to financial scamsters.
• India’s digital payments system today is a global success story thanks to years of patient work by RBI’s payments team.

Autonomy

• The degree of RBI’s autonomy remains a constant source of conflict between the central bank and the government.
• Since 2016, RBI has enjoyed operational autonomy to set short-term interest rates under the new monetary policy framework.
• In other aspects, it enjoys autonomy only when the government indulges it.
• When a regulator lacks autonomy, its ability to enforce its writ is bound to be impacted.

Accountability

• Central bankers are unelected technocrats who wield enormous power in a modern economy.
• Most mature democracies deal with this challenge by instituting sound accountability and transparency mechanisms, not by running down central bankers.
• Having more independent voices on the RBI board, selected by a non-partisan panel, can bring about greater accountability without compromising RBI’s autonomy.

Conclusion

• A new contract between RBI and the finance ministry, enshrined in a 21st- century RBI Act.
• This will burnish the credibility of both organs of the State and bring down friction points.
• RBI’s reporting and transparency norms need a relook.
• Globally, central banks have increasingly opened themselves up to investors and ordinary citizens to make themselves more accountable

Question For practice

Question – Discuss the role of RBI in supporting India’s Growth journey.

General Studies Paper 3

In News 

• A rising trend of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) has been observed among patients at an Ahmedabad hospital.

About Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)

• It is often also called antibiotic resistance.
• It occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicines making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness, and death.
• They can spread from person to person or between people and animals, including from food of animal origin.

Reasons 

• AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes. Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are found in people, animals, food, plants, and the environment (in water, soil, and air).
• The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials; lack of access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals; poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms;  poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines and diagnostics; lack of awareness and knowledge; and lack of enforcement of legislation.

Concerns

• It is a global health challenge and a looming public health crisis.
• The WHO has declared it as one of the top 10 health threats facing humanity.
• AMR national action plans (NAPs) have been implemented in several surveyed economies including India for human health.
• However, the development and implementation of antimicrobial plans for animals and the environment that equally impact AMR hasn’t been adequate.
• The cost of AMR to the economy is significant and it is critical to develop policies and implement them through a holistic “One Health” approach.

Measures Taken to Rising Anti-Microbial Resistance in India 

• National programme on AMR containment was launched during the 12th FYP in 2012-17
• National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR)focusing on the One Health approach was launched on 19th April 2017 with the aim of involving various stakeholders ministries/departments.
• AMR Surveillance Network: ICMR has established the AMR surveillance and research network (AMRSN) in 2013, to generate evidence and capture trends and patterns of drug resistant infections in the country.
• AMR Research & International Collaboration: ICMR has taken initiatives to develop new drugs /medicines through international collaborations in order to strengthen medical research in AMR.
• “India’s National Action Plan for containment of AMR focuses on an integrated One Health approach and involves coordination at the state, national and international levels.

• • In its National Health Policy 2017, India has identified managing AMR as a key priority and since then the health ministry has taken several initiatives to nip the epidemic that is growing fast globally

Suggestions 

• Greater action is required to monitor and control infections, globally, nationally and within individual hospitals.
• Access to vaccines, clean water, and sanitation ought to be expanded.

• • We need to spearhead sanitation drives, ensure a clean water supply and support hospital-driven infection-control programmes.

• The use of antibiotics unrelated to treating human disease, such as in food and animal products must be “optimised” and be “more thoughtful” about our use of antimicrobial treatments.
• Reducing AMR also requires prescribing antimicrobials judiciously and only when they are absolutely needed.
• There is also a need for more cohesion within management strategies.

• • Coordination across the animal industry and environmental sectors to prevent the unnecessary use of antibiotics in farms — this nurtures drug-resistant organisms in our food supply — is necessary.

• Invest heavily in research and development through both government and private funding.

Mains Practise Question 

Ques. Antimicrobial Resistance(AMR) is a growing health emergency, and tackling it needs a multi-frontal approach. Critically analyse

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• Recently, the Government has started exploring storage options as the share of renewables increases in the grid.

