General Studies Paper -3 

Context: The Gender Inequality Index 2022 has been released by UNDP in their Human Development Report 2023/2024.

About the Index 

• GII is a composite metric of gender inequality using three dimensions:
• reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market.
• A low GII value indicates low inequality between women and men, and vice-versa.

Findings 

• Denmark topped the index followed by Norway, Switzerland and Sweden.
• India has registered a significant jump of 14 ranks in Gender Inequality Index 2022.
• It ranked 108 out of 193 countries with a score of 0.437 in GII 2022.
• In 2022, India saw improvements across all HDI indicators — life expectancy, education, and gross national income (GNI) per capita and life expectancy rose from 67.2 to 67.7 years, expected years of schooling reached 12.6, mean years of schooling increased to 6.57 and GNI per capita saw an increase from USD 6,542 to USD 6,951.

India’s Progressive Improvement

• Over the last 10 years, India’s rank in GII has become consistently better, indicating progressive improvement in achieving gender equality in the country.
• India’s adolescent birth rate in 2022 was 16.3 (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19), an improvement from 17.1 in 2021.
• However, the country still has one of the largest gender gaps in its labour force participation rate — a 47.8% difference between women (28.3 %) and men (76.1 %).

Major Initiatives Helping India in Improvement

• Code on Social Security, 2020:Provisions for women’s social security across various aspects.
• Mission Shakti: Self-help mission for empowering women through promotion of Women Self Help Groups (WSHGs) to take up various socio-economic activities.
• Others: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP), Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana, Ujjwala Yojana, reservations and legislative policies etc.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: NITI Aayog B.V.R. Subrahmanyam recently claimed that less than 5% of Indians now live below the poverty line. He made the claim based on the findings of the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES), 2022-23. 

About

• The Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) claimed that India’s rural poverty level had declined to2% in 2022-23 from 25.7% in 2011-12, while urban poverty slipped to 4.6% from 13.7% over the same period.
• The HCES is usually conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every 5 years. It is designed to collect information on the consumption of goods and services by households.
• At a national level, the report reckoned that the poverty rate in India could now be in the range of 4% to 5%, with a caveat that these numbers could undergo minor revisions once the Census to count the population that was due in 2021, is completed and the rural-urban population share is published.
• Other Estimates of Poverty in India
• ‘Multidimensional Poverty in India since 2005-06: A Discussion Paper’: NITI Ayog:
• Multidimensional poverty in India declined from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23.
• As many as 82 crore people moved out of multidimensional poverty in nine years to 2022-23, with Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh registering the largest decline.

Multidimensional Poverty Index 2023:

• The MPI 2023 estimates show a near-halving of India’s national MPI value and a decline from 24.85% to 14.96% between 2015-16 and 2019-21.
• This reduction of 9.89 percentage points implies that about 5 million people have exited poverty between 2015-16 and 2019-21.
• Besides, the intensity of poverty, which measures the average deprivation among the people living in multidimensional poverty, reduced from 47.14% to 44.39%.
• Poverty in India
• Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods. Its manifestations include hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services, social discrimination and exclusion as well as the lack of participation in decision-making.
• Poverty in India remains a complex challenge despite significant reductions in recent decades.

Current Issues

• Debates on Definition and Measurement: Different poverty lines (income levels considered poor) and data sources lead to varying estimates.
• The World Bank, using the $2.15 per day benchmark(PPP – Purchasing Power Parity), estimates an 9% poverty rate for India.
• The Indian government claims a lower national poverty, with figures below 5%of the population below the poverty line .
• Government Data: The Indian government uses its own poverty indicators, which tends to show lower poverty rates compared to international benchmarks.
• Uneven Progress:Poverty reduction has been faster in rural areas compared to urban areas.

