General Studies Paper 3

In News

• Recently a study by the United Nations University Institute on Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), also known as the UN’s think tank on waterwas released.

Study highlights

• Global status:
• Potential reduction in storage: 
  • The study shows that 6,316 billion cubic metre of initial global storage in 47,403 large dams in 150 countries will decline to 4,665 billion cubic metre, causing 26 percent storage loss by 2050.
  • The loss of 1,650 billion cubic metre storage capacity is roughly equal to the annual water use of India, China, Indonesia, France and Canada combined.
• Reduced dam storage in Asia-Pacific:
  • In 2022, the Asia-Pacific region, the world’s most heavily dammed region, is estimated to have lost 13 per cent of its initial dam storage capacity.
  • It will have lost nearly a quarter (23 per cent) of initial storage capacity by mid-century.
  • The region is home to 60 per cent of the world’s population and water storage is crucial for sustaining water and food security.
• India’s dams:
• The study warns that around 3,700 dams in India will lose 26 percent of their total storage by 2050.
• Reason of loss:
  • This storage loss will be due to the accumulation of sediments which can undermine water security, irrigation and power generation in the future.
    • Trapped sediment has already robbed roughly 50,000 large dams worldwide of an estimated 13 to 19 percent of their combined original storage capacity.
  • China’s dams:
  • China, meanwhile, the world’s most heavily dammed nation, has lost about 10 percent of its storage and will lose a further 10 percent by 2050 according to the report.

More about dams

• About:
• Dam is a structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water.
• India has 4,407 large dams, the third highest number in the world after China (23,841) and the USA (9,263).
• Types:
  • Large: A dam is considered large if it is higher than 15 m or between 5 and 15 m high, but impounds over 3 million cubic metres.
  • Low:A low dam is less than 30 m high;
  • Medium:A medium-height dam is between 30 and 100 m high, and
  • High:A high dam is over 100 m high.
• Significance of dam construction:
• Water storage infrastructure is critical for development.
• Large dams and reservoirs provide hydroelectricity, flood control, irrigation, and drinking water and often perform multiple functions simultaneously.
• Major threats to dams:
• Ageing:
  • All over the world, many large dams built in the 20th century may start to show signs of ageing, and many may already be operating at or beyond their design life.
  • For India, 2025 is set to be a big year as more than 1,000 dams would turn roughly 50 years or older.
• Accumulation of sediments & siltation:
  • Accumulation of sediments decreases a reservoir’s capacityover the years and determines a reservoir’s life expectancy.
  • Siltation, which is the accumulation of silt and debris behind the reservoir, also leads to a reduction in the storage capacity of the dams.
• Structural issues:
• India’s dams are more vulnerable to deterioration because a large proportion of them are earthen–built by compacting successive layers of earth, and not concrete–and are hence more prone to ageing.
• Flooding:
• The country gets concentrated rainfall every year for a designated time period as opposed to distributed rainfall, which contributes to the dams’ vulnerability.
• In India, the downstream areas are often exposed to flood disasters& flooding has caused 44% of dam failures in India.
• Seismic threat:
• Some of the Himalayan dam systems, including the Tehri Dam, are in an active seismic area given that the Himalayan Mountain system is constantly changing and growing giving rise to several tectonic movements. 

Way ahead

• The Central Water Commission’s recent study on the Srisailam project on the Krishna river also found that the dam’s storage capacity was reduced as a result of siltation.
• There are several more studies that clearly show that the actual siltation rates are several times higher than what was estimated.
• Therefore, a timely assessment of the structure should be carried out with the removal of reservoir silt from dams.

Dam Safety Act, 2021

• About:
• It is an Act to provide for the surveillance, inspection, operation, and maintenance of the specified dam for prevention of dam failure related disasters and to provide for an institutional mechanism to ensure their safe functioning and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
  • These are dams with height of more than 15 metres, or height between 10 metres to 15 metres with certain design and structural conditions.
• 2 national Bodies:
• The National Committee on Dam Safety (NCDS):
  • Its functions include evolving policies and recommending regulations regarding dam safety standards;
  • It will be chaired by the National Water Commissioner.
• The National Dam Safety Authority:
  • Its functions include implementing policies of the National Committee, providing technical assistance to State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), and resolving matters between SDSOs of states or between a SDSO and any dam owner in that state.
• 2 state bodies: 
• State Committee on Dam Safety,
• State Dam Safety Organisation.
• These bodies will be responsible for the surveillance, inspection, and monitoring the operation and maintenance of dams within their jurisdiction.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• What started off as a minor conflict in eastern Ukraine in 2014 has now snowballed into a de facto war between Russia and the collective West within the borders of Ukraine.
• His limited war machine is under enormous pressure, but he can’t retreat unless he is ready to accept political and geopolitical costs.
• There is still a lack of clarity and uncertainty on Russia’s objectives in Ukraine and what it will do next to meet them.

Russia’s Aura has Dipped

• Putin disrupted Georgia’s ambition to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
• He made forays into West Asia neutralizing Israel and Turkey, both American allies.
• He took Crimea without a fight and turned Russia again into an energy superpower.
• But that aura has slipped as Russia’s superior troops have been struggling to cope with battlefield setbacks in Ukraine.

