General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• Recently, the “Draft Citizen’s Policy for Urban Agriculture in Delhi” was submitted to the Delhi government by Delhi-based research non-profit People’s Resource Centre.

More about the Policy

• Aim: The policy aims to provide a holistic framework for urban farming.
• Urban Agriculture in Delhi:
  • Some 60 percent of Delhi’s demand for meat is fulfilled by city-grown produce, as is 25 percent of its milk and 15 percent of its vegetable needs.
  • Yet policies on land use and farming in the National Capital do not acknowledge the role of cultivation and distribution of food in urban areas, says the draft policy.
• Recommendations:
  • It recommends building on existing practices, promoting residential and community farming through rooftop and kitchen gardens, allocating vacant land for agricultural use, creating a market, developing policies for animal rearing and spreading awareness.

Significance

• Food security:
  • Issues like rapid urbanisation, population explosion and climate change increases the risk of food shortage.
  • These recommendations are crucial to ensure food security for urban communities. This benefit has long been highlighted in arguments for urban farming.
• Fulfilling nutrition demand:
  • 2010 report by M S Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, notes that 50 percent of women and children in urban areas are anaemic due to lack of adequate nutrition.
  • The study also recommends urban agriculture.
• Poverty alleviation:
  • Globally, in 2020, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization acknowledged that urban and periurban farming can contribute to local food and nutritional needs, enable jobs and reduce poverty.

Initiatives in India

• In India, urban farming has seen some traction across states, prompting governments to introduce small-scale initiatives to promote the practice.
• Pune:
  • In 2008, Pune’s civic administration launched a city farming project to train and encourage people to take up farming on allocated land.
• Kerala:
  • State of Kerala had been food dependent until 2012 after which the state government launched a vegetable development programme to encourage gardening in houses, schools, government and private institutions.
  • It also offered subsidy and support for eco-friendly inputs, irrigation, compost and biogas plants.
  • According to Kerala State Planning Board, vegetable production rose from 825,000 tonnes in 2011-12 to 1.3 million tonnes in 2014-15.
• Tamil Nadu:
  • Similarly, in 2014, the Tamil Nadu government introduced a “do-it-yourself” kit for city dwellers to grow vegetables on rooftops, houses and apartment buildings under its Urban Horticulture Development Scheme.
• Bihar:
  • Since 2021, Bihar encourages terrace gardening in five smart cities through subsidy for input cost.

Challenges

• Lack of policy:
  • While such initiatives are welcome, their impact cannot be expected to be widespread without a strong policy for urban farming.
  • For instance, Pune’s 2008 initiative failed to take off due to poor interest from people and the government.
• Lack of recognition:
  • Even the recently released draft Master Plan of Delhi for 2041, does not acknowledge the role of the practice.
    • It aims to divide 8,000 hectares of land along the Yamuna into two sub-zones and restrict human activity or settlement in areas directly adjacent to the river.
    • However, several communities on the floodplains practise urban farming.
    • According to critics, if this draft master plan comes into practice, informal settlements like Chilla Khadar and Bela Estate will lose the agricultural land,
  • Lack of parallel benefits:
    • Farmers cannot avail benefits under any agricultural schemes such as crop insurance.
  • Issue of rapid development:
    • Rapid development is also a hindrance in continuing with existing practics.

Suggestions & way ahead

• Practicing innovative techniques like Hydroponics:
  • Studies show that excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in urban farms can lower produce and soil quality.
  • However, urban farmers believe such hurdles can be overcome with innovative techniques.
    • Hydroponics, a method of soilless farming that uses nutrient solutions to sustain plants, offers a cleaner approach.
    • Compared to commercial farming, hydroponics requires 90 per cent lesser water, which can be reused.
    • Although such initiatives are still niche and at a nascent stage, one can grow more plants in the space given.
  • Small-scale farming – cushion in crisis:
    • Kitchen gardening or small-scale community farming cannot sustain the large population, but can act as a cushion to protect urban residents from inflation, vulnerabilities of weather or crises such as COVID-19.
    • Even though, such innovations, cannot match the scale of rural agriculture, before more villages become urban, early interventions can result in a sustainable system.
  • Recognition & funding:
    • There is a need to bring in more institutional clarity and also multi-disciplinary expertise to solve such challenges.
    • To promote urban farming, governments must recognise informal practices and link them with agricultural schemes.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

The Union budget 2023 presents an opportunity for our visionary government to amp up its efforts towards making our MSMEs competitive and self-reliant.

