General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• More than 2,000 people have been arrested in a state wide crackdown on child marriages that have taken place in the state of Assam.

Data on child Marriage:

• UN estimates suggest that 1.5 million girls get married before they turn 18 in India.
• According to the 2011 census, 44 per cent of women in Assam were married before the age of 18. The figures for Rajasthan, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh were 47 per cent, 46 per cent, and 43 per cent, respectively.

Historical Perspective on Child Marriage:

• Ancient India

• Manusmritis: It says that if the father fails to marry off his daughter within three years of her attaining puberty, she can find a spouse on her own.
• Medhatithi, one of the oldest and earliest commentators on the Manusmriti, eight years is the right age for a girl to be given in marriage
• The Rig Veda mentions garbhadhan– attaining the wealth of the womb. It is the first of the 16 samskaras a Hindu is expected to perform.
• The Greek traveller Megasthenes (350-290 BC) has written that he was told that the women of the Pandian kingdom in South India bear children at six years of age. About seven centuries later, the Persian polymath, Al Biruni, wrote that child marriages were rampant in India.

• Modern India:

• The colonial state: The Age of Consent Acts of 1861 and 1891 brought in reform in conjugal rights. The 1861 Act laid down 10 years as the minimum age for sexual intercourse. The Hindu intelligentsia opposed raising this age to 12 on the grounds that it violated norms related to garbhadhan.
• Rukmabai case gave new impetus to the campaign of social reformers like M G Ranade and Behramji Merwanji Malabari. Rukmabai had refused to solemnize her marriage, which had taken place when she was 11.

• Post-Independence:

• At the time of India’s independence, the minimum marriageable age stood at 15 years for females and 18 years for men.
• In 1978, the government increased it to 18 for girls and 21 for men.
• Years later, in 2008, the Law Commission came out with a report which stated that the minimum marriageable age for both men and women should be 18 years of age, as both are considered eligible to vote as citizens at the time.

Laws present to prevent Child Marriage:

• The POCSO Act, of 2012 criminalizes sex between a minor and an adult. The law does not recognize a minor’s consent as valid. Sexual assault under POCSO is a non-bailable, cognizable offence.
  • Section 19 of, the POCSO Act imposes a “mandatory reporting obligation” which requires every person who suspects or has knowledge of a sexual offence being committed against a child must report it to the police or the Special Juvenile Police Unit.
• The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006, says that child marriages are illegal but not void.Instead, they are voidable at the option of the minor party, in the scenario that the minor petitions the court to declare the marriage void. The Act stipulates 18 years as the minimum marriageable age for women, while for men it is 21 years.

• The punishment also extends to anyone who performs, conducts, directs, or abets any child marriage.

Central government’s stand:

• In 2021, the Central government sought to introduce the Prevention of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill 2021 to raise the manageable age for women across all religions, from 18 to 21 years. However, the Parliament panel examining this is yet to submit its report.
• The establishment of the Jaya Jaitly Committee in June 2020,by the Ministry of Women & Child Development, submitted a report stating that the marriageable age for women should be increased from 18 to 21 years of age, in light of factors like reproductive health, education, etc.

Modern international laws and conventions on Child Marriage:

• The UN Convention on Consent to Marriage,
• Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1962),
• The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• Beijing Declaration (1995)

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• A Fact Sheet prepared by TRAFFIC, a global wildlife trade monitoring organisation has revealed  the issue of Red Sanders illegal trade. TRAFFIC was established in 1976 byWWF and IUCN as a wildlife trade monitoring network to undertake data collection, recommendations on wildlife trade.

About

• The CITES trade database has recorded 28 incidents of Red Sanders confiscation, seizure, and specimen from the wild being exported from India.
• It highlights the threats of rampant illegal logging and smuggling of trees especially in Chittoor, Kadapa, Nellore & Kurnool districts in Andhra Pradesh.
• China remains the largest importer of the product, followed by Hong Kong and Singapore.