A New World

• After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the U.S. had established a de facto unilateral hierarchy, which is rare in international relations.
• Global politics has historically been dominated by multiple pillars.
• But the U.S. was at the pinnacle of its power in the 1990s.
• In recent years, however, there have been signs of the passing of American unilateralism.
• America’s wars in the Muslim world did not proceed as Washington had expected.
• As the U.S. got stuck in Afghanistan and Iraq, Russia became more aggressive, Iran more defiant, and China more powerful.
• Russia’s intervention in Georgia and its annexation of Crimea.
• Iran’s growing militancy in West Asia
• America’s defeat in Afghanistan.
• These were some signs of a shift in the global order

Essential Anarchy

• After a brief period of unilateral hierarchy, the world is returning to, what Realists call, its essential anarchy.
• In which great powers compete for maximizing their powers.
• But it is not clear what kind of an order, if an order emerges at all, will replace American unilateralism.
• The U.S. seems to have realised that the world has changed.

Approach Pursued by USA

• USA has taken pains to keep the Western alliance together.
• It wants a coalition of democracies against dictatorships.
• It admits that the ‘rules-based order’ faces systemic challenges from Russia and China.
• But at the same time, it doesn’t want a direct conflict with Russia
• It seeks to bleed Russia out in Ukraine, an approach that U.S. President Ronald Reagan had towards the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.

Misadventure of Great Powers

• The U.S. intervention in Vietnam, its invasion of Afghanistan, and the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan are some of the best examples of great powers getting stuck in smaller theatres.
• But historical examples do not deter offensive nations.
• When Mr. Putin ordered his special military operation, it is possible that he expected quick results.
• But he miscalculated the power of Ukrainian nationalism.
• What Ukraine had to do was to survive the initial Russian thrust.
• When that was achieved, it opened avenues for Russia’s rivals in the West to start supplying Ukraine with money.
• Weapons including advanced rocket systems and artillery , intelligence and mercenaries.
• If the war was left to Russia and Ukraine, the former would have, in theory, secured a victory.

China’s Takeaway

• There were enhanced tensions between China and the U.S. over Taiwan last year. U.S. President Joe Biden has repeatedly said that the U.S. would defend Taiwan in the event of an attack from China.
• This signalled a shift in Washington’s policy of ‘strategic ambiguity’.
• One argument in American strategic circles is that defeating Russia in Ukraine would discourage Chinese President Xi Jinping from making any adventurous move towards Taiwan.
• If Russia gets away with Ukraine, that will embolden Mr. Xi, they argue.

On The Flip Side

• Ukraine war and the West’s collective pursuit to punish Russia has driven the giant bear deeper into the embrace of the Chinese dragon.
• If, during the Cold War, the U.S. strove to exploit the divisions between the Soviet Union and China
• China and Russia, under Mr. Xi and Mr. Putin, respectively, are boasting of their ‘no limits’ relationship today.
• One of the reasons for the U.S. pivot from West Asia and Afghanistan was to focus its resources on tackling the rise of China.

Conclusion

• China is the only revisionist power with the capabilities to challenge the ‘rules- based order.
• S. last year got dragged more and more into Europe and spent enormous resources on Ukraine.
• China would like to see the U.S. being distracted in Europe while it strengthens its ties with Russia and spreads its influence elsewhere.
• For USA it would be appropriate to think whether the time, resources and energy it is spending on Ukraine is worth it?

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• The subsidence (ground sinking) in Joshimath (at an altitude of over 6,000 feet) in Uttarakhand has delivered stern warning for the State’s administration.

Key Points

• About Joshimath Sinking:
  • In 2021, Joshimath was struck in the aftermath of a deluge in the Rishiganga and Dhauliganga rivers.
  • This event is what experts are now suggesting likely triggered the current “sinking and cracking”. 
  • Later that year, Joshimath was battered by a torrential downpour of over 190 mm.
  • Following the rains, residents noticed a movement in the cracks and more frighteningly, new cracks as well, with several cropping up inside homes.
• Impacts:
  • At least 66 families have fled the town while 561 houses have reported cracks.
  • A government official said that over 3000 people have been affected so far.

Land Subsidence

• According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), subsidence is the “sinking of the ground because of underground material movement”.
• It can happen for a host of reasons, man-made or natural, such as the removal of water, oil, or natural resources, along with mining activities.
• Earthquakes, soil erosion, and soil compaction are also some of the well-known causes of subsidence.
• The NOAA also mentions that this phenomenon can “happen over very large areas like whole states or provinces, or very small areas like the corner of your yard.”