MSME Sector In India 

• About:
  • Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME), are small-sized business enterprises defined in terms of their investment.
• Significance of the sector:
  • Contribution to GDP:
    • In India, the sector has gained significant importance due to its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)of the country and exports.
  • Contribution in Development: 
    • The Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) sector is a major contributor to the socioeconomic development of the country.
    • The sector has also contributed immensely with respect to entrepreneurship development, especially in semi-urban and rural areas of India.
  • Resilience in disruptions:
    • Despite concerns of a looming global recession, supply disruptions and the Russia-Ukraine war, India has stood out as a bright spot, growing faster than most major emerging markets.
    • The 3 crore micro, small and medium enterprises which account for 30 per cent of GDP and employ nearly 11 crore people have demonstrated this spirit of resilience.
    • With sales in several industries across the MSME sector reaching 90 percent of pre-pandemic levels, India’s small businesses are scripting a turnaround.

Challenges Faced by MSME Sector in India

• Mounting NPAs of MSMEs:
  • According to the RBI, bad loans of MSMEs now account for 9.6 per cent of gross advances of Rs 17.33 lakh crore as against 8.2 per cent in 2020.
  • The MSME sector was among the most pandemic-afflicted sectors.
    • Thousands of MSMEs either shut down or became sick after the government announced a nationwide strict lockdown.
  • Non-availability/Delays of Funds:
    • Mounting losses and debts, non-availability of proper financial help and delays from the government, reluctance from the banks for the funding, etc.
    • MSMEs in India typically rely on NBFCs for their financing needs, which in itself has been enduring a liquidity crunch since September 2018.
  • Lack of Formalization:
    • Almost 86% of the manufacturing MSMEs operating in the country are unregistered. Out of the 6.3 crore MSMEs, only about 1.1 crores are registered with the Goods and Services Tax (GST) regime and the number of income tax filers are even less.

Government initiatives for MSMEs in India:

• Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY):
  • Under PMMY loans are provided up to Rs. 10 Lakh through Member Lending Institutions (MLIs) viz; Banks, Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), Micro Financial Institutions (MFIs), other financial intermediaries, in three categories namely, ‘Shishu’, ‘Kishore’ and ‘Tarun’ which signifies the stage of growth or development and funding needs of the borrowers.
    • Shishu:covering loans up to Rs. 50,000/-
    • Kishore: covering loans above Rs. 50,000/- and up to Rs. 5 lakh
    • Tarun: covering loans above Rs. 5 lakh and up to Rs. 10 lakh
  • Objectives: 
    • To signify the stage of growth/development and funding needs of the beneficiary micro unit/entrepreneur and also provide a reference point for the next phase of graduation/growth.
  • Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Micro and Small Enterprises (CGTMSE): 
    • This scheme provides collateral-free credit to micro and small enterprises through a credit guarantee mechanism.
  • Stand Up India: 
    • The scheme provides financial assistance to scheduled caste (SC), scheduled tribe (ST) and women entrepreneurs for setting up new enterprises.
  • Harmonizing value chain: 
    • Government to focus on integrating India’s value chains with the rest of the world and creating logistics that are easier and faster is crucial to make it easier for international companies to include India in their value chains.
  • Quality assurance: 
    • Government to focus on creating Quality as the most important factor in the success story of India through steps including- setting global benchmarks, harmonizing Indian standards with global standards, and consumers becoming more demanding of quality.
  • Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA): 
    • It will help MSMEs of both India and the UAE to leverage the benefits of the District as an export hub initiative of the government.
    • Under this initiative, every district for its unique products and identify the speciality of districts by knowing which district exports which products.
    • This initiative is expected to help in promoting local products and in turn, boost the local economy.

Suggestions 

• Three key parameters that are vital for the success of MSMEs include: 
  • Financial stability,
  • Availability of skilled labour in MSME clusters, and
  • Market competitiveness of their products to achieve import substitution as well as exports.
• Market-oriented strategy:
  • With a self-reliant India vision, it is highly important to improve the competitiveness of MSMEs through an inclusive market-oriented strategy.
  • To remain relevant in the market, MSMEs need to be adaptable with changing markets and variable demand scenarios.
    • Ensuring the capacity and availability of raw materials to MSMEs is also crucial.
  • Quality enhancement & automation:
    • There is a need to improve the capability of Indian MSMEs to supply quality products.
    • MSMEs could be introduced to low-cost automation techniques, which work in tandem with the human workforce.
  • Branding:
    • Branding and advocacy will also be needed to leverage the positive connotations associated with certain Indian products and assess negative connotations that can be removed.
  • Lowering GST rates:
    • From meeting fixed expenses such as electricity, rent and employee wages to investing in future growth, adequate working capital is a must for small businesses.
    • By lowering GST rates on input services availed by online sellers, the government will not only shore up their finances but also give a leg-up to their digitisation journey.
      • There is also a need to expedite GST relaxation for small online businesses.

Way ahead

• The MSME (micro, small and medium enterprise) sector in India can play a significant role in achieving the vision of a self-reliant India. Suggest ways to revamp the sector.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: 

• The government will soon kick off the process to set up the 16th Finance Commission, with the Finance Ministry likely to notify the terms of reference (ToR) of the constitutional body.