Causes of Poverty

• Limited Livelihood Opportunities:Lack of access to good jobs, especially in rural areas, keeps people trapped in poverty.
• Social Inequality: Caste discrimination, gender bias, and lack of access to education disproportionately affect marginalized communities.
• Low Productivity in Agriculture:The level of productivity in agriculture is low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc.
• Inequality in the Distribution of Income and Assets:The poor mainly consists of unskilled labor, which typically does not command a high enough level of wage income.
• The benefits of the growth have been concentrated and have not “trickled down” sufficiently to ensure improved consumption among the lower income groups.
• Lack of Access to Social Services:The lack of access to social services such as health and education compound the problems arising from inequality in the ownership of physical and human assets
• Lack of access to Institutional Credit:The banks and other financial institutions are biased in the provision of loans to the poor for the fear of default in the repayment of loans.
• Lack of Productive Employment :  The magnitude of poverty is directly linked to the unemployment situation. The present employment conditions don’t permit a reasonable level of living causing poverty.
• Caste system: Caste system in India has always been responsible for rural poverty. The subordination of the low caste people by the high caste people  caused the poverty of the former
• Social customs:The rural people generally spend a large percentage of annual earnings on social ceremonies like marriage, death feast etc. and borrow largely to meet these requirements. As a result, they remain in debt and poverty.
• Vicious Circle of Poverty: Low level of saving reduces the scope for investment; low level of investment yields low income and thus the circle of poverty goes on indefinitely.

Poverty Line Estimation in India

• Tendulkar committee (2009): Poverty line in the Suresh Tendulkar methodology was expenditure of ₹33 a day in urban areas and ₹27 a day in rural areas. 
• Thus, India’s poors as percentage of total population in2011-12 as per the Tendulkar committee was 9.
• Rangarajan committee(2014):In the Rangarajan methodology, it was ₹47 a day in urban areas and ₹30 a day in rural areas.
• Thus, India’s poor population as percentage of Indian population in 2011-12 was 5,as per Rangarajan committee.
• Current poverty line calculation by NITI Aayog:A new approach has evolved by the NITI Aayog to incorporate multiple dimensions and non-income factors in the form of  Multidimensional Poverty Index, based on National Family Health Surveys(NFHS) results.
• At the core of the MPI is the Alkire-Foster (AF) methodology, a globally accepted general framework for measuring multidimensional poverty, which captures overlapping deprivations in health, education, and living standards.
• International Poverty Line: The World Bank defines a person as extremely poor if she is living on less than $2.15 per day, which is adjusted for inflation as well as price differences between countries.

Suggestions/Measures

• Address interlinkages: Inequalities of income, education, and opportunity are all interconnected and must be addressed together.
• Reducing inequalities of opportunity and of incomes among individuals, populations, and regions can foster social cohesion and boost general well-being.
• Jobs and employment are the surest way to reduce poverty and inequality.
• Poverty eradication must be mainstreamed into the national policies and actions in accordance with the internationally agreed development goals forming part of the broad United Nations Development Agenda.
• Education and health:It is essential that the government should provide education and health services free of cost for the deserving citizens and those from the socially oppressed classes.
• Government Initiatives to Reduce Poverty in India 
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Work (MGNREGA):It provides wage employment while also focusing on strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty.
• Flagship programmes like the Poshan Abhiyanand Anaemia Mukt Bharat have contributed to reduced deprivations in health.
• Initiatives such as Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) and Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) have improved sanitation across the country.
• The provision of subsidized cooking fuel through the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)has positively transformed lives in rural areas.
• Initiatives like Saubhagya, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), and Samagra Shiksha have also played a major role in significantly reducing multidimensional poverty in the country.

Way Ahead

• India has made progress in eliminating extreme poverty but still there is a long way to go ahead, as seen in the World Bank’s recent claim that74% Indians still can’t afford a nutritious diet.
• Further, to get the real picture of poverty in India revision of the poverty line as per changing socio-economic realities is needed.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Union Cabinet recently gave its approval for the signing of Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of India and the Royal Government of Bhutan.

About

• The MoU signed between the two countries is on General Supply of Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL) and related products from India to Bhutan.
• It aims to benefit India and its citizens with improved economic and commercial linkages with Bhutan irrespective of any gender, class or income bias, particularly in the area of hydrocarbon sector.