Red Sanders (Red Sandalwood)

• About:
  • Red Sanders is a flora-species that is endemic to the tropical dry deciduous forest in Eastern Ghats region of Andhra Pradesh.
  • It is locally known as Yerra Chandanam, Rakta Chandanam.
  • It is a very slow-growing tree species that attains maturity after 25 – 40 years.
  • It is fire-hardy and resistant to droughts.
• High Demand & applications:
  • Red Sanders is under severe pressure from illegal logging and harvesting. It is in demand in both domestic and international markets.
  • Its rich hue and therapeutic properties are responsible for its high demand across Asia, particularly China, for use in cosmetics, medicinal products and high-end furniture/woodcraft.
  • While the red dye obtained from the wood is used as a colouring agent in textiles and medicines.
• Conservation Status:
  • It is under ‘endangered list’ in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.
  • It is listed in Appendix-II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife Fauna and Flora (CITES).
  • Listed under Schedule IV of The Wildlife Protection Act.

Initiatives to Curb Illegal Trade

• The export of Red Sanders from India is prohibited as per the Foreign Trade Policy.
• Operation Rakth Chandan
• Red Sanders Anti-Smuggling Task Force (RSASTF) established in 2014.

Way Ahead

• The TRAFFIC called for declaring the Red Sanders harbouring forests within the species’ geographical range as ‘High Conservation Areas’, to provide an adequate legal framework for protecting the species and its habitat.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• Recently, 2023-24 Union Budget speech,the finance minister announced that the total central government budget for health will be roughly be Rs 615 for every citizen.
• In her 2023-24 Union Budget speech, the finance minister announced that the total central government budget for health will be roughly Rs 86,175 crore ($10 billion) — that is, roughly Rs 615 for every citizen.
  • This is a 7 percent increase from the previous fiscal year and lower than the rate of inflation.
  • In real terms, the central government’s health spending has declined.
• Significance of budgetary spending on health:
  • The $10 billion spent by the central government may be a small fraction of overall health spending but it is consequential as it pays for: 
  • Immunisation, newborn and child health and nutrition, maternal health, infectious disease control, health systems and training.
• This spending by the government purchases far more health than out-of-pocket or private spending by Indian citizens.

Issues with the lower budgetary allocations on health

• Burden of healthcare in India:
  • Vaccinating a single child against all childhood illnesses costs at least Rs 1,600.
  • A day of hospitalisation at a public hospital is estimated at Rs 2,800.
    • At a private hospital, it is Rs 6,800.
  • Add to these the expenses for supporting women through deliveries, control of infectious disease, primary healthcare, and much more.
  • It is, therefore, no surprise that the system fails the most vulnerable and they are forced to turn to the expensive private sector.
• For elderly and sick: 
  • The poor, elderly and sick are already at a disadvantage and the burden of health expenditure makes this even worse.
• Increasing poor and non-poor gap:
  • A greater proportion of disposable incomes is taken away from a poor household as compared to a non-poor one, further broadening the gap between the two.
    • If sickness hits a working member of the household, she/he must often withdraw from active employment and their main source of income dries up at the time when they urgently need more money for treatment.
    • Households have to often sell or mortgage their productive assets,such as land and cattle, to cover the treatment costs.
      • This further reduces their capacity to bounce back. 
    • According to the WHO, 55 million people fall into poverty or deeper poverty every year due to catastrophic expenditures on health.
  • Lesser spending than the Lower and Middle-Income Countries:
    • India currently spends about Rs 8 lakh crore or about 3.2 percent of its GDP on health.
    • This is much lower than the average health spending share of the GDP — at around 5.2 percent of the Lower and Middle Income Countries (LMIC).
    • Comparing the data:
      • Of this, the government (Centre and states put together) spends about roughly 1.1 percent of the GDP.
      • Contrast this with the government health expenditure in countries like China (3 percent), Thailand (2.7 percent), Vietnam (2.7 percent) and Sri Lanka (1.4 percent).

Suggestions

• Rationalising NHM spendings:
  • The National Health Mission allocates less than 3 percent to non-communicable diseases (NCD)
    • In comparison, the allocation for communicable diseases is three times more.
  • The burden of disease from NCDs accounts for more than half of the total burden of disease.
  • Greater focus on communicable diseases is driven by past epidemiological patterns and should be rebalanced now to pay attention to non-communicable diseases.
• Balancing Urban and poor health care:
  • Public health and primary health care focus on rural areas.
  • Urban areas have poorly developed infrastructure for primary care even if secondary and tertiary health care services are better.
    • For example,immunisation coverage is now lower in urban India than in rural India.
  • A third of the country now lives in urban areas and greater resources are needed to improve health here.
• Focussing on Health research:
  • Health research has been neglected for too long.
  • The bulk of the resources provided to the Indian Council of Medical Research goes towards maintaining a large payroll of scientists and the output is poor.
  • India should follow the example of countries where government-funded health research is conducted at academic institutions, and the government’s role is to make grants and not to carry out the majority of research.
    • Competitive funding will encourage the best research and the example of the Wellcome Trust/DBT-India Alliance in promoting the culture of competitive grants can be replicated across the system.