Key Points

• Current Scenario: 
  • To operationally sustain a huge monthly addition of an average 1,000 megawatt from non-fossil fuels or renewables to the electricity grid, India needs to urgently work on developing viable energy storage options.
  • The amount is almost five times the amount of power a 250 MWe nuclear plant produces.
• Producer: 
  • India is the world’s third largest producer of renewable energy.
  • Nearly 40 per cent of installed electricity capacity comes from non-fossil fuel sources.
  • This green push has resulted in a sharp 24 per cent reduction in emission intensity of GDP between 2005 and 2016, but it has also thrown up challenges of a grid being increasingly powered by renewables.
• Alternative to Lithium Ion Batteries:
  • Even as the Lithium-ion storage battery option for grid application is now being ruled out as unviable, at least for now, an emerging policy resolution is that solar and wind-based generation cannot continue to be pushed down to struggling electricity distribution companies or discoms.

About Solar Energy 

• Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun.
• Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun.
  • Fusion occurs when protons of hydrogen atoms violently collide in the sun’s core and fuse to create a helium atom.
• India had committed to installing 175,000 MW of renewable energy by 2022 of which 100,000 MW was to be solar power.
• As of October 2022, 61,000 MW of solar power had been installed so far.

Major Programmes in Renewable Energy Sector 

• National Solar Mission (NSM) 
  • The NSM was launched with the objective of establishing India as a global leader in solar energy, by creating the policy conditions for solar technology diffusion across the country.
  • The initial target of NSM was to install 20 GW solar power by 2022.
  • This was upscaled to 100 GW in early 2015.
• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM) 
  • It was launched in 2019 and it aims to help farmers access reliable day-time solar power for irrigation, reduce power subsidies, and decarbonise agriculture.
  • PM-KUSUM provides farmers with incentives to install solar power pumps and plants in their fields.
• Atal Jyoti Yojana (AJAY) Phase-II
  • A Scheme for the installation of solar street lights with 25% fund contribution from MPLAD Funds.
• Solar Parks Scheme
  • Solar parks provide solar power developers with a plug and play model, by facilitating necessary infrastructure like land, power evacuation facilities, road connectivity, water facility etc. along with all statutory clearances.

Challenges 

• Non-availability of natural gas to run gas turbines:
  • It complements the growing RE capacity in the generation mix.
  • India’s vast fleet of coal-based power plants of 200 MW series are more than 25 years old, run on old technology and do not promise robust reliability.
• India’s heavy load: 
  • The load demand is far from saturated.
  • There is the need to replace obsolete coal-based plants with supercritical highly-efficient coal-based plants as an intermediate goal for total transition.
  • However, this may not be acceptable to the international community in view of the impending climate crisis.
• Coal based usage reduction: 
  • There is an urgent need to reduce the percentage of coal-based capacity by closing the inefficient fleet
  • And simultaneously add new flexible capacity to meet load requirements.
  • Newer technologies or avenues are needed which can convert coal-based capacity to a fuel mix of gas and hydrogen.
• Storage capacity & flexibility of thermal power plants: 
  • Thermal power plants need to be flexible up to 55 per cent and in coming phases, after three years, go down to 40 per cent.
  • Battery storage is expensive at Rs 10 per kilowatt per hour. There is a fresh impetus required to pursue pumped hydro projects so as to reduce costs.
• Reduced scope to go renew: 
  • The renewables challenge is compounded by the fact that SECI (Solar Energy Corporation of India Ltd) has locked a number of contracts involving green developers in rigid PPAs (power purchase agreements) with no scope for innovation.

Way Ahead

• Hydrogen and hybrid generation models blended with off-stream pumped storage:
  • Stepping up green hydrogen production and tapping into its potential as a fuel should be expedited.
  • All pumped hydro sites and hydro PSUs have been given a target of taking up pumped hydro schemes.
  • There should be opencast mines as potential sites for pumped hydro in the future.
• Energy storage:
  • It is needed alongside green energy sources to primarily balance out the variability in renewable generation – electricity is generated only when the sun shines or when the wind blows.
  • This is not always in sync with the demand cycle.
  • Storage can help tide over this shortcoming associated with renewables.
• Renewables bundled with a viable storage option:
  • For procurers such as state-owned discoms, renewables are not always a viable option precisely due to these vagaries in the generation trends, which means they still have to depend on thermal or nuclear generation for meeting base load demand.
  • This option will help overcome this problem.

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• The recent easing of global prices has boosted fertilizer availability and cut the subsidy bill.