Expected Benefits of MoU

• The Memorandum of Understanding will promote bilateral trade in the hydrocarbon sector and will ensure secured and long term supply of petroleum products to Bhutan.
• Since, exports play a crucial role in realizing Aatmanirbhar Bharat. The MoU will give thrust towards self-reliant India. 
• The MoU will be a strategic fit as Energy Bridge in India’s Neighborhood First Policy.

India-Bhutan Relations: An Overview

• Diplomatic relations between India and Bhutan were established in 1968with the establishment of a special office of India in Thimphu.
• Before this our relations with Bhutan were looked after by our Political Officer in Sikkim. 
• The basic framework of India- Bhutan bilateral relations was the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in 1949between the two countries, which was revised in February 2007.
• The India-Bhutan Friendship Treaty not only reflects the contemporary nature of our relationship but also lays the foundation for their future developmentin the 21st century.

Major Areas of Cooperation

Hydropower Cooperation

• Hydropower projects in Bhutan are an example of win-win cooperation,providing a reliable source of inexpensive and clean electricity to India, generating export revenue for Bhutan and cementing our economic integration.
• The ongoing cooperation between India and Bhutan in the Hydropower sector is covered under the 2006 Agreement on Cooperation in Hydropower and the Protocol to the 2006 agreement signed in March, 2009.
• So far, the Government of India has constructed three Hydroelectric Projects (HEPs) in Bhutan totaling 1416 MW (336 MW Chukha HEP, 60 MW Kurichhu HEP and 1020 MW Tala HEP), which are operational and exporting surplus power to India.
• About three-fourth of the power generated is exported and the rest is used for domestic consumption.

Bilateral Trade

• The India-Bhutan Agreement on Trade, Commerce and Transit – which was first signed in 1972 and revised most recently for the fifth time in 2016 – establishes a free trade regime between the two countries.
• India is Bhutan’s largest trading partner. Since 2014, India’s merchandise trade with Bhutan has almost tripled from USD 484 million in 2014-15 to USD 1422 million in 2021-22, accounting for about 80% of Bhutan’s overall trade, with the balance of trade in India’s favour.
• In 2021-22, India’s bilateral trade with Bhutan was USD 1422 million, of which India’s exports to Bhutan amounted to USD 877 million and India’s imports from Bhutan were USD 545 million.

Border Management

• There is a Secretary-level mechanismon border management and security related matters. There is also a Border District Coordination Meeting Mechanism between the bordering States and the Royal Government of Bhutan to facilitate coordination on border management and other related matters.

Water Resource Management

• There is a Joint Group of Experts (JGE) on flood management between India and Bhutan to discuss/ assess the probable causes and effects of the recurring floods and erosion in the southern foothills of Bhutan and adjoining plains in India and to recommend appropriate measures to both Governments.

Educational and Cultural Cooperation

• A large number of college going Bhutanese students are studying in India. It is estimated that approximately 4000 Bhutanese are studying in Under Graduate courses in Indian Universities on a self-financing basis.

ITEC Training Programme Scheme

• Every year GoI provides 300 training slots under ITEC programme and a further 60 slots under TCS Colombo Plan in various fields to Bhutanese for upgrading their administrative and technical skills.

Challenges

• China’s Growing Influence:China’s increasing presence near the disputed India-Bhutan-China border and its growing economic ties with Bhutan raise concerns for India’s strategic interests.
• Delay in Projects:Delays and disagreements regarding revenue sharing from India-Bhutan hydropower projects can create tension.
• Trade Dependence:Bhutan’s heavy reliance on India for trade makes it vulnerable to economic fluctuations in India.
• Hydropower Projects and Environmental Risks:Bhutan has concerns about environmental and social impacts from hydropower projects.
• Motor Vehicle Agreement:India’s plans for a Motor Vehicle Agreement within the Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal grouping have faced delays.
• Power Purchasing Policy:India’s sudden change in its power purchasing policy, rigid rates, and refusal to allow Bhutan to join the national power grid and trade with third countries like Bangladesh has strained relations.