Reasons for Joshimath’s Land Subsidence

• Incredibly Fragile Ecology:
  • Joshimath city has been built on an ancient landslide material — meaning it rests on a deposit of sand and stone, not rock, which doesn’t have high load-bearing capacity.
  • This makes the area extremely vulnerable to ever-burgeoning infrastructure and population.
• Blatant Ignorance:
  • The current developments in Joshimath are a combination of ignorance and apathy.
• Unplanned Urbanisation:
  • The unplanned and unauthorised construction has led to the blocking of the natural flow of water, which eventually results in frequent landslides.
• Natural calamities:
  • The area is a seismic zone, which makes it prone to frequent earthquakes.
  • The region also facesfrequent natural calamities such as landslides and flash floods.
• Ignored the Recommendations of Mishra Committee Report (conducted in 1976):
  • The Committee had concluded in its report that the land upon which the town is founded is, in fact, a deposit of sand and stone, the remnants of an ancient landslide.
  • The town is not actually built on the “main rock” of the mountain.
  • The report also pointed out that undercutting by the currents of the Alaknanda river makes the area even more prone to disasters.
• Hydel Projects:
  • The construction of the 520 MW NTPC Tapovan Vishnugad Hydro Power plant has perhaps done more damage to Joshimath’s foundations than anything else.
  • The project being constructed on the Dhauliganga river required a tunnel to be built that cut right through the mountain upon which Joshimath is located.
• Land Erosion: 
  • Due to the running streams from Vishnuprayag and sliding along the natural streams are the other reasons behind the city’s fate.
• Poor Drainage System:
  • The lack of a proper drainage system might have also contributed to the sinking of the area.
• Geographic fault:
  • It might have been triggered by the reactivation of a geographic fault — defined as a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock — where the Indian Plate has pushed under the Eurasian Plate along the Himalayas.

Way Forward

• Prohibition of Major Constructions:
  • Experts recommend a complete shutdown of development and hydroelectric projects in the region.
  • Construction of the NTPC Hydro Power plant and along the Helang Bypass has ceased till further orders.
• Rigorous Replantation:
  • Experts have also suggested replantation in the region, especially at the vulnerable sites to retain soil capacity.
• Redevelopment of Drainage System:
  • Drainage planning is one of the biggest factors that needs to be studied and redeveloped.
  • The state government needs to look into the issue and create a new plan for the drainage system.
• Evacuation of People:
  • The government has to put in an order evacuation plans for 4,000 prefabricated homes to help the residents of Joshimath.
  • The government must build resilience in the vulnerable areas through improved early warning systems, better construction quality etc.
• Coordination Amongst Organizations:
  • There is a need for a coordinated effort between the government and civil bodies with the aid of military organizations to save Joshimath.
• Studies by Technical Resources:
  • Technical resources from nearby areas need to be summoned to Joshimath to find a solution.
  • The state government also needs to take scientific studies more seriously, which clearly spell out the reasons for the current crisis.

Key Facts

• Dhauliganga & Alaknanda Rivers Meet at Vishnuprayag, which is at the base of Joshimath Mountain.
• Joshimath is also famed as the gateway for mountain climbing expeditions, trekking, and several other thrilling activities for those who want to live life on the edge.
• It is from here one has to traverse to the famous trekking destination in Uttarakhand, Valley of Flowers

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• Recently, the Prime Minister of India inaugurated the 17th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas convention.

About Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD)

• Origin:
  • To mark this day, the tradition of celebrating Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) started in 2003.
  • 1st PBD Convention was organized on 9 January 2003 to mark the contribution of the overseas Indian community to the development of India.
  • Since 2015, under a revised format, PBD Convention has been organized once every 2 years (biennial).
• Significance:
  • 9 January commemorates the return of Mahatma Gandhi from South Africa to India in 1915.
  • It is celebrated grandly to strengthen the engagement of the Government of India with the overseas Indian community.
• Concerns with Celebrations:
  • Low/semi-skilled and blue collar workers may not find a place or feel comfortable to participate in the said celebration as the general profile of participants is seen to be of very high level.
  • The participation and involvement should be more broad-based, accommodating the vulnerable sections of the diaspora community too.
• Themes:
  • 17th PBD- “Diaspora: Reliable Partners for India’s Progress in Amrit Kaal”.
  • 16th PBD- “Contributing to Atma Nirbhar Bharat ”.

Indian Diaspora

• Meaning:
  • The term diaspora traces its roots to the Greek diaspeiro, which means dispersion.
• Historical Background:
  • The Indian diaspora has grown manifold since the first batch of Indians were taken to counties in the east pacific and the Caribbean islands under the ‘Girmitiya’ arrangement as indentured labourers.
  • The 19th and early 20th centuries saw thousands of Indians shipped to those countries to work on plantations in British colonies, which were reeling under a labour crisis due to the abolition of slavery in 1833-34.
  • 2023 marks the 150th year of the first such journey of Indians to Suriname.
  • As part of the second wave of migration, nearly 20 lakh Indians went to Singapore and Malaysia to work in farms.
  • The third and fourth wave saw professionals heading to western countries and workers going to the Gulf and west Asian countries in the wake of the oil boom.