More about the news

• The easing of global fertiliser prices has enabled the following:
  • Improvement of overall availability significantly: 
    • No major shortage of any fertilizer has been reported during the ongoing rabi cropping season.
    • Augmented fertiliser availability, coupled with good soil moisture conditions, has helped boost area sown under rabi crops, especially wheat, mustard, maize and masur (red lentil).
  • World prices cooling off should translate into a reduction in the Centre’s fertiliser subsidy outgo.
• Worsening of nutrition imbalances:
  • The current fiscal has witnessed a worsening of nutrition imbalances. Consumption of both urea and DAP has shot up, with their sales for the year ending March 2023 likely to top 350 lt and 120 lt respectively.
  • Consumption pattern: Instead of balanced use of plant nutrients based on soil testing and specific crop requirement, Indian farmers are effectively applying just urea and DAP — both high-analysis fertilisers containing 46 per cent N and P respectively.

Government’s initiatives for promoting balanced use of Urea

• Nutrient-based subsidy (NBS) regime:

• • Government introduced a nutrient-based subsidy (NBS) regime in fertilisers with effect from April 2010, a key objective was to discourage farmers from applying too much urea, DAP and MOP.
    • Urea has 46% nitrogen (N), while DAP contains 46% phosphorus (P) plus 18% N and MOP has 60% potassium (K).

• Neem-coated Urea:

• • Government made the coating of urea with neem oil compulsory from 2015-16.
  • It was done to check illegal diversion of the heavily-subsidised fertiliser for non-agricultural uses, including by plywood, dye, cattle feed and synthetic milk makers.
  • Significance:
    • Neem oil supposedly also acted as a mild nitrification inhibitor, allowing a more gradual release of nitrogen.
    • Increased nitrogen use efficiency would, in turn, bring down the number of urea bags required per acre.

• The Soil Health Card Scheme: Soil health card provides information to farmers on nutrient status of their soil along with recommendations on appropriate dosage of nutrients to be applied for improving soil health and its fertility.

• • Objectives:
    • To issue soil health cards every two years to all farmers, so as to provide a basis to address nutrient deficiencies in fertilization practices.

• ‘One Nation, One Fertilizer’ scheme:

• • Under the scheme, all fertiliser companies, State Trading Entities (STEs) and Fertiliser Marketing Entities (FMEs) will be required to use a single “Bharat” brand for fertilisers and logo under the PMBJP.
    • The new “Bharat” brand name and PMBJP logo will cover two-thirds of the front of the fertiliser packet.

Reasons behind this imbalance

• Under-pricing of other fertilizers:
  • Government has fixed maximum retail prices of Urea & DAP. It has informally-fixed MRPs for NPKS complexes and muriate of potash (MOP).
  • Prices of other fertilizers compared to Urea & DAP are relatively higher. So farmers havelittle incentive to buy other fertilizers.
  • The fact that DAP does not contain K, S or other macro and micro nutrients wouldn’t matter to a majority of farmers.
  • For them, choice of fertilisers is primarily a function of prices.
• Subsidisation & political motives:
  • Under-pricing of urea (a historical phenomenon) and DAP (recent) is a product of subsidy-induced market distortions.
  • High government subsidies are behind the low pricing, and high sales, of these two fertilisers.
  • The compulsions of electoral politics have clearly trumped concerns over soil nutrient imbalances.
• Supply-side constraints:
  • India is facing a tight supply position in fertilisers, especially of phosphatic and potassic nutrients.
  • The challenges include securing supply from new sources, costlier raw material, and logistics.
  • The pandemic has impacted fertilizer production, import and transportation across the world.

Suggestions & way ahead

• Suggestions:
  • To restrict DAP use to rice and wheat.
    • All other crops can meet their P requirement through SSP and complexes.
  • To raise SSP’s acceptance by permitting sale only in granular, not powdered, form.
    • SSP powder is prone to adulteration with gypsum or clay.
    • Farmers can be assured of quality through granules, which will also promote slower release of P without drift during application.
  • The ultimate aim should be to cap urea, DAP and MOP consumption. India, the expert points out, cannot sustain imports leading to their increasing application. Farmers must, instead, be nudged to use more of low-analysis complex fertilisers and SSP.

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• According to recent data, the Centre’s ambitious National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP) may miss the goal in FY23 by a wide margin.

