General Studies Paper -3

Context: India recently successfully tested a new Agni-V missile with MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle) technology, capable of carrying multiple warheads and striking multiple targets.

MIRV technology

• MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle)technology is the capability that allows multiple warheads to be loaded on a single missile delivery system and programmed to hit different targets, thus greatly enhancing the missile’s destructive potential.
• They can all be made to hit the same location too,one after the other, thus ensuring complete annihilation of the target.
• The technology was developed in the 1960sand first deployed in the 1970s by the United States and the then Soviet Union.
• Over the years,France, the United Kingdom, and eventually China have developed this technology. Pakistan too has claimed to have tested an MIRV-equipped missile called Ababeel, first in 2017 and then in 2023.
• The number of warheads that a missile can carry depends on its design, weight, size, range and other parameters.The one that India tested can carry three to four
• However, an MIRV-equipped missile has never been used so far in any conflict situation.Arms control advocates argue that MIRV technology incentivises the urge to strike first, thus increasing the risk from nuclear weapons.

Advantages of MIRV Technology

• Apart from the obvious advantage of inflicting multiple damages with a single strike, MIRV is a sought-after military technology for its ability to penetrate missile defence systems.
• A missile defence system is a network of technologies aimed at detecting, tracking, intercepting and destroying an incoming missile. It’s considered a good safeguard against traditional missiles.
• Another key strategic benefit, especially for countries like India which has a no-first use policy for nuclear weapons, is the capability to cause crippling damage in a response strike. The response strike could be disproportionate, and can thus serve as a deterrence to the enemy.

Agni-V Missile: One Missile, Many Weapons

• The integration of MIRV technology is a long-awaited upgrade for the Agni family of short, medium and intercontinental range ballistic missiles indigenously developed by the DRDO.
• Agni missiles are the main land-based delivery systems for India’s nuclear weapons.
• Developed in the 1990s, the first-generation Agni missiles were deployed in the armed forces in the mid-2000s.
• Agni-I to Agni-IV missiles have ranges between 700 to 3,500 km and can carry single payloads weighing between 12 and 40 kilotons. 
• Agni-V, the version that has been equipped with MIRV technology, can travel more than 5,000 km,and can potentially enter the intercontinental range as well, considered to be 5,500 km and above.
• Meanwhile, DRDO has also been developing Agni-P missiles,which are modernised versions of the short-range Agni-1 and Agni-2 variety. There was the expectation that it would be integrated with MIRV technology.
• The acquisition of MIRV technology by India was keenly awaited after China developed it in the last decade. With Pakistan also claiming to have tested a missile with this technology,integrating this in Agni missiles had become an imperative.
• The next generation Agni-VI missile, currently under development, is also expected to be equipped with MIRV.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Ministry of Home Affairs notified the Citizenship Amendment Rules under the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) which was enacted in December 2019.

Background

• In December 2019, Parliament passed an amendment to The Citizenship Act, 1955,to include a provision for grant of citizenship to migrants belonging to the Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, or Christian communities who entered India before December 31, 2014 from Pakistan, Afghanistan, or Bangladesh.
• The law was notified on January 10, 2020 amidst protests around the country, particularly in Assam, but could not be implemented in the absence of the Rules.
• On May 28, 2021, the Union government issued an order under Section 16 The Citizenship Act, 1955, giving district collectors in 13 districts with high migrant populations the power to accept citizenship applications from groups identified in the 2019 amendment.

Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019

• It seeks to fast-track Indian citizenship to Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and Christians– with the exception of Muslims – who migrated to India owing to religious persecution in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. 
• In essence, the 2019 amendment relaxed the eligibility criteria for certain classes of migrants (on religious lines) from three neighbouring Muslim-majority countries.
• Exemption: Certain categories of areas, including tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura, and areas protected by the ‘Inner Line’ system, were exempted from the purview of the CAA.
• The concept of Inner Line separates the tribal-majority hills of the Northeast from the plains areas. To enter and stay in these areas, an Inner Line Permit (ILP) is needed.