Difference Between PIO and OCI

• Numbers:
  • As on December 31, 2021, there were7 crore Indians living overseas.
  • The number includes NRIs, PIOs, OCIs, and students. Excluding students, the number stands at 3.22 crore, including 1.87 crore PIOs and 1.35 crore NRIs.
  • According to the World Migration Report, prepared by the International Organisation for Migration under the United Nations, India has the largest emigrant population in the world, making it the top origin country globally, followed by Mexico, Russian and China.
• Geographical spread:
  • The geographical spread of the Indian diaspora is vast.
  • The countries with over 10 lakh overseas Indians include United States of America (44 lakh), United Kingdom (17.6 lakh), United Arab Emirates (34 lakh), Sri Lanka (16 lakh), South Africa (15.6 lakh), Saudi Arabia (26 lakh), Myanmar (20 lakh), Malaysia (29.8 lakh), Kuwait (10.2 lakh) and Canada (16.8 lakh).
• Remittances:
  • As per the latest World Bank Migration and Development Brief 2022, “For the first time a single country, India, is on track to receive more than $100 billion in yearly remittances.”
  • The World Migration Report notes that India, China, Mexico, the Philippines and Egypt are (in descending order) among the top five remittance recipient countries, “although India and China were well above the rest”.
• Involvement in politics:
  • The vocal political positions taken by a section of the Indian diaspora, particularly in the US and the UK, is a fairly recent phenomenon.
    • For instance, the Hindu American Foundation, a Hindu advocacy group based in the US, was set up in 2003, the same year the Pravasi Bharatiya Convention was launched.
  • Many prominent overseas Indians play an active role in organising global meetings.

Conclusion

• Indians living overseas are “brand ambassadors” of the country on foreign soil.
• Overseas Indians can project the truth about India to the world in a credible and effective manner and counter “propaganda”.

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• Recently, the IndAusECTA (India Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement) Agreement, which was signed last year, has come into force after Ratification and Exchange of Written Instruments.

Major Areas of IndAusECTA

• Trade in Goods
• Trade in Services
• Rules of Origin
• Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures
• Customs Procedures and Trade Facilitation
• Trade Remedies
• Legal & institutional Issues
• Movement of Natural Persons

Current Trade trends between India and Australia

• Imports:
  • India’s imports from Australia amount to 17 US $ billion India’s imports from Australia are primarily (96%) raw materials & intermediate good
  • They are highly concentrated in Coal (74% of Australia’s exports to India) out of which 71.4% is coking coal.
• Exports:
  • India’s exports to Australia amount to 10.5 US $ billion.
  • India’s exports to Australia are broad-based and dominated by finished products (consumer goods).
  • India also spends $ 4 bn approx. each year on education of students in Australia.

Benefits for India

• Benefits under Trade in Goods:
  • Indian goods on all tariff lines to get access to the Australian market with zero customs duty (currently subjected to 5% import duty by Australia).
  • Immediate duty-free access covers all labour-intensive sectors such as Textiles and Apparel, Agricultural and Fish products, Leather, Footwear, Furniture, many Engineering Products, Jewellery and select Pharmaceuticals.
  • Cheaper Raw Materials, Faster Approval for Medicines
  • Immediate Duty-Free Access is projected to potentially create 10 lakh jobs in India and additional exports of $ 10 bn from India to Australia in the next five years.
  • India has offered concessions on Tariff lines of export interest to Australia like Coking coal and Thermal coal, Wines, Agricultural products – 7 of them with TRQ (Cotton, Almonds shelled and in shell, Mandarin, Oranges, Lentils, Pear), Metals (Aluminium, Copper, Nickel, Iron & Steel) and Minerals (Manganese Ore, Calcined Alumina).
  • Exceptions: Many sensitive products such as milk and other dairy products, wheat, sugar, iron ore, apple, walnuts and others, have been kept in India’s Exclusion list.
• Benefits under Trade in Services:
  • Australia has committed its schedule in the negative list and has also made wide-ranging commitments in around 135 sub-sectors with Most Favoured Nation (MFN)status in around 120 sub-sectors.
  • India has for the first time agreed to Negative listing after 5 years of coming into force of the Agreement.
  • India is also making a commitment to Australia in around 103 Service Sub-Sectors with Most Favoured Nation status in around 31 Service Sub-sectors for the first time.
  • The Agreement opens avenues for investment in computer related services, telecom, construction, health & environmental services.
  • More than1 lakh Indian students in Australia will benefit from post-study work visas (18 months – 4 years).
  • The Agreement provides for an Annual Quota of 1,800 for Yoga teachers and Indian Chefs. 
  • It makes an arrangement for Work and Holiday Visas for young professionals.
  • Commitments have also been made to pursue Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) in professional services in 12 Months.