More about the news

• About the shortfall:
  • After achieving the target for the first year rather comfortably, the Centre’s National Monetisation Pipeline (NMP) may miss the goal asrailways, telecom and petroleum sector slip on their goals.
    • Telecom and petroleum sectors are seen the worst performers while mining would be doing the heavy lifting for the second consecutive year.
  • As against the FY23 NMP target to generate Rs 1.62 trillion in revenues and investments, officials indicated that the shortfall could be about Rs 50,000 crore.

Sector specific data & challenges

• Mining sector:
  • Previous year, a sum of about Rs 1 trillion was raised through the monetisation route as against the target of Rs 88,200 crore due to the mining sector.
• Railways:
  • Railways is the biggest component of the Rs 6 trillion NMP in the four years through FY25.
    • Railways collected just Rs 800 crore via monetisation through redevelopment of one railway station and some railway colonies in the last fiscal year as against the target of Rs 17,810 crore.
  • According to the NMP, railways need to monetise 120 stations, 30 trains and 1,400 km track, among others in FY23. But, it has achieved little so far.
• Telecom:
  • As against the target of Rs 20,180 crore, the department of telecom has not been able to monetise any of telecom assets so far and doubts have emerged if it could achieve anything.
    • The original plan was to mobilise Rs 15,780 crore by inviting private investors to bid for Bharat Broadband Network’s 300,000 km of optical fibre networks to upgrade, operate and maintain across the country, including states.
    • Another Rs 4,400 crore was estimated from BSNL/MTNL tower monetisation through rent-operate-transfer (ROT) concession model, but bids are yet to be called for these.
  • Natural gas and petroleum product pipelines:
    • Monetisation of natural gas and petroleum product pipelines were projected to fetch Rs 9,176 crore in FY23.
    • However, oil and gas companies have proposed alternate assets such as monetisation of oil fields (on the lines of mines monetisation) through private participation in exploration & with the inflow of technology.
  • Road Transport and Highways:
    • Monetisation by other sectors including road assets by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) are on track.
      • NHAI is expected to meet its target of Rs 32,855 crore from the securitisation of toll receivables from expressways, Infrastructure Investment Trusts (InvITs) and Transfer-Operate-Transfer (ToT) models.

About National Monetisation Pipeline:

• About:
  • The pipeline has been developed by NITI Aayog, in consultation with infrastructure line ministries, based on the mandate for ‘Asset Monetisation’ under Union Budget 2021-22.
  • NMP estimates aggregate monetisation potential of Rs 6.0 lakh crores through core assets of the Central Government, over a four-year period, from FY 2022 to FY 2025.
  • It aims to unlock value in brownfield projects by engaging the private sector, transferring to them revenue rights and not ownership in the projects, and using the funds generated for infrastructure creation across the country.
• Framework:
  • The pipeline has been prepared based on inputs and consultations from respective line ministries and departments, along with the assessment of total asset base available therein.
    • Monetization through disinvestment and monetization of non-core assets have not been included in the NMP.
  • The framework for monetisation of core asset monetisation has three key imperatives:
    • Monetization of rights & not the ownership, assets headed back at the end of transaction life.
    • Brownfield de-risked assets, stable revenue streams.
    • Structured partnerships under defined contractual frameworks with strict KPIs & performance standards.
  • Significance:
    • Innovative way of Private Participation:
      • Private sector is well known for its efficiency and technology.
      • NMP will provide a way to exploit the strength of the Private sector for infrastructure creation without transfer of ownership.
    • Ensure Further investment in Infrastructure Building:
      • It will help to properly monetise under utilised brownfield projects
    • Other:
      • Revival of the economy and create sustainable demand.
      • Spillover effect of infrastructure is high on cycle of demand
      • It will create further value for infrastructure creation in the country
      • It will enable high economic growth and seamlessly integrating the rural and semi-urban areas for overall public welfare.
    • Challenges:
      • The NMP framework lacks following:
        • Lack of identifiable revenue streams in various assets,
        • Level of capacity utilisation in gas and petroleum pipeline networks,
        • Absence of Dispute resolution mechanism, etc.
      • Analysts also point to issues such as the lack of independent sectoral regulators as potential impediments.

Way Ahead

• Asset Monetisation needs to be viewed not just as a funding mechanism, but as an overall paradigm shift in infrastructure operations, augmentation and maintenance considering the private sector’s resource efficiencies and its ability to dynamically adapt to the evolving global and economic reality.
• New models like Infrastructure Investment Trusts & Real Estate Investment Trusts will enable not just financial and strategic investors but also common people to participate in this asset class thereby opening new avenues for investment.