Background:

• The 15th Finance Commission(FFC chaired by NK Singh) was set up in (November 2017) with a mandate to make recommendations for the five-year period from 2020-21.
  • The Commission is usually granted about two years to deliberate on its terms of reference, consult States and frame its recommendations.
  • The government should ideally have its report by October 2025to consider it in time for Budget 2026-27, where it will have to place its action taken report on the Commission’s report.
• Despite the Constitution’s mandate to establish an FC every five years, breaking the trend, the 15th FC’s term was extended by a year, ending in 2025–2026.
• In late 2019, the Commission was asked to give a standalone report for 2020-21and another report for an extended five-year period till 2025-26.
• Since the FFC report covered six years(instead of five), the next FC must be selected this year.
• The last time an FC was granted a six-year time frame was for the 9th FC, formed in June 1987.
• The 10th FC was still constituted in June 1992within the five-year deadline specified by Article 280 of the Constitution, which has not been the case this time.

The first step towards establishing 16th FC:

• While the ToR (Terms of Reference) for the 16th FC will be worked out after internal government deliberations steered by the Finance Ministry, the appointment of an Officer on Special Duty to drive the process.
• This officer typically becomes the member-secretary of the Commission, once it is constituted.

The key challenges for the 16th FC:

• The co-existence of another permanent constitutional body – the GST Council.
  • The Council’s decisions on tax rate changes could alter the revenue calculations made by the FC for sharing fiscal resources.
• The government usually accepts recommendations on States’ share of tax devolution and the trajectory for fiscal targets and ignores most other suggestions. For instance,
  • The government ignored the FFC’s suggestion of creating a Fiscal Council where the Centre and States collectively work out India’s macro-fiscal management challenges.
  • The government has accepted the FFC’s recommendation to set up a non-lapsable fund for internal security and defence ‘in principle’, but its implementation still has to be worked out.

Way ahead:

• A recourse mechanism can be put in place for the Commission to revisit its numbers due to the GST Council’s decisions.
• The governments must rise beyond politics to deliberate and implement FC’s recommendations, which are sound in terms of policy and economics.

General Studies Paper 2

Context:

Pakistan Prime Minister has expressed the desire for a diplomatic handshake from across the border.

India-Pakistan Relations:

• With the partition of British India, two separate nations, India and Pakistan were formed.
• Since the very beginning, the immediate violent partition, wars, terrorist attacks and various territorial disputes overshadowed the connection.

Indus Water Treaty(IWT):

• IWTis a water-distribution treaty between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank (WB), to use the water available in the Indus River and its tributaries.
• It was signed in Karachi in 1960 by then-Indian PM Jawaharlal Nehru and then-Pakistani president Ayub Khan.
• The Treaty gives control over the waters of the three “eastern rivers” – the Beas, Ravi and Sutlej (BRS)- to India.
• Control over the waters of the three “western rivers” – the Indus, Chenab and Jhelum -has been given to Pakistan.
• India has about 20% of the total water carried by the Indus system while Pakistan has 80%.
• The treaty allows India to use the western river waters for limited irrigation use and unlimited non-consumptive use for such applications as power generation.
• India has the right to generate hydroelectricity through run-of-the-river (RoR) projects on the western rivers which, subject to specific criteria for design and operation, is unrestricted.
• The dispute redressal mechanism provided under the IWT is a graded 3-level mechanism.
• Under the IWT, whenever India plans to start a project, it has to inform Pakistan.
• The concerns have to be cleared at the levels of the Indus Commissioners → Neutral Expert → Court of Arbitration, in a graded manner.

Issue of hydroelectric projects:

• Pakistan has reiterated desire for third-party mediation
• India has reinforced to revisit the Indus Water Treaty (IWT).

India’s stand:

• India claimed that the “intransigence” of Pakistan had made the communication channels over shared waters defunct.
• India: Due to the “Material breach” of the agreement, it would like to “update the Treaty.
• India has given a 90-day notice to Pakistan.
  • It has opened space, both legally and politically for:
    • discussing
    • debating
    • interpreting
    • analyzing the fault lines of water diplomacy of both countries.
  • Parliamentary standing committee report(2021): It suggested renegotiating the Treaty.

India’s stand on treaty:

• India has adopted the moderate approach of not terminating but modifying the IWT.
• India has attributed the “material breach”to Pakistan’s unilateral decision to approach the Permanent Court of Arbitration
  • It bypassed the mandate of Indus Commissioners.
  • India boycotted this hearing.
• India claims. Pakistan has violated the dispute settlement mechanisms, as mandated by Articles 8 and 9 of the Treaty.
• Article 8 specifies the roles and responsibilities of the Permanent Indus Commission — a regular channel of communication for matters relating to the implementation of the Treaty.
• Article 9: for addressing any difference or dispute that might emerge between the two countries.