• Protective Features to guard against Unintended Consequences:
  • The #IndAusECTA also has certain ‘protective features’ aimed at guarding both countries against unintended consequences on trade.
  • Stringent Rules of Origin –
    • Value Addition of 35% + Change in Tariff Subheading (CTSH)
    • In calculation of Value Addition, 2 different values agreed to (35% or 45%) depending on method of calculation (based on whether profit is excluded or included)
  • Product Specific Rules negotiated for 807 products
    • Requirement of ‘melt and pour’ for iron & steel products included in the Product Specific Rules for these products.
  • Strict Operational Customs Procedures
    • A specific clause included to ensure only items made in Australia count for value addition, no other country products
    • A Bilateral Safeguard Mechanism will be available for 14 years in case of surge in imports:
  • A special clause on Review has been agreed upon to enable either country to request a Review for parts of the Agreement which may be a cause of concern, after 15 years
    • Review compulsory if requested (it shall happen)
    • Must be completed in 6 months
  • End to Double Taxation:
    • A provision in the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) was used to tax this remittance.
    • However, the Agreement has removed the discrepancies with regard to use of DTAA for taxation of Indian firm royalties, fees and charges.
    • Australia has no domestic provision for charging tax on royalties, fees and charges by firms sending these to parent companies.
  • Boost to Economy:
    • Exports are expected to increase by 10 billion by 2026-27 with a creation of approximately 10 lakh jobs.
    • The total bilateral trade is expected to cross US $ 45-50 billion by 2035.
    • The coming into force of the India Australia ECTA is expected to consolidate and help in the growth of market share of Indian products and services.

Way Ahead

• There is a lot of potential for exporting finished goods to Australia, since they hardly manufacture anything, they are largely a raw material and intermediate producing country.
• India can get cheaper raw materials which will not only make India more competitive globally but also enable it to serve Indian consumers better; enabling it to provide more quality goods at more affordable prices
• Ind – Aus ECTA brings together two major economies of the world, – India the 5th largest economy and Australia the 14th largest economy.
• The trade between the two countries is hugely complementary, this offers opportunities on both sides and will pave the way for a win-win solution for both India and Australia.

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• The governments of India and the U.K. recently marked Pravasi Bharatiya Divas on January 9, 2023 by initiating the Young Professionals Scheme.

More about the news

• About:
  • The Young Professionals Scheme was conceived as part of an India-U.K. The Migration and Mobility MoU signed in May 2021, was announced in November at the G20 summit in Bali.
• Key highlights of the scheme:
  • The scheme will permit degree-holding citizens aged between 18 and 30 to live and work in each other’s countries for a period of two years.
    • They would be able to either work, study, or visit, for two years.
    • The scheme will run for a period of three years initially.
  • The scheme allows for exchange visas for up to 3,000 individuals per year.
  • It isn’t even necessary for an applicant to have a job in hand when he/she applies for the visa.
    • So, the successful candidates could look for a job, educational or cultural opportunity once they arrived in their host country. Or they could just visit.
  • Challenges:
    • The signing of the agreement belies more complex issues around the movement of persons across borders.
      • Part of the Migration and Mobility agreement of 2021 seeks to address the return of illegal migrants to their home countries.

India-UK Relations

• About:
  • UK-India relationship is rooted in India’s colonial history with the British and the relationship shared by both countries even after India’s independence.
  • The bilateral relationship was upgraded to a strategic partnership in 2004.
• Political:
  • They share a modern partnership which was upgraded to a strategic partnership in 2004.
  • The UK supports India’s proposal for permanent membership of the UNSC and is also an important interlocutor for India on global platforms.
• Economic Engagements:
  • Trade: 
    • UK is among India’s major trading partners and as per trade statistics of MoC&I, India’s trade with the UK in 2017-2018 was US $14.497 billion.
  • Investment: 
    • UK is the 4th largest inward investor in India, after Mauritius, Singapore and Japan with a cumulative equity investment of US $26.09 billion (April 2000-June 2018), accounting for around 7% of all foreign direct investment into India. India continued to be the third largest investor in the UK and emerged as the second largest international job creator with Indian companies having created over 110,000 jobs in the UK.
  • Defence:
    • In 2015, the two countries agreed to elevate their Defence relationship by establishing capability partnerships in strategic areas.
    • The institutionalized dialogue to discuss defense cooperation viz. Defence Consultative Group Meeting, is held annually at Defence Secretary level.
    • Ajeya Warrior (army-to-army biennial exercise), the Konakan (joint navy-to-navy annual exercise) and the Indradhanush (joint air-to-air exercise) happen between India and UK.
  • Education:
    • Over the last 10 years, the relationship has grown substantially with the introduction of bilateral mechanisms such as the India-UK Education Forum, UK-India Education and Research Initiative (UKIERI), Joint Working Group on Education, Newton-Bhabha Fund and Scholarship schemes.
  • Science and Technology:
    • Joint investment in UK-India research has grown from less than £1 million in 2008 to over £200 million.
    • A India-UK Clean Energy R&D Centre with a focus on solar energy storage and a collaborative R&D programme in energy efficient building materials were announced.
    • New research partnerships worth £80 million including a new Joint Strategic group on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) with a joint investment of up to £13 million have also been established.
  • Cultural Linkages: 
    • Cultural linkages between India and UK are deep and extensive, arising out of shared history between the two countries.
    • There has been a gradual mainstreaming of Indian culture and absorption of Indian cuisine, cinema, languages, religion, philosophy, performing arts, etc.
    • 2017 was celebrated as the India-UK year of Culture to mark the 70th anniversary of Indian independence.
  • Indian Diaspora:
    • The Indian Diaspora in the UK is one of the largest ethnic minority communities in the country.
    • As per the 2011 census, approximately 1.5 million people of Indian origin live in the UK equating to almost 1.8 percent of the population and contribute 6% of the country’s GDP.
  • Roadmap 2030:
    • The “Roadmap 2030” for India-UK future relations was launched during India-UK Virtual Summit for-
      • Revitalised and dynamic connections between people;
      • Re-energised trade, investment and technological collaboration that improves the lives and livelihoods of the citizens;
      • Enhanced defence and security cooperation that brings a more secure Indian Ocean Region and Indo-Pacific and
      • India-UK leadership in climate, clean energy and health that acts as a global force for good.