Issues/Challenges

• The legal challenge: The 2019 amendment was challenged before the Supreme Court in 2020 by the Indian Union Muslim League (IUML) and others, on the grounds of discrimination.
• The right to equality: The challenge to the CAA rests on the ground that it violates Article 14of the Constitution, which says that “the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India”.
• The petitioners’ argue that using religion as a qualifier or a filter violates the fundamental right to equality.
• Targeted towards Muslims:The petitioners have argued that the National Register of Citizens (NRC) in Assam to identify illegal immigrants, along with the CAA, will result in the targeting of Muslims.
• Secularism: There is also the larger issue of whether making religion a ground for eligibility for citizenship violates secularism, which is a basic feature of the Constitution.
• Section 6A of The Citizenship Act, 1955 and Assam:Section 6A was introduced in the Citizenship Act after the signing of the Assam Accord in 1985 which determines who is a foreigner in the state of Assam and sets March 24, 1971 as a cut off date which contradicts the cut off date given in the CAA 2019.
• Widespread protests: The protest in Assam and other northeastern states turned violent over fears that the move will cause a loss of their “political rights, culture and land rights” and motivate further migration from Bangladesh.

Government’s stand

• The government has said that Muslims have been excluded from the group of “persecuted” minorities because Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh are Islamic countries where Muslims are in majority. 
• However, it will be tested whether these three countries were picked essentially to keep Muslims out — this is because groups like Tamil Hindus in Sri Lanka, the Rohingya in Myanmar, or minority Muslim sects like Ahmadiyyas and Hazaras are also persecuted minorities in these countries.

What lies ahead?

• The court will have to look into two issues:
• Whether the special treatment given to the so-called “persecuted minorities” from the three Muslim-majority neighbouring countries only is a reasonable classification under Article 14 for granting citizenship, and
• Whether the state is discriminating against Muslims by excluding them.
• The Supreme Court has earlier held that the law has to clear two legal hoops to pass the equality test when it is challenged on the grounds of Article 14.
• First, any differentiation between groups of persons must be founded on an “intelligible differentia”, and
• Second, “that differentia must have a rational nexus to the object sought to be achieved by the Act”.
• The SC can strike down a classification if it is found to be arbitrary. The court recently struck down the electoral bonds scheme on the ground that it was “manifestly arbitrary” — that is, “irrational, capricious or without an adequate determining principle”.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India has presented a detailed model on behalf of the G4 nations for Security Council reform.

About the G4 Model

• India presented the ‘G4 model’ on behalf of Brazil, Germany, Japan and Indiafor debate, dialogue and finally negotiations.
  • The proposals elicited strong support from wider UN members.
• New Members:It proposes that the Security Council’s membership increase from the current 15 to 25-26, by adding six permanent and four or five non-permanent members.
• Regional Representation:Among the six new permanent members, two each are proposed to be from African states and Asia Pacific states, one from Latin American and Caribbean states; and one from Western European and Other states.
• Flexibility in Veto:The G4 model offered flexibility on the veto, while the new permanent members would, as a principle, have the same responsibilities and obligations as current permanent members, they shall not exercise the veto until a decision on the matter has been taken during a review.
• Permanent Members are not Specified:G4 model does not specify which member states will occupy the new permanent seats.
  • This decision will be made by the General Assembly in a democratic and inclusive election.

About the UNSC

• The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations, responsible for maintaining international peace and security.
• It was established in 1945as part of the UN Charter and is composed of 15 member states, including five permanent members with veto power—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly.
• It is headquartered in New York City.

Need for the Reforms in the UNSC

• Current Composition:The current composition of the Security Council has under-representation and un-representation of key regions.
• Inability to Adress Conflicts: The current composition of the council has an inability to address critical conflicts and maintain international peace and security.
• Changes in World Order:The world has undergone a sea change since 1945 and the new realities need to be reflected in the permanent membership.
  • Any proposal that does not address the issue of representation of the Global South, including Africa, Asia and Latin America, in the permanent category does a grave injustice to the aspirations of developing countries for equality.
• Veto Power: Currently, only the five permanent members hold veto powers and through its use have stalled action in the Council to address global challenges and conflicts such as in Ukraine and Gaza.
  • The remaining 10 nations in the Council are elected to sit as non-permanent members for two-year terms and do not have veto powers.
• Legitimacy:The disproportionate power held by the five permanent members, particularly their veto power, can lead to a perception of unfairness and lack of legitimacy.

Limitations in Introducing the Reforms in UNSC

• Veto Power of Permanent Members:Any reforms to the composition or working methods of the UNSC require the approval of the five permanent members.
  • These countries have divergent interests and are reluctant to support changes that could diminish their influence within the Council.
• Regional Dynamics:Regional rivalries and geopolitical tensions complicate efforts to reform the Council.
• Complexity of the Reform Process:Amending the UN Charter to enact reforms requires a lengthy and complex process involving ratification by a significant number of member states, making it difficult to enact substantive reforms.
• Chinese Opposition:China being a permanent member blocks the growth of India becoming a Permanent Member.