Way ahead

• This is not an example of efficient use of resources when the country spends too little on health, too many people suffer the consequences of ill health.
• The health (and education) of Indians is the most important determinant of what the country can achieve during the next 25 years of Amrit Kaal.
• We must find ways to both find more money for health, and also more health for the money to ensure that all Indians achieve their true potential.

General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• Recently, India, France, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)have agreed to form a partnership to work together in the fields of nuclear and solar energy,  as well as in tackling  climate change  and preserving 
• The idea of this partnership was first discussed at a meeting in New York during the United Nations General Assembly in September 2022.

Major Highlights of the Trilateral Initiative

• This trilateral initiative will serve as a forum to promote the design and execution of cooperation projects in the fields of energy, with a focus on solar and nuclear energy, as well as in the fight against climate change and the protection of biodiversity, particularly in the   Indian Ocean region.
• The three countries have also agreed to work together in defence, countering infectious diseases, and promoting cooperation in global health organisations such as the World Health Organization, Gavi-the Vaccine Alliance,  the Global Fund, and Unitaid.
• Further, the three countries will attempt to identify tangible cooperation on implementing the “One Health” approach,  and support the development of local capacities in biomedical innovation and production within developing countries.
• The three countries also agreed to expand their cooperation through initiatives such as the Mangrove Alliance for Climate  led by the UAE and the Indo-Pacific Parks Partnership led by India and France.

Other Areas of Cooperation between India and France:

• Defence Cooperation:
  • The three services of both countries have regular defence exercises; viz.
    • Exercise Shakti (Army)
    • Exercise Varuna (Navy)
    • Exercise Garuda (Air Force)
  • India entered into a contract with a French firm to build six Scorpene submarines in India’s Malegaon dockyards through a technology-transfer arrangement in 2005.
  • Also, India and France had signed the inter-government agreement in 2016, under which France agreed to provide  36 Rafale fighter jets at a cost of around 60,000 crore rupees to India.
• Other Initiatives:
  • India and France are in joint efforts to limit climate change and develop the International Solar Alliance.
  • France has agreed to be part of India’s Venus mission, scheduled for 2025.
    • Also, ISRO’s Venus instrument,  VIRAL (Venus Infrared Atmospheric Gases Linker) has been co-developed by French and Russian agencies.

Other Areas of Cooperation between India and UAE:

• Collaboration:They both are the members of    I2U2 Grouping.
• Economic Partnership:In 2022 India & UAE signed a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with an aim of taking bilateral trade to USD 100 billion within 5 years.
  • Also, India and UAE are discussing ways to boost non-oil commerce in rupees that will promote internationalisation of rupees.
  • UAE is the second largest export destination of India (after the US)with an amount of over US$ 28 billion for the year 2021-22.
    • For the UAE, India is the second largest trading partner for the year 2021with an amount of around USD 45 billion (non-oil trade).
  • Defence Cooperation:With the spread of radicalism in the Gulf and South Asia, India looks to enhance security cooperation with the UAE to counter terrorist threats and combat radicalization.
    • ‘Desert Eagle II’,  is a joint air combat exercise, between air forces of India and UAE.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• India has been aggressively pushing towards a more sustainable future by investing heavily in renewable energy sources,with solar energy at the forefront of its efforts. The Government of India has set the target to expand India’s renewable energy installed capacity to 500 GW by 2030. India has promised to source nearly half its energy from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030 and, in the shorter term, source at least 60% of its renewable energy from solar power.
• India is committed to reducing the country’s dependence on fossil fuels and transitioning towards a greener future, and the growth of the solar sector plays a crucial role in achieving this goal.
• India is pushing towards renewable energy due to government’s support for the transition. The recognition that solar energy is a free and abundant resource also plays a role. But there are some misconception regarding Solar energy which we need to consider first.