Measures Needed

Strengthening Economic Cooperation: India can invest in infrastructure development, tourism, and other sectors to diversify Bhutan’s economy and reduce its dependence.

• Enhanced Connectivity:Improved road, rail, and air links will  boost trade, tourism, and people-to-people exchanges.
• Cultural and Educational Exchange: Programs fostering cultural understanding and educational opportunities  can strengthen the bond between the two nations.
• Strategic Dialogue:Regular high-level talks  on security and border issues can address concerns and maintain transparency.
• Addressing Bhutan’s Concerns:India must address Bhutan’s anxieties regarding  China’s influence through sensitive diplomacy and economic cooperation.
• Multilateral Cooperation: Collaboration on regional projects  like hydropower and infrastructure development can be pursued  through organizations like BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical Cooperation).

Way Forward

• Maintaining a strong and mutually beneficial relationship with Bhutanis crucial for India’s strategic interests in the region.
• By addressing challenges and implementing the measures required, India and Bhutan can ensure a prosperous and secure future for both nations.

General Studies Paper -2

Context:

• Global child deaths reached a historic low in 2022,according to the latest estimates by the United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. 

About

• The report noted the annual number of global under-five deaths in 2022 declined by more than half from the 2000 estimate — from 9.9 million to 4.9 million.
• However, the numbers are still bad. Globally,
• neonatal deaths, or the death of a baby within 28 days of birth, happened every 14 seconds;
• a child aged under five died every six seconds and
• an adolescent (ages 10 to 19)died every 35 seconds in 2022, the report found.

Major Highlights of the Report

• Decline in child deaths: The report noted a62 per cent decline in child deaths from the 1990 estimates.
• However, it warned that “these averages mask persistent and entrenched inequities among vulnerable populations of children.”
• Neonatal deaths:While the larger trend shows a decline, the trend of under-five deaths has increased in the neonatal period from 41 per cent in 2000 to 47 per cent in 2022.
• The slower decline in neonatal deaths is due to factors like population change and differences in the cause-of-death structure by age.
• Mortality among 1–59-month-olds is generally more responsive to basic public health interventions, while neonatal mortality relates more to complications around the time of birth.
• Sub-saharan Africa:Sub-Saharan Africa, where annual neonatal deaths have stagnated at about 1 million, bears the greatest burden of under-five deaths in the world.
• The mortality rate for children aged 28 days was 46 deaths per 1,000children in the region, more than two times higher than the global average of 20 deaths per 1,000 children aged 28 days.
• Leading causes:Prematurity, pneumonia, trauma, malaria and diarrhoea are among the leading causes of death for newborns and children, all preventable causes.
• These illnesses could have been prevented with vaccinations, availability of skilled health personnel at birth, support for early and continued breastfeeding.
• Survival factors:The child’s survival largely depends on the place of birth; whether the child belongs to a low-income or high-income country, and also on the inequity within countries.
• On average, children living in rural areas are at a higher risk of death before age 5 compared to their urban counterparts.
• Predictions: The report estimates that 35 million children under the age of 5 will lose their life before 2030 and sub-Saharan Africa will bear most of the death toll.
• It further warned that under current trends, 59 countries will miss the SDG under-five mortality target and 64 countries will miss the neonatal mortality target.

Child Mortality in India: Status and Trends

• As per the Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report 2020 released on 22nd September 2022by Registrar General of India (RGI), the country has been witnessing a progressive reduction in IMR, U5MR and NMR since 2014 towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) targets by 2030.
• Under 5 Mortality Rate (U5MR) for the country has shown a significant decline of 3 points from 2019 (32 per 1000 live births in 2020 against 35 per 1000 live births in 2019).

• • It varies from 36 in rural areas to 21 in urban areas and U5MR for females is higher (33) than male (31).

• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)has also registered a 2-point decline to 28 per 1000 live births in 2020 from 30 per 1000 live births in 2019 (Annual Decline Rate: 6.7%).
• The Rural-Urban difference has narrowed to 12 points (Urban 19, Rural-31).
• Neonatal Mortality Ratehas also declined by 2 points from 22 per 1000 live births in 2019 to 20 per 1000 live births in 2020 (Annual Decline Rate: 9.1%).

• • It ranges from 12 in urban areas to 23 in rural areas.

Major Causes of Child Mortality in India

• Preterm Birth Complications:Low birth weight, respiratory problems due to underdeveloped lungs.
• Birth Asphyxia:Lack of oxygen during delivery, leading to brain damage or death.
• Neonatal Infections:Sepsis, pneumonia can overwhelm a newborn’s weak immune system.
• Pneumonia:The leading cause, often linked to malnutrition and air pollution.
• Diarrhoea:Dehydration caused by infectious diseases like rotavirus.
• Malnutrition:Stunting and wasting weaken a child’s immune system and increase vulnerability to infections.

Measures to Reduce Child Mortality

Improving Maternal Health

• Prenatal Care:Regular checkups, proper nutrition for pregnant women to prevent complications and low birth weight.
• Skilled Birth Attendance:Deliveries by trained midwives or doctors to ensure safe childbirth.
• Postnatal Care:Monitoring the well-being of mothers and newborns after delivery.

Combating Childhood Illnesses

• Immunization Programs:Ensure universal access to vaccinations for preventable diseases like measles, pneumonia, and diarrhea.
• Improved Sanitation and Hygiene:Promote handwashing with soap, access to clean drinking water, and proper sanitation facilities.
• Pneumonia Control:Early diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics.
• Diarrhoea Management:Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) with clean water and electrolytes to prevent dehydration.

Addressing Malnutrition

• Nutritional Programs:Promote breastfeeding for newborns, provide access to nutritious food for mothers and children, especially during the crucial first 1000 days of life.

Public Awareness

• Educate families:Importance of good hygiene, breastfeeding, timely medical care for children, and recognizing danger signs of illness.

Additional Measures

• Invest in Healthcare Infrastructure:Equip health facilities, especially in rural areas, with necessary supplies and train healthcare workers.
• Address Social Determinants:Poverty, lack of education, and gender inequality significantly contribute to child mortality.
• Empowering Women:Education and economic empowerment of women lead to better health outcomes for themselves and their children.

Way Ahead

• By tackling causes behind the child mortality and implementing required measures, India can significantly reduce child mortality and ensure a healthier future for its young generation.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The United Nations Development Programme has released the Human Development Report 2023-24.

About Human Development Index (HDI)

• The HDI is a composite index computed based on three parameters – life expectancy, education, and gross national income (GNI) per capita.

Major Findings

• Rise in Global Ineqalities:After 20 years of convergence, the gap between the richest and poorest countries has started to widen from 2020.
• Rich countries are experiencing record levels of human development, while half of the world’s poorest countries remain below their pre-covid level.
• SDG Goal: Before the covid crisis, the world was on track to reach an average “very high” HDI by 2030, coinciding with the deadline for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• Now it is off track, with every region running below its pre-2019 projections.
• India:India has been ranked 134th out of 193 countries. India’s ranking has improved by one position this year.
• India has been placed in the medium human development category.
• India saw improvements across all HDI indicators– life expectancy, education, and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.
• India demonstrated progress in reducing gender inequality, India’s GII value is better than the global and South Asian averages.
• India also has one of the largest gender gaps in the labour force participation rate—a 47.8 percentage point difference between women (28.3%) and men (76.1%).

• India’s Neighbours:Sri Lanka has been ranked at 78, while China is ranked 75, both categorized under the High Human Development category.
• Bhutan stands at 125 and Bangladesh is in the 129th position.
• Nepal (146) and Pakistan (164) have been ranked lower than India.
• Top Ranked:Switzerland has been ranked number one followed by Norway and Iceland.
• Bottom Ranked:Central African Republic (191), South Sudan (192) and Somalia (193) were at the bottom of the Index.