Way Ahead

• It is important that both the permanent and non-permanent membership be representative of the world as it is today, not the world as it existed in the wake of the Second World War.
• Reforms in the UNSC are essential for maintaining its relevance, legitimacy, and effectiveness in addressing the complex security challenges facing the international community in the 21st century.

However, achieving consensus on such reforms among the UN’s member states remains a challenging and ongoing process.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: A study conducted by the People’s Association in Grassroots Action and Movements recently highlighted the plight of more than 10,000 Indian cab drivers, gig and platform workers.

Major Highlights of the Study

• Long working hours:Almost a third of app-based cab drivers work for over 14 hours a day, while more than 83% work more than 10 hours and 60% work over 12 hours.
• Reflects caste equations:It noted that social disparities make the situation worse, with over 60% of the drivers from Scheduled Castes and Tribes working for over 14 hours a day, while only 16% from the unreserved category work such long hours.
• Low pay:The study report says that over 43% of participants in the study earn less than ₹500 a day or ₹15,000 a month, after deducting all their costs.
  • The study found that 34% of app-based delivery persons earn less than ₹10,000 a month, while 78% of them are spending over 10 hours each day at work.
• Demographic trends:Out of 5302 cab drivers and 5028 delivery persons across eight cities participated in a 50-question survey, 78% of the respondents were in the age group of 21 to 40 years.
• Risky business:Due to the demanding work hours, the study found that drivers are physically exhausted, and exposed to an increased risk of road traffic accidents, especially due to the ‘10-minute delivery at the doorstep’ policy of certain e-commerce platforms.
  • The report said that 86% of delivery persons found such policies “completely unacceptable”.The lack of social and job security creates additional stress and leads to potential health issues.
• Expenses exceed earnings:While 72% of the cab drivers said that they face difficulty in managing expenses, 76% of the delivery persons are struggling to make their ends meet.
  • 68% of cab drivers’ responses even show that their overall expenses exceed their earnings, which indicate how a vast number of app-based workers could be in debt-like situations.
• Huge deductions: 35% of the respondents reported the companies are deducting between 31-40% of commission rate per ride, while the officially claimed figure by the companies themselves is 20%.
• Customer misbehavior:Customer behaviour affects a significant majority (72%) of drivers in a negative way, while 68% of delivery persons are reportedly affected by it negatively,” the report said.
• Inability to take leaves:It added that 41% of the drivers said they are unable to take even a single day off in a week; 48% of delivery persons too reported their inability to take a weekly off.
• Issue of ID deactivation:A glaring 83% of the drivers reported that the issue of ID blocking affects them negatively, 47% stated that this issue extremely affects them. In the case of delivery persons, this percentage is even higher at 87%.

Gig Economy

• The gig economy is about individual workers carrying out tasks for clients through the intermediation of a platform attributing those tasks and taking care of the transfer of payment on atask-by-task basis.
• Gig workers: NITI Aayog defines ‘gig workers’ as those engaged in work outside of the traditional employer-employee arrangement.

• • NITI Aayog’s report titled ‘India’s Booming Gig and Platform Economy’ defines a gig worker as 

• “someone who engages in income-earning activities outside of a traditional employer-employee relationship, as well as in the informal sector”.
• Additionally, it defines those working with platforms such as Ola, Uber, Dunzo, Swiggy, Zomato and Urban Company as platform workers.

Significance

• The gig economy is based on temporary, or freelance jobs, often involving connecting with clients or customers through an online platform.
• The gig economy can benefit workers, businesses, and consumers by making work more adaptable to theneeds of the moment and the demand for flexible lifestyles.
• Time flexibility:Workers operating in the gig economy are allowed to work any of the hours they desire.
• Income flexibility:It is an increasingly attractive market due to the sheer flexibility that allows individuals to earn extra income.
• Size of the sector: As per the report, 47 percent of gig work currently is in medium-skilled jobs, 22 percent in high-skilled, and about 31 percent in low-skilled jobs.
  • Drivers and sales persons accounted for more than 52 percent of the gig workers in 2019-20.
  • When workers are classified by industries, the report said that 26.6 lakh gig workers were involved in retail trade and sales in FY20, and about 13 lakh were in the transportation sector.
  • Roughly 6.2 lakh persons were in manufacturing and another 6.3 lakh in the finance and insurance activities.