Misconceptions about Solar Energy:

• Levelized Cost of Solar Power is Coming Down:
  • It is believed that the levelized cost of solar power coming down and some believe that the cost will decrease linearly over time, that the cost is the same for all regions, that the cost only takes into account the cost of solar panels, that it doesn’t include maintenance costs, and that it ignores energy storage costs.
  • In reality, the cost can be affected by various factors such as technology advancements, changes in market conditions, and government policies, and the levelized cost takes into account all components of a solar power system including installation and ongoing maintenance costs, not just the cost of solar panels.
• Financially Viable:
  • Solar energy is made financially viable by misguiding the people by leaving out storage battery cost;handicapping it with subsidies and concessions that are front loaded by the government, and forcing it on the industry and hapless discoms through state policy.

Benefits of Solar Energy:

• Renewable:
  • Solar energy is a renewable source of energy, meaning it can be produced indefinitely without depleting resources.
• Clean:
  • Solar energy is a clean source of energy, producing no harmful emissions or pollution.
• Cost-effective:
  • The cost of solar energy has decreased significantly in recent years, making it increasingly cost-effective as a source of energy.
• Reliable:
  • Solar energy systems are becoming increasingly reliable and durable, requiring little maintenance.
• Versatile:
  • Solar energy can be used for a wide range of applications, including electricity generation, heating, and lighting.
• Decentralized:
  • Solar energy systems can be installed on a small scale, making it possible to generate energy locally, reducing dependence on centralized energy sources.

Challenges with Solar Energy in India:

• High Initial Costs:
  • Despite recent reductions in the cost of solar panel technology, the upfront cost of installation remains high, which can be a barrier to adoption for many households and businesses.
• Limited Access to Finance:
  • Access to finance for renewable energy projects can be limited, particularly for smaller and rural projects, which can make it challenging for individuals and organizations to invest in solar energy.
• Infrastructure and Grid Connectivity:
  • A lack of adequate infrastructure and grid connectivity in some areas of the country can make it difficult to transmit the electricity generated from solar panels to where it is needed.
• Land Availability:
  • Finding suitable land for large-scale solar projects can be a challenge in India,particularly given competing demands for land for other purposes such as agriculture and urban development.
• Maintenance and Operation Issues:
  • Poor maintenance and operation of solar power systems can reduce their efficiency and effectiveness,which can impact the long-term viability of renewable energy projects in India.
  • Cleaning solar panels currently is estimated to use about10 billion gallons of water per year — enough to supply drinking water for up to 2 million people.
    • Attempts at waterless cleaning are labor intensive and tend to cause irreversible scratching of the surfaces, which also reduces efficiency.
    • Now,a team of researchers at MIT has devised a way of automatically cleaning solar panels, or the mirrors of solar thermal plants, in a waterless, no-contact system that could significantly reduce the dust problem.

Way Forward:

• Utilising Large Hydro:
  • With large hydro, India can produce more renewable energy at the least cost and with the least carbon footprint.
    • India has utilised only about 15% of its hydro potential whereas the U.S. and Europe have utilised 90% and 98% of their potential, respectively.
    • The extent of utilisation of hydro potential seems to be an index of civilisational development and evolution.
  • Expanding Infrastructure and Investment:
    • India needs to increase investment in renewable energy infrastructure, including transmission and distribution networks, as well as in research and development of new solar technologies.
  • Encouraging Private Sector Participation:
    • The private sector can play a crucial role in developing and deploying solar energy in India, and the government should create favorable policies and incentives to encourage private sector involvement.
  • Improving Energy Storage Solutions:
    • Energy storage systems are essential for ensuring that solar energy can be effectively used, even when the sun is not shining. The Indian government should support the development of advanced energy storage solutions to make solar energy more accessible and reliable.
  • Promoting Rooftop Solar:
    • Rooftop solar systems  can be a cost-effective and convenient way for households and businesses to generate their own energy. The Indian government should encourage the growth of rooftop solar by providing incentives, subsidies and tax credits.
  • Building a Skilled Workforce:
    • The growth of the solar energy sector in India will require a skilled workforce. The government should invest in training and education programs to build a pipeline of skilled workers who can help deploy and maintain solar energy systems.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• The crisis in Joshimath for over a month has led to conversations on the relevance of hydropower in the Himalayan region. Glacier burst led to concerns over the Rishiganga hydroelectric project in Uttarakhand.