General Studies Paper 4

Why in News?

Recently, a report titled “Global glacier change in the 21^st century: Every increase in temperature matters”, which states half the Earth’s glaciers may disappear by 2100.

• The researchers used two decades of satellite data to map the planet’s glaciers with greater precision than ever before.
• The United Nation’s (UN) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s sixth assessment report released in 2022 also warned that we are running out of time to attain the 1.5°C target.

What are the Findings?

• Glaciers Melting at Unprecedented Rate:
  • Glaciers are receding at unprecedented rates due to climate change and rising temperatures.
    • The amount of ice lost by glaciers between 1994 and 2017 was around 30 trillion tones and they are now melting at a pace of 1.2 trillion tonnes each year.
    • The glaciers in the Alps, Iceland and Alaska are some of those that are melting at the quickest rates.
  • Half the Earth’s glaciers are destined to vanish by 2100, even if we adhere to the Paris Climate Agreement goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.
  • A minimum of 50 % of the loss will occur within the next 30 years. 68% of glaciers will vanish if global warming continues at the current rate of 2.7°C.
  • If this happens, by the end of the following century, there would be practically no glaciers left in central Europe, western Canada and the United States.
    • Some of these glaciers can be saved from extinction by reducing global warming, the researchers noted.
    • Glaciers, which hold 70 % of the Earth’s freshwater, currently encompass around 10 % of the planet’s land area.
  • Increasing Risk of Disaster:
    • Melting glaciers raise sea levels dramatically, jeopardizing up to two billion people’s access to water and increasing the risk of natural disasters and extreme weather events like floods.
    • Global sea level rose by 21 % between 2000 and 2019. This was solely due to meltwater from melting glaciers and ice sheets.
  • Recommendations:
    • The rapidly increasing glacier mass losses as global temperature increases beyond 1.5C stresses the urgency of establishing more ambitious climate pledges to preserve the glaciers in these mountainous regions.

Question For Practice

Q.1 Describe the major outcomes of the 26^th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? ( UPSC 2021)

Q.2 ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How will India be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC 2017)

General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

Recently, the Department of Telecommunications under the Ministry of Communications has formulated the Indian Telegraph (Infrastructure Safety) Rules, 2022.

• The Central government has envisioned fulfilling the communication needs of the citizens and enterprises through establishment of a resilient, secure, accessible and affordable Digital Communications Infrastructure and Services.

What is the Indian Telegraph (Infrastructure Safety) Rules, 2022?

• Under the Rules, any person who wishes to exercise a legal right to dig or excavate any property which is likely to cause damage to a telegraph infrastructure must give notice to the licensee.
• The person digging or excavating shall take appropriate action on precautionary measures provided by the licensee.
• Any person, who has dug or excavated any property causing damage to a telegraph infrastructure, will be liable to pay the damage charges to the telegraph authority.
• Once the asset owner agencies map their underlying assets with GIS coordinates on PM GatiShakti National Master Plan platform, it will also be possible to know the presence of underlying utility assets, at the point of interest, before start of excavation.

What are the Associated Advantages?

• Many utilities can be saved from unwanted cuts and wasteful costs towards
  • Thus, saving thousands of crores for businesses and associated tax loss to Government.
• Inconvenience caused to citizens because of frequent breakdown may be reduced due to better synergy between the agencies.

What is PM Gati Shakti -National Master Plan for Multi-modal Connectivity?