Suggestions/Recommendations

• Social security measures:Authors of the study recommended stronger social security for app-based workers.
  • Social security measures are required like paid sick leave, health access and insurance, retirement/pension plans and other contingency benefits.
• Oversight mechanism:They called on the government to exercise oversight on the fairness of algorithms and mechanisms used by platforms to monitor such workers.
• Skilling: It is recommended that skill gaps be bridged by carrying out assessments periodically and partnering with platform businesses for onboarding skilled women and persons with disabilities.
  • It is also suggested to make aggregate data public to enable decision-making.
• Women in the gig economy: Companies should carry out gender sensitization and accessibility awareness programmes for workers and their families, particularly to promote the rights of women and persons with disabilities.

Way Ahead

• The gig economy is a growing trend,with many people attracted to the flexibility and freedom it offers. But an adequate regulatory mechanism in place is the need of hour.
• The gig economy is here to stay, and for many, it offers a desirable work style with flexibility and autonomy. But it also comes with challenges like income insecurity and lack of benefits, which needs to be dealt with collectively by the government, private sector and civil society. 

General Studies Paper -3

Context: There is growing demand from social scientists, governments and international organisations that women’s participation in the economy/labour market should increase to promote economic growth of India.

About the Women Workforce in India

• The participation of women in the workforce is a critical indicator of a nation’s economic health and social progress.
• In India, the female labour force has been a subject of extensive research and policy discussions.
• According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO), the estimated Worker Population Ratio (WPR) for women aged 15 years and above was 28.7% in 2019-20.
• However, the latest PLFS report shows an increasing trend in the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) for women, which was8% in 2021-22.
• However, this rate is still lower than the global averageof 47% and significantly lower than countries like China, which has a female LFPR of 60%. It remains lower than some of its neighbours in South Asia such as Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.

Opportunities For Women in the Job Market

• The career opportunities for women in India are on the rise.
• India’s female labour force participation rate has been on a downtrend, declining from 32.0% in 2005 to 19.2% as of 2021.
• However, the potential for women in the job market in India is immense and largely untapped.
• Emerging Opportunities: The gig and platform economy offers flexibility and freelancing jobs. Women form a very large proportion of this segment.
• Sectors with Potential:According to United Nations Women estimates, women make up a significant proportion of all healthcare workers and more than 80% of nurses and midwives.
• Women also form a significant proportion of the workforce in the education sector in India, especially in primary education and early childhood care.
• The Role of Education:As women with higher education and professional qualifications in India tend to participate more in the labour market, it is argued by experts that greater women’s education will raise their participation rate in the labour market.

Challenges For Women in the Job Market

• Despite the progress made in recent years, women in India continue to face significant challenges in the job market. These challenges range from societal norms and expectations to structural and policy issues.
• Societal Norms and Expectations: The root cause of many challenges faced by women in the job market is the patriarchal society, where men are considered to be the breadwinners and women are expected to be the homemakers.
• Patriarchy: The root cause of low women’s participation in the labour market in India is patriarchy, a social system marked by the supremacy of the father/man in the family, community, and society.
• This societal construct often discourages women from entering the labour market and confines them to low productivity and inferior kind of work.
• Lack of Equal Opportunities: Women often face a lack of equal opportunities in the job market. It includes limited access to higher-paying jobs and leadership roles.
• The gender pay gap is another significant issue, with women globally being paid about 20% less than men.
• Career Gap and Rejoining the Workforce: Women often find it difficult to overcome career gaps and rejoin the workforce.
• This is particularly true for women who take a break from their careers for reasons such as childbirth or caregiving.
• Barriers in Leadership:Women face significant barriers in attaining leadership positions.
• These barriers can be attributed to unconscious gender stereotypes and biases that often favour men for leadership roles.
• Work-Life Balance: Achieving a work-life balance is another major challenge for women.
• Women often carry the burden of being a caregiver, which leads to concerns around work-life balance.

Related Government Initiatives

• The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY):It has been a significant initiative in empowering women in India, aimed at providing affordable housing to the urban poor, has had a substantial impact on women’s empowerment.
• Ownership:Of the total number of houses provided under PMAY, the ownership of 80% of them belongs to women. It is a significant step towards ensuring financial security and independence for women.
• Rural Impact:Over 70% of the houses under PM Awas Yojana Gramin have been given to women from rural areas. It highlights the government’s commitment to uplift the rural women population.
• PM SVANidhi Scheme: It was launched by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, is a micro-credit scheme for street vendors.
• It aims to facilitate collateral-free working capital loans to street vendors to restart their businesses, which were adversely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Impact on Women:The PM SVANidhi scheme has proven to be a gender equaliser and has helped promote ‘inclusive entrepreneurship’.
• The Lakhpati Didi initiative: It is a significant step towards the economic empowerment of women in India. It encourages each Self Help Group (SHG) household to take up multiple livelihood activities coupled with value chain interventions, resulting in a sustainable income of Rupees One Lakh or more per year.
• It has had a transformative impact on the rural socio-economic landscape, with 83 lakh SHGs involving nine crore women.
• The NaMo Drone Didi initiative:It is a significant step towards the economic empowerment of women in India. It aims to provide drones to 15,000 women Self Help Groups (SHGs) for rental services to farmers.