Hydropower:

• Hydroelectricity is a renewable energy source that uses the potential energy of the water stored in the dams, reservoirs, flowing rivers etc.
• The falling or flowing water rotates the turbine which spins a generator and the mechanical energy of the generator is converted to electric energy and hence the electricity is generated from the water.
• Hydroelectricity accounts for about 17% of the total electricity sources worldwide.
• Hydropower is considered green energy because it generates electricity from the natural flow of water without releasing any emissions or pollutants.
• It also does not rely on fossil fuels.

Environmental impact of hydropower

• Large-scale hydroelectric dams impact local ecosystems and communities
• They displace people and result in loss of habitat for fish and other wildlife.
• The building and maintenance of large hydroelectric dams have a significant environmental impact.

Himalaya and hydropower:

• They are a major water source for much of South Asia.
• Most countries in the region,including India, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and Pakistan.
  • They have built or are planning to build hydropower projects in the Himalaya.
• In India: the government has identified hydropower as a key renewable energy source.
• Indian Himalaya:
  • Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project in Arunachal Pradesh
  • Teesta Low Dam Hydroelectric Project in Sikkim.

Nepal:

• It has identified hydropower as a major source of energy.
• It has many hydropower projects in the planning and development stages, including:
  • Arun III Hydroelectric Project
  • West Seti Hydroelectric Project.

Bhutan:

• Hydropower is the main source of revenue.
• The government has set a target to export surplus electricity to India.
• The country has built several hydropower projects:
  • Chukha Hydropower Project
  • Tala Hydropower Project.

Controversies about development of hydropower projects in the Himalayas:

• Environmental impacts — in Joshimath and other parts of Uttarakhand.
• Concerns about the potential conflicts over water resources in the region.
• The Himalaya is a fragile ecosystem and home to a diverse range of flora and fauna.
• It is threatened by deforestation, overgrazing, and construction activities that harm the environment and local communities that depend on it.

Negative Impact of dams:

• The construction of dams can disrupt the flow of rivers, leading to changes in water temperature and chemistry.
• It can cause erosion, landslides, and sedimentation which can have a negative impact on the local environment.
• Dams disrupt the migration patterns of fish and other aquatic species and impact the local wildlife, particularly if the dam’s construction leads to habitat loss.
• Large-scale hydroelectric dams displace local communities, affecting their livelihoods and cultural heritage and impacting the overall well-being of the local population.

Alternatives to hydropower:

Micro hydro:

• It is a small-scale hydroelectric power generation system that typically generates up to 100 kilowatts (kW) of electricity.
• These systems use the energy of falling water to turn a turbine, which, in turn, generates electricity.
• They can be used for various applications,including:
  • powering homes
  • businesses
  • small communities.
• Micro hydro systems are less expensive to build and maintain than large hydroelectric dams
• They have a smaller environmental footprint.
• They can be located even in inaccessible areas where it is difficult to transmit electricity from larger power stations
• They can provide a reliable source of energy to communities that are not connected to the grid.

Micro hydro systems can be classified into two main types:

• Run-of-river systems use the natural flow of water in a stream or river to generate electricity.
• Storage systems use a reservoir to store water and release it as needed to generate electricity.

Way Forward

• Micro hydro systems can be tailored to minimize the ecosystem’s negative impact and provide sustainable energy solutions.
• Even micro-hydropower projects can have some impact on the environment and local communities.
  • A detailed assessment should be carried out to evaluate the potential impact before proceeding with the project

General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• Recent surveys by the state Ministry for Excise highlights the rise in the drug overtake cases in Kerala. Kerala has seen a 300% increase in drug cases over the past six years, with arrests up 90%.
• The number of cases registered under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Actin 2022 was 26,629, a significant increase from 5,924 cases in 2016 and 9,245 cases in 2019.
• Nearly 97% of the respondents admitted to using some form of drug with Cannabis (ganja) being the most consumed drug (82%), followed by tobacco (75.6%).
• Recreational drugs like MDMA and methamphetamine have found a market in Kerala, with seizures of the latter spiking in 2022.
• The report has also highlighted that cannabis is finding its way into the state from Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Bihar.