Article 9 of treaty:

• It offers a graded pathway to address any issue related to the implementation or interpretation of the IWT.
• It provides for the appointment of a neutral expert in case there is a lack of consensus among the Commissioners.
• If the neutral expert believes that the difference should be treated as a dispute, it can be referred to the Court of Arbitration.
• The Commission has to report the facts to the two governments.
• The report must state:
  • Points of concord in the Commission
  • The views of each Commissioner on these issues
  • Mention the issues of disagreement.
• Only after receiving a report can either of the governments address the issue bilaterally or through the Court of Arbitration.

International laws:

• Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Laws of the Treaties: A party can criticize an agreement and give notice of its intention to terminate it if the other party violates its fundamental provisions.

Contest in projects:

• Kishanganga Hydel Power Project (Neelam in Pakistan):
  • The Court of Arbitration gave a partial award on the project.
  • It upholded India’s right to divert water for the project.
  • The Court refused to set a bar on the release of water, as demanded by Pakistan.
  • It restrained KHEPfrom environmental considerations.
• Ratle project on the Chenab River:
  • On Grounds of design and violations of the IWT.
  • The project was delayed but work resumed on it in 2019.
  • Pakistan asked the World Bank to establish a Court of Arbitration to look into the project.
  • The Bank has started a parallel process for appointing a neutral expert.
  • India objected to this process, claiming it was a unilateral move.

Way Forward

• The significance of the “material breach” and calls for terminating the Treaty should be seen in context of article 9 of treaty.
• The practice of diplomacy and the use of law for explaining and justifying government actions are equally important.
  • The reasoning put forward by India and Pakistan requires scrutiny.
• Ecological and economic concerns are also important to understand the diplomatic fault lines
• Pakistan has shown a penchant for third-party mediation, arguing that this could be the best route for overcoming the impasse in the relations between the two countries.
• Technically-negotiated agreements are only partial solutions and can put incremental strains on trans boundary rivers and their ecosystems for years.
• The two countries should use bilateral dispute settlement mechanisms to discuss the sustainable uses of water resources.
• Article 7 of treaty: It talks about future cooperation — discussing and broadening transboundary governance issues in holistic terms.
  • It could be the starting point for any potential diplomatic handshake.

General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• Recently, UN General Assembly (UNGA) President Csaba Korosi stated that the UNSC does not reflect today’s realities.
• About the UNGA President:
  • Csaba Korosi is a Hungarian diplomat currently serving as President of the 77th UNGA.
  • Korosi is recently on his bilateral visit to India.
    • It is his first bilateral visit to any country since he assumed his role as President of the UN General Assembly in September 2022.
  • Opinion on UNSC reforms:
    • UNGA President stated that the UN Security Council does not reflect today’s realities, is paralysed and unable to discharge its basic function of maintaining international peace and security when one of its permanent members has attacked its neighbour.
    • Reasons cited: 
      • According to him, the Security Council cannot discharge its basic function as one of the permanent members of the Security Council attacked its neighbour.
      • The Security Council should be the body to take action against the aggression. But because of the veto power, the Security Council cannot act.
    • Push for reforms:
      • He stated that there is a push from a growing number of member nations to reform the powerful UN organ.
    • Background:
      • Russia, a veto-wielding permanent member of the UN, attacked Ukraine in February 2022.
      • Russia has vetoed UNSC resolutions on Ukraine.
      • Russia also voted against a resolution in the UNGA which called on countries not to recognise the four regions of Ukraine that Russia has claimed.

United Nations Security Council (UNSC)

• About:

• It is one of the UN’s six main organs and is aimed at maintaining international peace and security.
• It held its first session on 17th January 1946 in Westminster, London.
• Headquarters: New York City.
• Membership: The Council is composed of 15 Members:
  • Permanent members with veto power: 
    • China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States.
  • More than 50 United Nations Member States have never been Members of the Security Council.

• UNSC elections:

• Each year the General Assembly elects five non-permanent members (out of 10 in total) for a two-year term.
• The 10 non-permanent seats are distributed on a regional basis as follows:
  • Five for African and Asian States.
  • One for the Eastern European States.
  • Two for the Latin American and Caribbean States;
  • Two for Western European and other States
• To be elected to the Council, candidate countries need a two-thirds majority of ballots of the Member States that are present and voting in the Assembly.
• The UNSC elections were traditionally held in the General Assembly Hall with each of the 193 member states casting its vote in a secret ballot.

UN Reforms

• Demand of reform:

• Reform of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) encompasses five key issues: 
  • Categories of membership,
  • The question of the veto held by the five permanent members,
  • Regional representation,
  • The size of an enlarged Council and its working methods, and
  • The Security Council-General Assembly relationship.

• Why?

• Changing world order:
  • In the 77-year-old history of the UN, the composition of the Security Council has been altered only once.
    • e., In 1963 when the General Assembly decided to expand the Council from 11 to 15 members, with the addition of four non-permanent seats.
  • Since then, the world has changed. The geopolitical relations in the world have altered, the economic responsibilities in the world in countries have also changed.
• Equitable World Order: 
  • There is a need for a more equitable world in order to uphold the principles of democracy at the global level.
• Inclusivity: 
  • Developing countries like the African countries, need to be made stakeholders in the multilateral institutions and involved in the decision-making process.
• Mitigation of New Threats: 
  • With rising protectionism, increased incidents of terrorism and the threat of climate change, the multilateral system must become more resilient and responsive.