Other Key Steps/Initiatives

• Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017:It provides for enhancement in paid maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks and provisions for mandatory crèche facility in establishments having 50 or more
• Night Shifts for Women:An advisory has been issued to the States under the Factories Act, 1948 for permitting women workers in the night shifts with adequate safety measures.
• Skill India Mission:To enhance the employability of female workers, the Government is providing training to them through a network of Women Industrial Training Institutes, National Vocational Training Institutes, and Regional Vocational Training Institutes.
• Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana and Stand Up India:These schemes help women to set up their own enterprise.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojna (PMUY):This scheme aims to safeguard the health of women by providing them with clean cooking fuel and also reduce burden on them from drudgery of collecting firewood.
• MGNREGA (2005):It mandates that at least one third of the jobs generated under the scheme should be given to women.
• Safety and Security: Initiatives like the One-Stop Centre Scheme and Women Helpline provide integrated support to women affected by violence.
• Financial Inclusion and Entrepreneurship:Schemes like Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana and Stand Up India encourage financial independence and entrepreneurship among women.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• By addressing the root cause of patriarchy, promoting education for women, and reducing the burden of unpaid domestic work, we can hope to see an increase in women’s participation in the labour market, leading to economic growth and prosperity.
• It is believed that when women’s participation rate, which is one of the lowest in Asia, increases, it will bring prosperity to the Indian economy.
• With concerted efforts and targeted strategies along with a change in attitudes, women can take advantage of these new labour market opportunities.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Union Cabinet approved the IndiaAI Mission for the next five years.

• The Mission will be implemented by ‘IndiaAI’ Independent Business Division (IBD) under Digital India Corporation (DIC).
• The IndiaAI mission will establish a comprehensive ecosystem catalyzing AI innovation through strategic programs and partnerships across the public and private sectors.

Key Features of IndiaAI Mission

• IndiaAI Compute Capacity:The ecosystem will comprise AI compute infrastructure of 10,000 or more Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), built through public-private partnership.
• Further, an AI marketplace will be designed to offer AI as a service and pre-trained models to AI innovators.
• It will act as a one-stop solution for resources critical for AI innovation.
• IndiaAI Innovation Centre: It will undertake the development and deployment of indigenous Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) and domain-specific foundational models in critical sectors.
• IndiaAI Datasets Platform: The Platform will streamline access to quality non-personal datasets for AI Innovation.
• A unified data platform will be developed to provide a one-stop solution for seamless access to non-personal datasets to Indian Startups and Researchers.
• IndiaAI Application Development Initiative: The initiative will focus on developing/scaling/promoting adoption of impactful AI solutions with potential for catalyzing large scale socio-economic transformation.
• IndiaAI FutureSkills: It is conceptualized to mitigate barriers to entry into AI programs and will increase AI courses in undergraduate, masters-level, and Ph.D. programs.
• IndiaAI Startup Financing:It is conceptualized to support and accelerate deep-tech AI startups and provide them streamlined access to funding to enable futuristic AI Projects.
• Safe & Trusted AI: The Safe & Trusted AI pillar will enable the implementation of Responsible AI projects including the development of indigenous tools and frameworks, self-assessment checklists for innovators, and other guidelines and governance frameworks.

Significance

• The approved India AI Mission will propel innovation and build domestic capacities to ensure the tech sovereignty of India. 
• It will also create highly skilled employment opportunities to harness the demographic dividend of the country.
• It will drive responsible, inclusive growth of India’s AI ecosystem.
• India AI Mission will help India demonstrate to the world how this transformative technology can be used for social good and enhance its global competitiveness.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: A historic milestone in India’s nuclear programme was achieved, when the process of core-loading the indigenous Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) was started at the Madras Atomic Power Station in Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. This process marks the beginning of stage II in India’s three-stage nuclear Energy Program.

What is India’s three-stage nuclear energy program?