General Studies Paper 2

In News

• The study titled “Report on municipal finances” was published by the RBI.

Key Points

• Budgetary allocations & fund transfers:
  • The combined budget of all the municipal corporations in India is much smaller than that of the Central and State governments.
  • The report reveals how municipal bodies are increasingly dependent on fund transfers from the State and the Centre, while their revenue earning capacity is limited. 
• Revenue raising of municipal corporations:
  • Their revenue raising powers are curtailed according to the study.
  • The municipal corporations don’t borrow much, leaving them gasping for funds.
  • The share of own revenue(both tax and non-tax) in the total revenue of urban local bodies in India has declined, while that of government transfers has increased.
    • Spendings:

About 70% of it gets spent on salaries, pensions and administrative expenses with the rest left for capital expenditure.

• Tax earnings of municipal corporations:
  • Taxes earned by municipal corporations in India are grossly inadequate to meet their expenditure needs.
  • In India, the own tax revenue of municipal corporations, comprising property tax, water tax, toll tax and other local taxes, formed 31-34% of the total revenue in the FY18-FY20 period.
    • This share was low compared to many other countries and it also declined over time.
  • State-wise variations:
    • Large variations can be observed if the municipal corporations’ own tax revenue is sliced State-wise.
    • The own tax revenue of municipal corporations as a share of the State’s GDP in 2017-18 crossed the 1% mark in Delhi, Gujarat, Chandigarh, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh, while it was 0.1% or less in Karnataka, Goa, Assam and Sikkim.
  • Dependence on property taxes:
    • Another major issue with the municipal corporations’ revenue raising capabilities was their dependence on property taxes.
    • In 2017-18, the property taxes formed over 40% of the municipal corporations’ own tax revenue.
    • Despite such dominance, property tax collection in India was much lower compared to OECD countries due to undervaluation, and poor administration, the report argues.

About  Urban local bodies (ULBs) in India

• Establishment of ULBs in India:
  • The 74th Constitution Amendment Act was passed in 1992 mandating the setting up and devolution of powers to urban local bodies (ULBs) as the lowest unit of governance in cities and towns.
• Types of ULBs:
  • There are several types of Urban Local bodies in India such as Municipal Corporation, Municipality, Notified Area Committee, Town Area Committee, Special Purpose Agency, Township, Port Trust, Cantonment Board etc.
• Functions: 
  • These local bodies are entrusted with functions related to welfare, public health and safety, infrastructural works, and other activities related to city development.
• Fiscal empowerment:
  • Constitutional provisions were made for ULBs’ fiscal empowerment.
  • The ULBs’ key revenue sources are taxes, fees, fines and charges, and transfers from Central and State governments, which are known as inter-governmental transfers (IGTs).
  • The share of own revenue (including revenue from taxes on property and advertisements, and non-tax revenue from user charges and fees from building permissions and trade licensing) to total revenue is an important indicator of ULBs’ fiscal health and autonomy.

Challenges faced by ULBs 

• Fiscal challenges:
  • Three decades since, growing fiscal deficits, constraints in tax base expansion, and weakening of institutional mechanisms that enable resource mobilisation remain challenges.
    • Revenue losses after the implementation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) and the pandemic have exacerbated the situation.
  • Lack of finances:
    • The transfer of duties from the national and subnational governments to local governments has not always been accompanied by a corresponding transfer of financial authority.
    • The generated funds are mostly spent on revenue expenditure, leaving a much smaller pie for capacity building.
  • Over-reliance on property taxes:
    • Over-reliance on property taxes has prevented local governments from fully utilising other revenue streams such as trade permits, entertainment taxes, mobile tower taxes, solid waste user fees, water fees, and value capture finance.
    • Property taxes are also not efficiently collected.
  • Other:
    • ULBs across the country lack autonomy in city management and several city-level functions are managed by parastatals (managed by and accountable to the state).
    • Municipal administration in India suffers from staffing issues which leads to a failure in delivering basic urban services.
    • Other concerns include
      • Overstaffing of untrained manpower,
      • Shortage of qualified technical staff and managerial supervisors, and
      • Unwillingness to innovate in methods for service delivery.