• How?
  • Any reform of the Security Council would require the agreement of at least two-thirds of UN member states in a vote in the General Assembly and must be ratified by two-thirds of Member States.
  • All of the permanent members of the UNSC (which have veto rights) must also agree.
• Challenges:
  • Lack of Political Will: 
    • Although there is a general agreement towards change in the system, different countries have different perceptions of the requirement for change.
  • Coffee Club: 
    • It is an informal group comprising 40-odd member states, mostly middle-sized states who oppose bigger regional powers grabbing permanent seats, has been instrumental in holding back reforms to the United Nations Security Council over the past six years.
  • Chinese Opposition: 
    • China being a permanent member blocks the growth of India becoming a Permanent Member.

General Studies Paper 1

Context:

• Justice G. Rohini commission for the sub-categorisation of other backward classes (OBCs) received 14th extension from the President.

Background

• The Justice Rohini Commission was constituted under Article 340 of the Constitution.
• In 2008, the Supreme Court directed the central government to exclude the creamy layer (advanced sections) among the OBCs.
• The Kalelkar Commission, set up in 1953, was the first to identify backward classes other than the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) at the national level.
• The Mandal Commission Report, 1980estimated the OBC population at 52% and classified 1,257 communities as backward.
  • It recommended increasing the existing quotas, which were only for SC/ST, from 22.5% to 49.5% to include the OBCs.

What is the Sub-Categorisation Process?

• Identification of Dominant Caste: The Commission identified a small group of dominant caste groups that were crowding out a large number of communities from the 27% OBC quota.
• Division of OBC communities: The commission decided to divide all OBC communities into four broad categories, with the largest quota going to the group that has been historically deprived of OBC quota due to crowding out by dominant OBC groups.

Need for Sub-Categorisation

• Larger benefits to small Groups: Rich and dominant sections occupy a major chunk of reservations among OBCs.
• Earlier Recommendations: NCBC recommended sub-categorisation in 2011, which was supported by the standing committee.
• Supreme Court Intervention: In Ashoka Kumar Thakur vs UOI, 2008 case the Court categorically reiterated its prior stand that “Creamy Layer”should be excluded from the ambit of reservation policy and private institutions are also not to be included.

Challenges faced in Sub-Categorisation

• Absence of Data for the population of various communities to compare with their representation in jobs and admissions.
• Political Issue: Sub-Categorisation will lead to discontent among dominant OBC groups. Regional parties oppose this as seen in Andhra Pradesh when an attempt to provide sub-quotas for OBCs was stalled by courts on the ground that a religion-based quota is not permitted.
• Vote-Bank politics over the prioritisation of caste-based categorisation over income-based differentiation to identify reservation beneficiaries.

Reasons for Current Extension

• The Bihar government is in the middle of its caste-based survey.
• The Uttar Pradesh government is conducting a new survey to assess the need for OBC reservation in its local body elections.
• States like Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are also looking to form panels to implement OBC reservations in local body polls.
• The Rohini Commission panel said that they are currently finalising the compilation of the report.

National Commission for Backward Classes(NCBC)

• NCBC is a constitutional body given the prestigious status after the 102nd amendment 2018 under Article 338B of the Indian Constitution.
• The Commission is authorised to investigate and monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the socially and educationally backward classes under this Constitution or under any other law.

General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• The Union Ministry of Education released data from the All-India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE), 2020-2021, which showed a 5% increase in student enrolments across the country compared to 2019-20.
• The survey also revealed that in 2020-21, the year when the Covid-19 pandemic   began, there was a 7% rise in enrolments in distance education programmes.

What is the AISHE?

• To portray the status of higher education in the country, the Ministry of Education has endeavoured to conduct an annual web-based AISHE since 2010-11.
  • Data is being collected on several parameters such as teachers, student enrolment, programmes, examination results, education finance, infrastructure.
• Indicators of educational development such as Institution Density, Gross Enrolment Ratio, Pupil-teacher ratio, Gender Parity Index, Per Student Expenditure will also be calculated from the data collected through AISHE.
  • These are useful in making informed policy decisions and research for development of the education sector.

What are the Major Highlights of the AISHE Data?