Historical Background- The roadmap of India’s three-stage nuclear program was envisioned by Dr. Homi J Bhabha. The program had been conceived with the ultimate objective of utilising the country’s vast reserves of thorium-232. India hosts roughly a quarter of the world’s thorium, and the three stages are expected to make the country completely self-sufficient in nuclear energy.

Three-stage Nuclear Energy Program

Working of 3-Stages

Stage I

1. In the Stage-I, India used the Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) with natural uranium-238 (U-238) as the fuel. The U-238 contained minuscule amounts of U-235, as the fissile material.
2. A nuclear fission process was initiated and heavy water (water molecules containing the deuterium isotope of hydrogen) slowed the release of neutrons released by one fission reaction enough to be captured by other U-238 and U-235 nuclei and cause new fission.
3. The reactions produce fissile Plutonium-239 (Pu-239) and energy.

Stage II

239. Only U-235 can sustain a chain fissile reaction. However, it is consumed fully in stage I. Hence, Stage II aims at using the fissile Plutonium-239 (Pu-239) produced as the end product of Stage I with U-238 to produce energy, U-233 and more Pu-239.
240. By the end of the second stage of the cycle, the reactor produces more fissile material than it consumes. Hence, it is called a ‘Breeder‘ reactor. In these ‘fast breeder’ reactor, the neutrons aren’t slowed.

Stage III

233. It focuses on combining Pu-239 with thorium-232 (Th-232) in advanced heavy water reactors to produce energy and U-233.
234. This stage uses the naturally available thorium-232 in India and hence will help in achieving nuclear energy self-sufficiency.

What are the important milestone events in India’s Nuclear Energy Program?

The establishment of several institutions has played a critical role in driving India’s Nuclear Energy Program.

Passive Phase

• 1945: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was established by Homi J. Bhabha with the goal of conducting research in fundamental sciences.
• 1948: The Atomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) was established as a government agency responsible for formulating and implementing the country’s nuclear policy.
• 1954: The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was created. It has been engaged in the development of nuclear power technology and applications of radiation technologies in the fields of agriculture, medicine, industry, and basic research.
• 1957: Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) was established by Dr. Homi Bhabha for a multidisciplinary research program essential for the ambitious nuclear program of India. In 1966, AEET was renamed Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
• 1963: The USA and India sign an accord for the supply of enriched fuel to India’s Tarapur nuclear power plant.
• 1969: Nuclear Power Grid connection was established from the Tarapur Plant.

However, India did not sign the NPT in 1970, did not become a member of the NSG in 1974. After India’s first nuclear Test, Smiling Buddha in 1974, there was widespread condemnation from the international community. There was international apartheid against India in supply of nuclear fuel.

Active Phase

• 1987: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) was established as a public sector undertaking responsible for the generation of electricity from nuclear power.
• 2003: Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd. (BHAVINI) was set up by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) as a special-purpose vehicle to implement stage II of the 3-stage nuclear power program.
• 2022: 22 operational reactors in India with a total installed capacity of, 6780 MWe (Megawatts electric). 10 nuclear power reactors with a total of 8000 MW capacity are under construction.

What are the advantages of India’s Nuclear Energy Programme?

1. Energy Sovereignty- Fossil-based energy sources contributed about 82% of the primary energy supplied in 2021. India imports a significant part of its fossil fuels (coal and gas) for energy generation. Bulk fuel imports raise economic and strategic vulnerabilities for a developing country like India. Nuclear energy can help India reduce its dependence on imported fuel.
2. Decarbonisation of power Sector- Thermal power plants have high carbon footprint as they contribute heavily to global warming, climate change and air pollution. Nuclear power plants will help in decarbonising the power sector.
3. Limitations attached with other renewable energy sources- Solar energy is land intensive, wind energy requires energy storage systems. Also, they require imported technologies and materials such as photovoltaic cells, batteries, and storage equipment. On the other hand, indigenous nuclear reactors have reduced dependency in critical imports.
4. Cheaper to Operate- Nuclear power plants are cheaper to operate than coal or gas plants, despite the cost of managing radioactive fuel and disposal. According to estimates, nuclear plants cost only 33-50% of a coal plant and 20-25% of a gas combined-cycle plant.
5. Reliable and Continuous Power- Nuclear energy provide reliable and continuous base load power, unlike solar and wind energy, which are intermittent and dependent on weather conditions.
6. Resource Base- India has vast thorium reserves which could be exploited using a thermal breeder reactor. A significant amount of thorium reserves are found in the monazite sands of coastal regions of South India.

What are the challenges to India’s Programme?