• Aim:
  • To ensure integrated planning and implementation of infrastructure projects in the next four years, with focus on expediting works on the ground, saving costs and creating jobs.
  • Besides cutting logistics costs, the scheme is also aimed at increasing cargohandling capacity and reducing the turnaround time at ports to boost trade.
  • It will help in fulfilling the ambitious targets set by the government for 2024-25,including expanding the length of the national highway network to 2 lakh kms, creation of more than 200 new airports, heliports and water aerodromes.
• PM Gati Shakti is based on Six Pillars:
  • Comprehensiveness:It will include all the existing and planned initiatives of various Ministries and Departments with one centralized portal. Each and every Department will now have visibility of each other’s activities providing critical data while planning & execution of projects in a comprehensive manner.
  • Prioritization:Through this, different Departments will be able to prioritize their projects through cross-sectoral interactions.
  • Optimization:The National Master Plan will assist different ministries in planning for projects after identification of critical gaps. For the transportation of the goods from one place to another, the plan will help in selecting the most optimum route in terms of time and cost.
  • Synchronization:Individual Ministries and Departments often work in silos. There is lack of coordination in planning and implementation of the project resulting in delays. PM Gati Shakti will help in synchronizing the activities of each department, as well as of different layers of governance, in a holistic manner by ensuring coordination of work between them.
  • Analytical:The plan will provide the entire data at one place with GIS based spatial planning and analytical tools having 200+ layers, enabling better visibility to the executing agency.
  • Dynamic:All Ministries and Departments will now be able to visualize, review and monitor the progress of cross-sectoral projects, through the GIS platform, as the satellite imagery will give on-ground progress periodically and progress of the projects will be updated on a regular basis on the portal. It will help in identifying the vital interventions for enhancing and updating the master plan.
• Gati Shakti Digital Platform:
  • It involves the creation of a common umbrella platform through which infrastructure projects can be planned and implemented in an efficacious manner by way of coordination between various ministries/departments on a real-time basis.
  • It is essentially a digital platform to bring 16 Ministries including Railways and Roadways together.

Question For Practice

1. The Gati-Shakti Yojana needs meticulous co-ordination between the government and the private sector to achieve the goal of connectivity. Discuss. (2022)

General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

India is on a drive to induct Unmanned Combat Systems (UCS) into the military. In August, 2022 it inducted “Swarm Drones” into its mechanized forces, reiterating the importance of autonomous systems in creating a “future-proof” Indian Navy (IN).

• Despite their growing usage in armed conflict, artificially intelligent unmanned combat systems raise questions of law, ethics and accountability.

What are Unmanned Combat Systems?

• About:
  • Unmanned Combat Systems (UCS) are going to be the new age weapons overturning the rules of future war and have been the focus of research and development of military powers.
  • There are no generally accepted definitions for these so-called boasted core weapons of the 21^st
  • UCS from the research heading, is an integrated combat system comprising unmanned combat platforms, task payloads, command and control (C2) systems and network systems.
  • For field applications, they can be categorized into,
    • Deep space unmanned systems
    • Unmanned aerial vehicle systems
    • Ground unmanned systems
    • Surface unmanned systems
    • Underwater unmanned systems
  • Significance:
    • Faced with the increasingly complex international situation and brutal military wars, the lives and safety of combat soldiers are greatly threatened.
    • At this time, the unmanned combat System is becoming increasingly important and has gradually become an important attack and defense force on the information battlefield.
    • The biggest feature of the ground unmanned combat platform is that it can carry certain weapons and equipment under the premise of unmanned participation, and be remotely controlled through the configured wireless communication equipment to conduct reconnaissance, surveillance, electronic interference, and direct combat.
    • UCS has a higher degree of automation, good remote control, strong digital communication ability and anti-interference, excellent target detection and recognition ability, good concealment, and strong adaptability to the ground environment.

What are the Ethical Concerns Raised by AI Warfare?

• Risk of Shared Liability:
  • AI Warfare enhances the risk of shared liability between networked systems, particularly when weapon algorithms are sourced from abroad, and when the satellite and link systems that enable combat solutions are not under the control of the user.
• Confidence Undermining:
  • AI is characterized by a predisposition to certain kinds of data. Biases in the collection of data, in the set of instructions for data analysis, and in the selection of probabilistic outcomes muddle rational decision-making, undermining confidence in automated combat solutions.
• Inconsistent with Laws of War:
  • AI may automate weapon systems in ways that are inconsistent with the laws of war.
• Cannot Make Informed Decision:
  • A system of targeting human beings based on probabilistic assessments by computers that act merely on machine-learned experiences, they contend, is problematic because the computer neither has access to all relevant data to make an informed decision nor recognises that it needs more information to come up with an optimal solution.
  • If it erroneously used force in a theater of conflict, there is no one to be held accountable, as blame can’t be pinned on a machine.

What are Swarm Drones?

About:

• Swarm Drones are a collection of small and lightweight aerial vehicles that can be controlled from the same station.
• These drones are equipped with advanced communication systems which enables them to be controlled as a collective.
• Furthermore, through communication systems, swarm drones can also communicate with each other to create different flying formations for surveillance and attack modes.
• Such drones can also carry a variety of payloads in a single mission and organize a collaborative attack against an enemy unit.
• Backed by swarming algorithms and Artificial Intelligence software, Swarm Drones can operate autonomously with minimum human intervention
  • The AI software can also be used to identify targets and expedite response in case of a surprise operation.