• Student Enrolment:
  • Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER)for all enrolments (as per 2011 Census) increased by over 2 points to 27.3.
    • The highest enrolment was seen at the undergraduate level,which accounted for 9% of all enrolments.
  • The female enrolment in higher education programmes had increased to 49% of total enrolments in 2020-21 compared to 45% in 2019-20.
    • But, the overall figures for Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics(STEM) enrolments (at all levels of higher education) showed that women lagged behind men, who accounted for over 56% of enrolments in these fields.
  • Gender Parity Index (GPI),the ratio of female GER to male GER, has increased from 1 in 2017-18 to 1.05 in 2020-21.
  • The number of students in the Persons with Disabilities  category dropped in 2020-21 to 79,035 from 92,831 in 2019-20.
  • The proportion of Muslim students enrolling for higher education dropped to 4.6% in 2020-21 from 5% in 2019-20.
  • Uttar Pradesh; Maharashtra; Tamil Nadu; Madhya Pradesh; Karnataka and Rajasthan are the top 6 States in terms of number of students enrolled.
• Universities and College:During 2020-21, the number of universities has increased by 70, and the number of colleges has increased by 1,453.
  • The4% government colleges accounted for 34.5% total enrolments in 2020-21, whereas the rest 65.5% enrolments were seen at private aided colleges and private unaided colleges put together.
  • Uttar Pradesh; Maharashtra; Karnataka; Rajasthan; Tamil Nadu; Madhya Pradesh; Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat are the top 8 States in terms of number of colleges.
• Faculty:The female per 100 male faculty has improved to 75 in 2020-21 from 74 in 2019-20 and 63 in 2014-15.

What are the Current Major Issues Related to India’s Higher Education System?

• Faculty Shortage: AISHE 2020-21showed that the teacher-pupil ratio was at 27 for all universities, colleges and standalone institutions and at 24 if only regular mode is considered due to which the quality of education remains a concern.
• Inadequate Infrastructure:Poor infrastructure is another challenge to higher education in India.
  • Due to the budget deficit, corruption and lobbying by the vested interest group, public as well as private sector universities in India lack the necessary infrastructure.
• Regulatory Issues:Management of Indian higher education faces challenges of lack of accountability, transparency, and professionalism.
  • As a result of the increase in the number of affiliated colleges and students, the burden of administrative functions of universities has significantly increased and the core focus on academics and research is diluted.
• Problem of Brain Drain:Due to cutthroat competition for getting admission in top institutes like IITs and IIMs, a challenging academic environment is created for a large number of students in India, so they prefer going abroad, which makes our country deprived of good talent.
  • There is definitely a quantitative expansion of education in India but the qualitative front (essential for a student to get a job) is lagging behind.

How can the Indian Higher Education System be Revolutionized?

• Implementation of National Education Policy (NEP):The implementation of the  NEP can help shake the education system from its slumber.
  • Moving away from the current 10+2 system to a 5+3+3+4 system will bring the pre-school age group formally into the education set-up.
• Education-Employment Corridor:India’s educational setup needs to be enhanced by integrating vocational learning with mainstream education and providing right mentorship at school (especially in government schools) to ensure that students are guided in the right direction from the start and are aware of career opportunities.
• Taking a Note from Past to Future:It is important to look to the future while keeping our long-established roots in mind.
  • The ancient evaluation of education was not restricted to grading thematic knowledge. Students were assessed on the skills they learned and how well they can apply practical knowledge to real-life situations.
    • The modern education system can also devise similar systems of assessment.

General Studies Paper 1

Context:

• The Nation pays tribute to Mahatma Gandhi on his 75^th death anniversary on 30^th January 2023. The day is also observed as Martyrs’ Day.

What are the Major Gandhian Ideologies?

• Vision for India:Gandhi’s vision for India went beyond political independence from colonial rule.
  • He aimed for social emancipation, economic empowerment, and a shared sense of solidarity across different language, religion, and cultural backgrounds.
• Non-violence:Gandhi was a strong advocate of non-violence and believed that it was the most powerful weapon in the struggle for justice and freedom.
  • He also believed that non-violence should be a way of life, not just a political strategy, and that it would lead to lasting peace and social harmony.
  • Gandhi was a leader who inspired and empowered the people through love and compassion.
• Against Discrimination:Gandhi travelled all over India and saw the different cultural parts of the country. He brought people together by highlighting the common things that united them, like their faith.
  • Gandhi strongly believed in treating everyone equally, regardless of religion or caste. He was against discrimination and the practice of untouchability.  
• Secular Outlook:Gandhi was a Hindu but believed in a secular India, where all religions could exist peacefully together. He was very upset about the partition of India, which was based on religion.
  • Today,it is important to remember Gandhi’s values of peace, inclusiveness, and harmony as these values are still relevant.
• Communal Harmony:Gandhi was a firm believer in the unity of all communities and worked tirelessly to promote communal harmony.
  • He believed that India’s strength lay in its diversity and that this diversity should be celebrated, not feared.
  • He was deeply troubled by the Hindu-Muslim divide and worked to bring the two communities together.
• Self-Reliance:Gandhi believed in the importance of self-reliance and encouraged Indians to become self-sufficient in as many ways as possible.
  • He encouraged the use of local resources and traditional skills and the development of cottage industries.
  • He also believed that the people of India should take responsibility for their own development and not rely on external support.