1. Capital Intensive- Nuclear power plants are capital intensive. There have been cost over runs in recently built nuclear power plants.
2. Insufficient Installed Capacity- The current installed capacity is only 6.78 GW, against the vision of 650GW of installed capacity by 2050 set by the Atomic Energy Commission.
3. Nuclear Safety- Local communities in India have been resisting nuclear reactors due to fears of nuclear disasters like Chernobyl, 1986 or Fukushima, 2011. For ex- Locals protesting against the Mithi virdi nuclear project in Gujarat.
4. Nuclear Liability- India’s Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010, has been a contentious issue for foreign suppliers. Foreign suppliers have been reluctant to invest in India’s Nuclear Energy Programs due to fears of being held accountable for accidents beyond their control.
5. Hurdles created by NSG and NPT- India’s non-ratification of NPT and lack of NSG membership, has created diplomatic hurdles in accessing more nuclear fuel and better nuclear technologies.
6. Use of outdated Technology- Currently operational Indian nuclear reactors have become outdated and suffer from multiple operational probles. For ex- 6 VVER (water-water energy reactor) design reactors encountering operational problems at Kudankulam.

What should be the way Forward?

1. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)– Indigenous Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) must be built at coal plant sites which would be retiring in the coming decades. SMRs offer the advantages of being safe, economical, compact and adaptable. Partnerships with NTPC and other thermal plant owners must be explored.
2. Expansion of indigenous PHWR reactors- The Indigenous 700 MWe PHWR, must be expanded in fleet mode to add to the installed nuclear power capacity in India.
3. Push to the Stage-3 of Nuclear Power Program- The second and third stages of nuclear-power programme must be propelled to utilise the existing thorium energy potential in the country.
4. Development of Nuclear Fusion technology- The development of nuclear fusion technology must be explored, which is safer than nuclear fission. The vast reserves, in the form of ocean water, will be added advantage for India.
5. Augmentation of safety of nuclear facilities- There must be constant updation of safety skills of nuclear operators. Further, masses must be comprehensively sensitised about the functioning of nuclear power plants using highly intellectual individuals having mass appeal. For ex- Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam sensitizing the masses before the establishment of the Kudankulam nuclear power plant.
6. Ensuring Regulatory Autonomy- The AERB, India’s nuclear regulatory body, must be provided functional autonomy by removing its reporting from the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).

General Studies Paper -3

Context: MethaneSAT, a new satellite backed by Alphabet Inc’s Google and the Environmental Defense Fund group, was launched recently.

About

• The satellite will track and measure methane emissions at a global scale and was launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon9 rocket from California.
• It is not the first spacecraft to identify and quantify methane emissions, it will provide more details and have a much wider field of view than any of its predecessors.

Methane Emissions and Need to Track it

• Contribution of Methane Gas:Methane is an invisible but strong greenhouse gas, and the second largest contributor to global warming after carbon dioxide, responsible for 30 percent of global heating since the Industrial Revolution.
• According to the United Nations Environment Programme, over a period of 20 years, methane is 80 times more potent at warming than carbon dioxide.
• Formation of Ground level Ozone: The gas also contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone — a colourless and highly irritating gas that forms just above the Earth’s surface.
• Exposure to ground-level ozone could be contributing to one million premature deaths every year.
• Major Contributor:The main reason is fossil fuel operations, which account for about 40 percent of all human-caused methane emissions.
• Therefore, it is crucial to cut methane emissions and the objective of MethaneSAT is to help achieve this goal.

About MethaneSAT

• It is developed by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) — a US-based nonprofit environmental advocacy group with Harvard University, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and the New Zealand Space Agency.
• MethaneSATwill orbit the Earth 15 times a day, monitoring the oil and gas sector.
• Specifications:It can track differences in methane concentrations as small as three parts per billion in the atmosphere, which enables it to pick up smaller emissions sources than the previous satellites.
• MethaneSAT also has a wide-camera view of about 200 km by 200 km allowing it to identify larger emitters so-called “super emitters”.
• Tracking and Data Creation:It will create a large amount of data to disclose how much methane is coming from where, who’s responsible, and are those emissions going up or down over time.
• The collected data will be analysed using cloud-computing and AI technology developed by Google — the company is a mission partner — and the data will be made public through Google’s Earth Engine platform.

Significance: This will allow stakeholders and regulators to take action to reduce methane emissions.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: The article highlights the issue of inadequate representation of women in Green jobs.

What is a Green Job?

As per International Labour Organization, it is a decent job that contributes to preservation or restoration of the environment. They can be in traditional sectors such as manufacturing and construction or in new segments linked to green energy.