Suggestions & Way ahead

• The scale of municipal finances in India is undoubtedly inadequate. A ULB’s own revenue resources are far below the estimated potential.
• As noted in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, an effective city government is essential for sustainable development.
  • Tapping into property taxes, other land-based resources and user charges are all ways to improve the revenue of a ULB.
  • inter-governmental transfers (IGTs) assume significance in the fiscal composition of ULBs, and a stable support from Central and State governments is crucial till ULBs improve their own revenues.
  • Measures need to be made to also cover operations and maintenance expenses of a ULB for better infrastructure and service.

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• Over the years, different aspects of RBI’s functioning have been examined by different committees.
• But none of them have attempted a comprehensive examination of RBI’s role in the Indian economy.
• The last such effort was in 1931, when a 21-member central banking enquiry committee led by BN Mitra made its case for a modern central bank in the country, leading to the RBI Act in 1934.

Risk Management Ability

• The first challenge relates to RBI’s risk- management ability.
• A central bank is the first line of defence against a financial crisis.
• This calls for fire-fighting abilities when a crisis strikes.
• More importantly, it calls for thoughtful regulation that can insulate an economy from global shocks.
• And watchful supervision that can detect signs of financial stress.
• Ahead of the 2008 global financial crash, RBI’s conservatism saved India from the worst of the financial crunch that paralysed the rest of the world.
• Yet, RBI failed to tell us about the growing pile of bad loans in the domestic banking system, which ballooned to toxic levels in the 2008-12 period.
• RBI’s regulatory forbearance hid the real extent of the problem till it was too late.

Consumer Protection

• The second challenge relates to consumer protection.
• This has been a weak spot historically, with RBI barely taking notice of rampant mis-selling by banks.
• The digital age raises new risks for first time users and new entrants into the formal financial system, who often fall victim to financial scamsters.
• India’s digital payments system today is a global success story thanks to years of patient work by RBI’s payments team.

Autonomy

• The degree of RBI’s autonomy remains a constant source of conflict between the central bank and the government.
• Since 2016, RBI has enjoyed operational autonomy to set short-term interest rates under the new monetary policy framework.
• In other aspects, it enjoys autonomy only when the government indulges it.
• When a regulator lacks autonomy, its ability to enforce its writ is bound to be impacted.

Accountability

• Central bankers are unelected technocrats who wield enormous power in a modern economy.
• Most mature democracies deal with this challenge by instituting sound accountability and transparency mechanisms, not by running down central bankers.
• Having more independent voices on the RBI board, selected by a non-partisan panel, can bring about greater accountability without compromising RBI’s autonomy.

Conclusion

• A new contract between RBI and the finance ministry, enshrined in a 21st- century RBI Act.
• This will burnish the credibility of both organs of the State and bring down friction points.
• RBI’s reporting and transparency norms need a relook.
• Globally, central banks have increasingly opened themselves up to investors and ordinary citizens to make themselves more accountable

Question For practice

Question – Discuss the role of RBI in supporting India’s Growth journey.

General Studies Paper 3

In News 

• A rising trend of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) has been observed among patients at an Ahmedabad hospital.

About Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)

• It is often also called antibiotic resistance.
• It occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicines making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness, and death.
• They can spread from person to person or between people and animals, including from food of animal origin.

Reasons 

• AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes. Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are found in people, animals, food, plants, and the environment (in water, soil, and air).
• The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials; lack of access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals; poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms;  poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines and diagnostics; lack of awareness and knowledge; and lack of enforcement of legislation.

Concerns

• It is a global health challenge and a looming public health crisis.
• The WHO has declared it as one of the top 10 health threats facing humanity.
• AMR national action plans (NAPs) have been implemented in several surveyed economies including India for human health.
• However, the development and implementation of antimicrobial plans for animals and the environment that equally impact AMR hasn’t been adequate.
• The cost of AMR to the economy is significant and it is critical to develop policies and implement them through a holistic “One Health” approach.

Measures Taken to Rising Anti-Microbial Resistance in India 

• National programme on AMR containment was launched during the 12th FYP in 2012-17
• National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR)focusing on the One Health approach was launched on 19th April 2017 with the aim of involving various stakeholders ministries/departments.
• AMR Surveillance Network: ICMR has established the AMR surveillance and research network (AMRSN) in 2013, to generate evidence and capture trends and patterns of drug resistant infections in the country.
• AMR Research & International Collaboration: ICMR has taken initiatives to develop new drugs /medicines through international collaborations in order to strengthen medical research in AMR.
• “India’s National Action Plan for containment of AMR focuses on an integrated One Health approach and involves coordination at the state, national and international levels.

• • In its National Health Policy 2017, India has identified managing AMR as a key priority and since then the health ministry has taken several initiatives to nip the epidemic that is growing fast globally

Suggestions 

• Greater action is required to monitor and control infections, globally, nationally and within individual hospitals.
• Access to vaccines, clean water, and sanitation ought to be expanded.

• • We need to spearhead sanitation drives, ensure a clean water supply and support hospital-driven infection-control programmes.

• The use of antibiotics unrelated to treating human disease, such as in food and animal products must be “optimised” and be “more thoughtful” about our use of antimicrobial treatments.
• Reducing AMR also requires prescribing antimicrobials judiciously and only when they are absolutely needed.
• There is also a need for more cohesion within management strategies.