What is the Relevance of Gandhiji in Today’s Context?

• The ideals of truth and nonviolence,which underpin the whole philosophy, are relevant to all humankind, and are considered as universal by the Gandhians.
  • More than ever before, Mahatma Gandhi’s teachings are valid today, when people are trying to find solutions to the rampant greed, widespread violence, and runaway consumptive style of living.
• The Gandhian technique of mobilising people has been successfully employed by many oppressed societies around the world under the leadership of people like Martin Luther King in the United States Nelson Mandela in South Africa, and Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar,  which is an eloquent testimony to the continuing relevance of Mahatma Gandhi.
• The Dalai Lama said, “We have a big war going on today between world peace and world war, between the force of mind and the force of materialism, between democracy and totalitarianism.” It is precisely to fight these big wars that the Gandhian philosophy needed in contemporary times.

General Studies Paper 3

• Since the inception of the National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Policy, both the IPR ecosystem in this country has witnessed many changes However, it appears that the patent establishment of the country overdrive to prove its patent-friendliness, rather patentee-friendliness.
• As per the structural and legislative changes in the IPR, the dissolution of the Intellectual Property Appellate Board (IPAB)took place in 2021 and dedicated IP divisions were established in the Delhi High Court to address the issues.

What is the National IPR Policy?

• About:
  • The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) under the Ministry of Commerce adopted the National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Policy in 2016.
    • The main goal of the policy is “Creative India; Innovative India”.
  • The policy covers all forms of IP,seeks to create synergies between them and other agencies, and sets up an institutional mechanism for implementation and review.
  • DPIIT is the nodal department for IPR development in India and the Cell for IPR Promotion & Management (CIPAM) under DPIIT is the single point of reference for implementing the policy.
  • India’s IPR regime complies with World Trade Organisation’s (WTO) agreement onTrade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS).
• Objectives:
  • IPR Awareness:Outreach and promotion are important to create public awareness about the economic, social and cultural benefits of IPRs among all sections of society.
  • Generation of IPRs: To stimulate the generation of IPRs.
  • Legal and Legislative Framework: To have strong and effective IPR laws, which balance the interests of rights owners with larger public interest.
  • Administration and Management:To modernise and strengthen service-oriented IPR administration.
  • Commercialisation of IPRs:Get value for IPRs through commercialisation.
  • Enforcement and Adjudication:To strengthen the enforcement and adjudicatory mechanisms for combating IPR infringements.
  • Human Capital Development: To strengthen and expand human resources, institutions and capacities for teaching, training, research and skill building in IPRs.
• Need for IPR:
  • Encourages Innovation:
    • The legal protection of new creations encourages the commitment of additional resources for further innovation.
  • Economic Growth:
    • The promotion and protection of intellectual property spurs economic growth creates new jobs and industries, and enhances the quality and enjoyment of life.
  • Safeguard the Rights of Creators:
    • IPR is required to safeguard creators and other producers of their intellectual commodity, goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of the manufactured goods.
  • Ease of Doing Business:
    • It promotes innovation and creativity and ensures ease of doing business.
  • Transfer of Technology:
    • It facilitates the transfer of technology in the form of foreign direct investment, joint ventures and licensing.

What are the Treaties and Conventions related to IPR?

• Global:
  • India is a member of the WTO and committed to the Agreement on TRIPS Agreement.
  • India is also a member of WIPO, a body responsible for the promotion of the protection of intellectual property rights throughout the world.
  • India is also a member of the following important WIPO-administered International Treaties and Conventions relating to IPRs:
    • Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure
    • Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
    • Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization
    • Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
    • Patent Cooperation Treaty
  • National:
    • Indian Patent Act 1970:
      • This principal law for patenting system in India came into force in the year 1972. It replaced the Indian Patents and Designs Act 1911.
      • The Act was amended by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005, wherein product patent was extended to all fields of technology including food, drugs, chemicals and microorganisms.

What are the Issues Related to IPR Regime?

• Patent-Friendliness Over Public Health: The National IPR Policy recognizes the contribution of the Indian pharmaceutical sector in providing affordable medicines globally. However, India’s patent establishment has prioritized patent-friendliness over public health and national interest in the pharmaceutical sector.
• Data Exclusivity: Foreign investors and Multi-National Corporations (MNCs) allege that Indian law does not protect against unfair commercial use of test data or other data submitted to the government during the application for market approval of pharmaceutical or agro-chemical products. For this, they demand a data exclusivity law.
• Resulting in Anti-Competitive Market:The Patents Act has four stakeholders: society, government, patentees, and their competitors, and interpreting and enforcing the act to only benefit patentees undermines the rights of other stakeholders and leads to anti-competitive market outcomes.

Conclusion

• It is not sufficient to just promote a pro-IPR environment to attract investment. The promotion of IPR should be balanced with the national interest and public health obligations. “Make in India” should not compromise “Atmanirbhar Bharat”, and the latter should take priority.