Advantages:

• All Weather Operations:Swarm Drone System can be deployed at high altitudes, rough-weather conditions
• High Speed and Agility:Drones are powered by advanced motors and can fly at a speed of 100 km per hour giving it high speed and agility for military operations.
• Employed for Different Missions: Drones can be deployed by the armed forces for different types of offensive and defensive operations as they can carry out strikes against tanks, infantry combat vehicles, ammunition holding areas, fuel dumps and terror launch pads.
• ATR Feature:Swarm Drones are backed by Artificial Intelligence and are equipped with the Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) feature, which can enable them to automatically recognise targets. ATR is capable of identifying tanks, guns, vehicles and humans and displaying them on the operators’ screen to minimize the chances of a miss hit.

Way Forward

• All parties to an armed conflict that any use of armed drones during the conduct of hostilities must comply with relevant IHL (International humanitarian law). principles.
• Hence, before deploying any armed drones, parties to the conflict must ensure that the armed drone is and can be directed against a military objective and will not cause excessive civilian harm.
• In order to foster transparency and accountability for drone strikes, parties need to properly articulate their policies governing the use of drones, including how the likelihood for civilian harm is assessed, and provide for remedies for victims.
• All parties to the armed conflict that beyond compliance with IHL, parties need to consider the humanitarian impact of their use of armed drones for the civilian population, including the disruption of civilian infrastructure and mental health trauma.
• It is worth acknowledging that AI in warfare is not just a matter of combat effectiveness but also of warfighting ethics. AI-infused unmanned systems on the maritime battlefront pose a degree of danger, making it incumbent upon the military to deploy its assets in ways that are consistent with national and international law.

General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

The Kerala High Court has reiterated that government employees who participate in general strikes, affecting the normal life of the public and Public Exchequer, are not entitled to be protected under Article 19(1)(c) of the Constitution and are also a violation of the provisions of the Kerala Government Servants’ Conduct Rules, 1960.

What is Right to Strike?

• About:
  • Strike is the collective refusal by employees to work under the conditions required by employers. Strikes arise for a number of reasons, though principally in response to economic conditions (defined as an economic strike and meant to improve wages and benefits) or labour practices (intended to improve work conditions).
  • In each country whether it is democratic, capitalist, socialist, give the right to strike to the workers. But this right must be the weapon of last resort because if this right is misused, it will create a problem in the production and financial profit of the industry.
  • This would ultimately affect the economy of the country.
  • In India, the right to protest is a fundamental right under Article 19 of the Constitution of India.
  • But right to strike is not a fundamental right but a legal right and with this right statutory restriction is attached in the Industrial Dispute Act, 1947.
    • The Industrial Dispute Act, 1947 is subsumed under The Industrial Relations Code, 2020.
  • Position in India:
    • In India, unlike America, the right to strike is not expressly recognized by the law.
    • The trade union Act, 1926 for the first time provided limited right to strike by legalizing certain activities of a registered trade union in furtherance of a trade dispute which otherwise breach of common economic law.
    • Nowadays a right to strike is recognized only to a limited extent permissible under the limits laid down by the law itself, as a legitimate weapon of Trade Unions.
    • The right to strike in the Indian constitution set up is not an absolute right but it flows from the fundamental right to form a union.
    • As every other fundamental right is subject to reasonable restrictions, the same is also the case to form trade unions to give a call to the workers to go on strike and the state can impose reasonable restrictions.
  • Right to strike under International Convention:
    • Right to strike has also been recognised by the conventions of the International Labour Organization (ILO).
      • India is a founder member of the ILO.

What are the Important Supreme Court Judgements related to Right to Strike?

• The Supreme Court in Delhi Police v. Union of India (1986) upheld the restrictions to form association by the members of the non-gazetted police force after the Police Forces (Restriction of Rights) Act, 1966, and the Rules as amended by Amendment Rules, 1970, came into effect.
• In K. Rangarajan v. Government of Tamil Nadu (2003), the Supreme Court held that the employees have no fundamental right to resort to strike. Further, there is prohibition to go on strike under the Tamil Nadu Government Servants’ Conduct Rules, 1973.