Need to curb drug abuse

• About: India’s location between the world’s two main illicit opium-producing regions, the Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle, has left its borders open to drug trafficking. It emanates from two fronts, the NW and NE, which pose a danger to national security and border violations, respectively.
• Substance abuse and addiction: Harmful use of drugs or alcohol leads to physical or psychological dependence which impairs the individual’s ability to perform daily activities and makes it difficult for them to quit on their own.
• Overdose and health consequences: Substance abuse can result in serious health problems, including overdoses that can be fatal.
• Psychological and social impacts on the individual and their family: Substance abuse can cause emotional distress, depression, anxiety, and other mental health problems for the individual and their family.
• Increased crime and criminal activity: Drugs are often linked to criminal behavior, such as theft, violence, and drug trafficking which pose a threat to public safety and increase the burden on law enforcement.
• Strain on healthcare systems and resources: Substance abuse can put a strain on healthcare systems and resources, as it often requires extensive medical treatment and rehabilitation.
• Lost productivity and economic costs: Substance abuse can lead to decreased productivity at work, absenteeism, and even job loss. It also has broader economic costs, such as increased healthcare costs and decreased economic growth.
• Social stigma and discrimination: Substance abuse is often stigmatized, and individuals struggling with addiction may face discrimination and social isolation.
• Difficulty in access to treatment and recovery resources: Many individuals struggling with substance abuse face barriers to accessing effective treatment and recovery resources, such as lack of affordable options, long waitlists.
• Difficulty in effectively addressing and preventing drug abuse through education and public policy:Addressing and preventing substance abuse faces challenges in implementing effective education and public policy initiatives, such as limited funding, lack of political will, and conflicting views on the best approach.

Major challenges in controlling the drug menace

• High demand: The demand for drugs in India is high and is driven by a growing population of young people and an increase in disposable income.
• Lack of effective law enforcement: Despite efforts by the government to curb drug trafficking, the porous borders and widespread corruption in India make it difficult to effectively enforce anti-drug laws.
• Inadequate rehabilitation facilities: There is a shortage of rehabilitation facilities and resources for those struggling with drug addiction, making it difficult for them to access the help they need.
• Stigma and discrimination: Substance abuse and addiction are often associated with social stigma and discrimination, which can prevent people from seeking help and make it difficult for them to receive the care they need.
• Difficulty in prevention and education: Drug abuse prevention and education campaigns are often underfunded and not effectively implemented, making it difficult to reach those who are most at risk.
• Lack of comprehensive approach: The lack of a comprehensive approach to addressing the drug problem in India, including both treatment and prevention, makes it difficult to effectively address the issue.

Government steps to curb Drug abuse in India

• National Drug Demand Reduction Policy: It aims to prevent and reduce drug abuse through multiple strategies including demand reduction, supply reduction, and harm reduction.
• Rehabilitation:The government has set up multiple rehabilitation centers and de-addiction clinics to provide treatment and support to individuals struggling with drug addiction.
• Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act(1985):It is the main legal framework in India to curb drug abuse and trafficking, and imposes stringent penalties on those involved in drug-related crimes.
• Information dissemination:The government has implemented various public awareness and educational campaigns to spread knowledge about the dangers of drug abuse and to prevent drug use, particularly among young people.
• Co-ordination: The government also works with other countries in the region to curb cross-border drug trafficking and to dismantle illegal drug production and distribution networks.
• Support: The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment runs a scheme to provide financial and technical assistance to NGOs and other organizations working on drug demand reduction and rehabilitation.
• Central Bureau of Narcotics (CBN): It is the main enforcement agency responsible for implementing the NDPS Act and for conducting raids and arrests in connection with drug-related crimes.

Way forward:

• Improving access to treatment and rehabilitation: Providing access to quality addiction treatment and rehabilitation resources can help individuals overcome their drug dependence.
• Strengthening law enforcement:Strengthening law enforcement efforts to curb drug trafficking and distribution can reduce the availability of drugs in the country.
• Educating the public: Educating the public about the dangers of drug abuse through campaigns, public speaking, and school programs can raise awareness and discourage drug use.
• Addressing root causes: Addressing the root causes of drug abuse, such as poverty, lack of education, and mental health issues, can help prevent people from turning to drugs in the first place.
• Involving community leaders: Involving community leaders and organizations in the fight against drug abuse can help mobilize local resources and increase public support for drug-control efforts.
• Encouraging alternative activities: Encouraging individuals to participate in alternative activities, such as sports, music, and community service, can provide positive outlets and reduce the risk of drug abuse.
• Implementing effective public policy: Developing and implementing effective public policy that addresses the issue of drug abuse can help prevent drug use and support those who are struggling with addiction.
• Researching new treatments and prevention methods: Investing in research and development to find new treatments and prevention methods can help reduce the harm caused by drug abuse.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• India has been aggressively pushing towards a more sustainable future by investing heavily in renewable energy sources,with solar energy at the forefront of its efforts. The Government of India has set the target to expand India’s renewable energy installed capacity to 500 GW by 2030. India has promised to source nearly half its energy from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030 and, in the shorter term, source at least 60% of its renewable energy from solar power.
• India is committed to reducing the country’s dependence on fossil fuels  and transitioning towards a greener future, and the growth of the solar sector plays a crucial role in achieving this goal.
• India is pushing towards renewable energy due to government’s support for the transition. The recognition that solar energy is a free and abundant resource also plays a role. But there are some misconception regarding Solar energy which we need to consider first.

What are the Misconceptions about Solar Energy?

• Levelized Cost of Solar Power is Coming Down:
  • It is believed that the levelized cost of solar power coming down and some believe that the cost will decrease linearly over time, that the cost is the same for all regions, that the cost only takes into account the cost of solar panels, that it doesn’t include maintenance costs, and that it ignores energy storage costs.
  • In reality, the cost can be affected by various factors such as technology advancements, changes in market conditions, and government policies, and the levelized cost takes into account all components of a solar power system including installation and ongoing maintenance costs, not just the cost of solar panels.
• Financially Viable:
  • Solar energy is made financially viable by misguiding the people by leaving out storage battery cost;handicapping it with subsidies and concessions that are front loaded by the government, and forcing it on the industry and hapless discoms through state policy.

Benefits of Solar Energy:

• Renewable:
  • Solar energy is a renewable source of energy, meaning it can be produced indefinitely without depleting resources.
• Clean:
  • Solar energy is a clean source of energy, producing no harmful emissions or pollution.
• Cost-effective:
  • The cost of solar energy has decreased significantly in recent years, making it increasingly cost-effective as a source of energy.
• Reliable:
  • Solar energy systems are becoming increasingly reliable and durable, requiring little maintenance.
• Versatile:
  • Solar energy can be used for a wide range of applications, including electricity generation, heating, and lighting.
• Decentralized:
  • Solar energy systems can be installed on a small scale, making it possible to generate energy locally, reducing dependence on centralized energy sources.

Challenges with Solar Energy in India:

• High Initial Costs:
  • Despite recent reductions in the cost of solar panel technology, the upfront cost of installation remains high, which can be a barrier to adoption for many households and businesses.
• Limited Access to Finance:
  • Access to finance for renewable energy projects can be limited, particularly for smaller and rural projects, which can make it challenging for individuals and organizations to invest in solar energy.
• Infrastructure and Grid Connectivity:
  • A lack of adequate infrastructure and grid connectivity in some areas of the country can make it difficult to transmit the electricity generated from solar panels to where it is needed.
• Land Availability:
  • Finding suitable land for large-scale solar projects can be a challenge in India,particularly given competing demands for land for other purposes such as agriculture and urban development.
• Maintenance and Operation Issues:
  • Poor maintenance and operation of solar power systems can reduce their efficiency and effectiveness,which can impact the long-term viability of renewable energy projects in India.
  • Cleaning solar panels currently is estimated to use about10 billion gallons of water per year — enough to supply drinking water for up to 2 million people.
    • Attempts at waterless cleaning are labor intensive and tend to cause irreversible scratching of the surfaces, which also reduces efficiency.
    • Now,a team of researchers at MIT has devised a way of automatically cleaning solar panels, or the mirrors of solar thermal plants, in a waterless, no-contact system that could significantly reduce the dust problem.