What is the status of women participation in green jobs market?

• Despite tremendous increase in India’s renewable energy capacity, women comprised only 11% of workers in the solar rooftop sector.
• The Annual Survey of Industries 2019-20 shows that women workers are mostly concentrated in industries such as apparel, textile, leather, food, and tobacco.

What are the reasons behind their low participation in the green jobs market?

1. Gender Stereotypes-There is a general belief that women are unsuitable for certain technical roles. There are also concern about the safety of women.
2. Low participation in manufacturing and engineering sector– In India, Women constitute 42.7% of the total STEM graduates (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). However, they represent only 30.8% in engineering, manufacturing and construction programmes which are the key sectors for green transition.
3. Lack of robust data– There are no periodic gender analysis and gender statistics on green jobs.
4. Lack of proper training– A Skill Council for Green Jobs study indicated that 85% of the training for green skills was imparted to men. Due to lack of green skill, their participation is restricted.
5. Lack of women friendly policies– There are no dedicated Gender-focused financial policies and products which could cater to the requirements of women entrepreneurs.

What is the significance of enhanced women participation in green jobs?

1. Foster gender equality– It can address the gender biases in the Indian labour market and improve women’s labour force participation rates.
2. Sustainable economy– It would help in unlocking the benefits of a low-carbon and environmentally sustainable economy.

What should be the way forward?

1. Plugging data gap– There is a need to conduct gender analysis, collecting gender statistics on green jobs through periodic labour force surveys to emphasize women’s role in the green transition.
2. Address structural barriers-There is a need to address issues like low participation of women in manufacturing and engineering field and lack of adequate skill development training for women.
3. Women friendly policies– The government should devise ways to ensure collateral-free lending, financial literacy training to unlock the true potential of women. COP 28’s ‘Gender-Responsive Just Transitions and Climate Action Partnership’ with a focus on improved data, targeted finance, and skill development is a step in right direction.
4. Leadership – There is a need to bring more women into leadership positions to incorporate gender-specific needs in low-carbon economy.
5. Multi-stake holder participation– There should be partnerships across government, private sector and other stakeholders to ensure the availability of technology and finance for women entrepreneurs and workers.

Businesses must recognize the centrality of gender justice and ensure equity throughout the process of green transition by mitigating existing barriers.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: About 90% of the Himalayan Region is going to experience drought lasting over a year if global warming increases by 3 degrees Celsius, according to new research led by researchers at the University of East Anglia (UEA) in the U.K.

Major Highlights of the Study

• Pollination: It found that in India pollination is reduced by half at 3-4 degrees global warming compared to a quarter reduction at 1.5 degrees.
• Biodiversity: Limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius allows half the country to act as a refuge for biodiversity, compared with 6% at 3 degrees, the researchers said.
• Agriculture: The team found more than 50% of the agricultural land in India will be exposed to drought with 3 degrees Celsius warming and is projected to be exposed to severe droughts of longer than one year over a 30-year period.
• Sea-level rise:Economic damages associated with sea-level rise are projected to increase in coastal nations, but more slowly if warming was limited to 1.5 degrees Celsius, they said.
• Natural capital risk: Areas in the six countries studied, including India, are already at high natural capital risk at 1.5 degrees Celsius when effects of increasing human population are accounted
• Climate change risks:They provide additional confirmation of the rapid escalation of climate change risks with global warming found in the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) 2022 report, which identifies how the risk of severe consequences increases with every additional increment of global warming.

Suggestions/Recommendations

• Adhere to Paris agreement goals:Limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius would reduce the increase in exposure of agricultural land to drought by between 21% , 80% of the increased human exposure to heat stress can be avoided and also economic damages due to fluvial flooding can be reduced.
• Enhanced efforts: The researchers warned that more effort is needed to reduce global warming, as currently the policies in place globally are likely to result in 3 degrees Celsius of global warming.
• Expansion of protected area:The findings also showed that an expansion of protected area networks is necessary in order to deliver climate resilient biodiversity conservation.
• Mitigation as well as adaptation: Greater emphasis needs to be placed on both climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation to avoid large increases in risk to both human and natural systems.
• Restore ecosystems:A good way to combat the effects of climate change on natural systems and soak up carbon from the atmosphere is to restore ecosystems to their natural state. This has the additional benefit of restoring the natural capital bank in these areas.

Global warming

• It refers to the long-term heating of Earth’s climate systemobserved since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900), primarily due to human activities.
• This process releases greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, trapping heat in the atmosphereand causing the planet to warm.