• • Coordination across the animal industry and environmental sectors to prevent the unnecessary use of antibiotics in farms — this nurtures drug-resistant organisms in our food supply — is necessary.

• Invest heavily in research and development through both government and private funding.

Mains Practise Question 

Ques. Antimicrobial Resistance(AMR) is a growing health emergency, and tackling it needs a multi-frontal approach. Critically analyse

General Studies Paper 3

In News

• Recently, the Government has started exploring storage options as the share of renewables increases in the grid.

Key Points

• Current Scenario: 
  • To operationally sustain a huge monthly addition of an average 1,000 megawatt from non-fossil fuels or renewables to the electricity grid, India needs to urgently work on developing viable energy storage options.
  • The amount is almost five times the amount of power a 250 MWe nuclear plant produces.
• Producer: 
  • India is the world’s third largest producer of renewable energy.
  • Nearly 40 per cent of installed electricity capacity comes from non-fossil fuel sources.
  • This green push has resulted in a sharp 24 per cent reduction in emission intensity of GDP between 2005 and 2016, but it has also thrown up challenges of a grid being increasingly powered by renewables.
• Alternative to Lithium Ion Batteries:
  • Even as the Lithium-ion storage battery option for grid application is now being ruled out as unviable, at least for now, an emerging policy resolution is that solar and wind-based generation cannot continue to be pushed down to struggling electricity distribution companies or discoms.

About Solar Energy 

• Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun.
• Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion that takes place in the sun.
  • Fusion occurs when protons of hydrogen atoms violently collide in the sun’s core and fuse to create a helium atom.
• India had committed to installing 175,000 MW of renewable energy by 2022 of which 100,000 MW was to be solar power.
• As of October 2022, 61,000 MW of solar power had been installed so far.

Major Programmes in Renewable Energy Sector 

• National Solar Mission (NSM) 
  • The NSM was launched with the objective of establishing India as a global leader in solar energy, by creating the policy conditions for solar technology diffusion across the country.
  • The initial target of NSM was to install 20 GW solar power by 2022.
  • This was upscaled to 100 GW in early 2015.
• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM) 
  • It was launched in 2019 and it aims to help farmers access reliable day-time solar power for irrigation, reduce power subsidies, and decarbonise agriculture.
  • PM-KUSUM provides farmers with incentives to install solar power pumps and plants in their fields.
• Atal Jyoti Yojana (AJAY) Phase-II
  • A Scheme for the installation of solar street lights with 25% fund contribution from MPLAD Funds.
• Solar Parks Scheme
  • Solar parks provide solar power developers with a plug and play model, by facilitating necessary infrastructure like land, power evacuation facilities, road connectivity, water facility etc. along with all statutory clearances.

Challenges 

• Non-availability of natural gas to run gas turbines:
  • It complements the growing RE capacity in the generation mix.
  • India’s vast fleet of coal-based power plants of 200 MW series are more than 25 years old, run on old technology and do not promise robust reliability.
• India’s heavy load: 
  • The load demand is far from saturated.
  • There is the need to replace obsolete coal-based plants with supercritical highly-efficient coal-based plants as an intermediate goal for total transition.
  • However, this may not be acceptable to the international community in view of the impending climate crisis.
• Coal based usage reduction: 
  • There is an urgent need to reduce the percentage of coal-based capacity by closing the inefficient fleet
  • And simultaneously add new flexible capacity to meet load requirements.
  • Newer technologies or avenues are needed which can convert coal-based capacity to a fuel mix of gas and hydrogen.
• Storage capacity & flexibility of thermal power plants: 
  • Thermal power plants need to be flexible up to 55 per cent and in coming phases, after three years, go down to 40 per cent.
  • Battery storage is expensive at Rs 10 per kilowatt per hour. There is a fresh impetus required to pursue pumped hydro projects so as to reduce costs.
• Reduced scope to go renew: 
  • The renewables challenge is compounded by the fact that SECI (Solar Energy Corporation of India Ltd) has locked a number of contracts involving green developers in rigid PPAs (power purchase agreements) with no scope for innovation.

Way Ahead

• Hydrogen and hybrid generation models blended with off-stream pumped storage:
  • Stepping up green hydrogen production and tapping into its potential as a fuel should be expedited.
  • All pumped hydro sites and hydro PSUs have been given a target of taking up pumped hydro schemes.
  • There should be opencast mines as potential sites for pumped hydro in the future.
• Energy storage:
  • It is needed alongside green energy sources to primarily balance out the variability in renewable generation – electricity is generated only when the sun shines or when the wind blows.
  • This is not always in sync with the demand cycle.
  • Storage can help tide over this shortcoming associated with renewables.
• Renewables bundled with a viable storage option:
  • For procurers such as state-owned discoms, renewables are not always a viable option precisely due to these vagaries in the generation trends, which means they still have to depend on thermal or nuclear generation for meeting base load demand.
  • This option will help overcome this problem.