General Studies Paper 3

• The agriculture sector plays a significant role in carbon trading because it has the potential to both emit and sequester carbon the process of storing carbon in vegetation and soil).Agricultural activities such as tilling, fertilizer use, and livestock production can release greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. On the other hand, practices such as agroforestry, conservation tillage, and soil carbon sequestration can remove carbon from the atmosphere and store it in the soil.
• India updated its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in August 2022. The updated NDC includes 50% cumulative electric power installed from non-fossil fuel-based energy sources and an additional carbon sink of 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through forest and tree cover by 2030.
• The updated NDC target also aims to reduce the emissions intensity of itsGross Domestic Product (GDP) by 45% from 2005 levels by the year 2030. It also talks about propagating a healthy and sustainable way of living, including (through) a mass movement for LiFE – ‘Lifestyle for Environment’ as a key to combating climate change.
• The Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill, 2022was passed by Parliament which mandates the exploration and use of non-fossil fuel energy sources and the creation of a national carbon market. The Bill is also futuristic in achieving the target of net zero emission by 2070.

What is Carbon Trading?

• Carbon trading in the agricultural sector refers to the buying and selling of carbon credits that are generated by practices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions or increase carbon sequestration on farms and other agricultural lands.
  • These practices include things like conservation tillage, agroforestry, and other sustainable land management techniques.
• The concept of carbon trading in the agricultural sector is seen as a way to provide financial incentives for farmers to adopt environmentally friendly practices, which can help to mitigate the effects of climate change.

What Opportunities Carbon Trading in the Agricultural Sector Presents?

• Additional Revenue:
  • Participating in carbon offset projects can provide farmers with additional revenue through the sale of carbon credits.
• Climate Change Mitigation:
  • Adopting carbon abatement farming practices can help to sequester carbon in the soil, which can contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and help to mitigate the effects of climate change.
• Soil Health Improvement:
  • Many carbon abatement farming practices, such as conservation tillage and agroforestry,can improve soil health, which can result in increased crop yields and improved water retention.
• Biodiversity Conservation:
  • Some carbon abatement farming practices, such as agroforestry, can also help to promote biodiversity and support the survival of wild species.
• Sustainable Land Use:
  • Carbon offset projects can provide an incentive for farmers to adopt sustainable land-use practices, which can help to conserve natural resources and reduce environmental impacts.
• Rural Development:
  • Carbon trading in the agricultural sector can also promote rural development, by creating jobs and income-generating opportunities in rural areas, and by supporting the development of small and medium-sized enterprises in the sector.

What are the Challenges of Trading Carbon Sequestered by Agriculture?

• Difficulty of Accurately Measuring and Verifying Carbon Sequestration:
  • This is due to the complex nature of the carbon cycle in soils and the difficulty of distinguishing the effects of specific farming practices from other factors such as weather and soil type.
• Issue of Revenue:
  • As a result of the adoption of carbon abatement practices, the expected additional revenue and the impact on crop yield must also be considered.
  • A farmer will adopt a carbon abatement practice if he expects that revenue from the sale of carbon credits would compensate for the loss in crop yield, if any, due to its adoption.
• Lack of Reliable Data:
  • There is alack of accurate and consistent data on carbon sequestration by agricultural practices, making it difficult to quantify and trade carbon credits.
• Complex Regulations:
  • The regulatory framework for carbon trading in India is complex and not yet fully developed,making it difficult for farmers and other stakeholders to participate in carbon markets.
• High Transaction Costs:
  • The costs associated with measuring, verifying, and trading carbon credits can be high, making it difficult for small farmers and other stakeholders to participate in carbon markets.
• Limited Demand:
  • There is currently limited demand for carbon credits from the agriculture sector,making it difficult for farmers and other stakeholders to find buyers for their credits.
• Lack of Awareness:
  • Many farmers and other stakeholders in India lack awareness of the opportunities and benefits of carbon trading, and how to participate in carbon markets.

Way Forward:

• Evolving a Transparent Process of Quantification and Verification:
  • The first step towards creating a market for sequestered carbon is to evolve a transparent process of quantification and verification of additional carbon generated by different farm practices.
  • It is possible to assess the quantum of carbon sequestered using artificial intelligence and remote sensing.
• Facilitating Participation in Carbon Trading:
  • In the voluntary carbon market, selling carbon credits is a tedious process for individual farmers.
  • Nonetheless, their participation in carbon trading can be facilitated by collectives such as Farmer Producer Organization (FPOs), and cooperatives that can organise farmers to adopt carbon abatement practices and sell the accrued carbon credits on their behalf.
    • A few agro-tech companies, for example, ‘Boomitra’ and ‘Nurture. Farm’, organise farmers through intermediaries to facilitate their participation in voluntary carbon markets.
  • Creating Awareness among Farming Communities:
    • There is a need to create awareness among farming communities on the benefits of the adoption of improved agricultural practices and participation in carbon markets.