Way Forward:

• Utilising Large Hydro:
  • With large hydro, India can produce more renewable energy at the least cost and with the least carbon footprint.
    • India has utilised only about 15% of its hydro potential whereas the U.S. and Europe have utilised 90% and 98% of their potential, respectively.
    • The extent of utilisation of hydro potential seems to be an index of civilisational developmentand evolution.
  • Expanding Infrastructure and Investment:
    • India needs to increase investment in renewable energy infrastructure, including transmission and distribution networks, as well as in research and development of new solar technologies.
  • Encouraging Private Sector Participation:
    • The private sector can play a crucial role in developing and deploying solar energy in India, and the government should create favorable policies and incentives to encourage private sector involvement.
  • Improving Energy Storage Solutions:
    • Energy storage systems are essential for ensuring that solar energy can be effectively used, even when the sun is not shining. The Indian government should support the development of advanced energy storage solutions to make solar energy more accessible and reliable.
  • Promoting Rooftop Solar:
    • Rooftop solar systems  can be a cost-effective and convenient way for households and businesses to generate their own energy. The Indian government should encourage the growth of rooftop solar by providing incentives, subsidies and tax credits.
  • Building a Skilled Workforce:
    • The growth of the solar energy sector in India will require a skilled workforce. The government should invest in training and education programs to build a pipeline of skilled workers who can help deploy and maintain solar energy systems.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• As per a new study, researchers are examining the fortress wall of Xi’an, an ancient city in China, by using tiny outer space particles called muons that can penetrate hundreds of metres of stone surfaces.

What are Muons?

• Muons are subatomic particles raining from space. They are created when the particles in Earth’s atmosphere collide with cosmic rays — clusters of high-energy particles that move through space at just below the speed of light.
• According to Scientific American magazine, about 10,000 muons reach every square metre of the Earth’s surface a minute.
• Features:Muons resemble electrons but are 207 times as massive. Therefore, they are sometimes called “fat electrons”.
• Because muons are so heavy, they can travel through hundreds of metres of rock or other matter before getting absorbed or decaying into electrons and neutrinos. In comparison, electrons can penetrate through only a few centimetres.
• Muons are also highly unstable and exist for just 2.2 microseconds.

What is muon tomography or muography?

• Muography is conceptually similar to X-ray but capable of scanning much larger and wider structures, owing to the penetration power of muons.
• As these high-energy particles are naturally produced and ubiquitous, all one needs to do is place a muon detector underneath, within or near the object of interest.
• The detector then tracks the number of muons going through the object from different directions, to form a three-dimensional image.
• The image is then compared with a muon image of the “free sky”. This indicates how many muons have been blocked. The final picture is essentially a shadow of the object in the light of cosmic muons.

Uses of Muon Topography

• Muon tomography was first used in the 1960s, it has only recently gained widespread use among researchers, particularly in archaeology.
• Apart from archaeology, muography has also found use in customs security, internal imaging of volcanoes and others. Around 2015, scientists used the technique to look inside the Fukushima nuclear reactors after the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• Joshimath land subsidence has raised concerns over the hydropower projects in Himalayas.

Hydropower:

• It is a renewable source of energy. It is often considered green energy because it generates electricity from the natural flow of water without releasing any emissions. It does not rely on fossil fuels.However, it also brings concerns and threats to the environment, especially in the Himalayan region.

Concerns with the Hydropower projects:

• Most countries in the Himalayan region, including India have built or are planning to build hydropower projects in the Himalaya. The Indian government has identified hydropower as a key renewable energy source.
• However, the construction of the hydropower in Himalayas brings various concerns.

The concerns are –

1. can bring conflicts over water resources in the region,
2. can disrupt the flow of rivers, leading to changes in water temperature and chemistry,
3. dams can also cause erosion, landslides, and sedimentation which can have a negative impact on the local environment,
4. Dams also disrupt the migration patterns of fish and other aquatic species and impact the local wildlife,
5. large-scale dams displace local communities, affecting their livelihoods and cultural heritage and impacting the overall well-being of the local population.

Therefore, it is beneficial to look for alternatives to hydropower projects.

Alternative to hydropower:

• Micro hydro is a small-scale hydroelectric power generation system that generates up to 100 kilowatts (kW) of electricity.
• These systems use the energy of falling water to generate electricity. They can be used for various applications such as powering homes, businesses, and small communities.
• They are less expensive to build and maintain than large hydroelectric dams and have a smaller environmental footprint.
• They can belocated even in inaccessible areas where it is difficult to transmit electricity from larger power stations and can provide a reliable source of energy to communities that are not connected to the grid.
• They can be used to minimise the ecosystem’s negative impact and provide sustainable energy solutions. However, even they have some impact on the environment but the impacts are less when compared to large hydropower dams.