Recommendation as per the Report for Improvement in HDI:

• Planetary public goods for climate stabilityas we confront the unprecedented challenges of the Anthropocene;
• Digital global public goods for greater equityin harnessing new technologies for equitable human development;
• New and expanded financial mechanisms, including a novel track in international cooperation that complements humanitarian assistance and traditional development aid to low-income countries; and
• Dialing down political polarizationthrough new governance approaches focused on enhancing people’s voices in deliberation and tackling misinformation.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: A committee led by former President Ram Nath Kovind submitted a report on the ‘One Nation One Election’ initiative to the President.

Background

• Simultaneous Elections(One Nation One Election) refer to the idea of holding Lok Sabha and State legislative assembly elections together, with the aim of reducing the frequency of elections and their associated costs.
• Simultaneous elections in India to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies were held in the years 1951-52, 1957, 1962 and 1967. 
• Thereafter, the schedule could not be maintained and the elections to the Lok Sabha and the State legislative assembly have still not been realigned.

Suggestions of the Panel

• Opting Step wise Process: According to the panel, simultaneous polls to Lok Sabha and state assembly elections can be held in the 1st step, followed by local body (municipal and panchayat) polls within 100 days in the second step.
• In case of hung House: No-confidence motion, fresh elections could be held only for the remaining term of the immediately preceding full term of the House.
• Constitution Amendments Needed: The panel has recommended amendments to Article 83(duration of Houses of Parliament) and Article 172 (duration of State legislatures) of the Constitution.
• This constitutional amendment will not need ratification by the States.
• Ratification of states:The panel also recommended amendments to Constitution which requires ratification by the States;
• Article 324Aof the Constitution to allow simultaneous elections in panchayats and municipalities; and
• Article 325to allow the Election Commission of India (ECI), in consultation with State election authorities, to prepare a common electoral roll and voter ID cards.

Arguments In Favour of One Nation One Election

• It will reduce the huge expenditure incurred for conducting separate elections every year.
• The problem of frequent elections leads to imposition of MCC over prolonged periods of time which affects the normal governance. Simultaneous elections can overcome such issues.
• Simultaneous elections will free the crucial manpower which is often deployed for prolonged periods on election duties.
• The focus on governance will increase, instead of being constantly in election mode.

Arguments Against One Nation One Election

• All states and the central government face massive logistical challenges including coordinating the schedules, resources etc.
• It may help the dominant national party or the incumbent at the Centre at the cost of regional parties and regions issues can be overshadowed by the national issues.

Way Ahead

• Synchronized polls for all 3 tiers of government will improve governance architecture. It will enhance “transparency, inclusivity, ease and confidence of voters.
• The 22nd Law Commission, examining the simultaneous polls issue, is expected to recommend simultaneous polls from the 2029 general election cycle.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The average global sea surface temperature (SST) for February 2024 stood at 21.06 degree Celsius, the highest ever in a dataset that goes back to 1979.

• Sea surface temperature is the temperature of the water at the ocean surface.

Reasons for Rising SST

• Human Activities:Since the Industrial Revolution kicked off in the 19th Century, human activities such as burning fossil fuels have released high levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide are some of the notable GHGs, which trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
• As a result, the average global temperature has risen at least 2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial times.
• Absorption by Oceans:Almost 90 percent of the extra heat trapped by GHGs has been absorbed by the oceans, making them steadily warmer over the decades.
• El Niño: A weather pattern that refers to an abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean — has contributed to both ocean warming and rising global surface temperatures. 
• Weaker Winds:There is also less dust blowing off the Sahara Desert recently due to weaker-than-average winds. 
• Typically, the dust forms a “giant umbrella that shades” the Atlantic water and reduces ocean temperatures.
• But now, the umbrella has partially folded and more of the Sun is beating down on the ocean.

Impact of Rising SST

• Ocean Stratification:Warmer oceans lead to an increase in ocean stratification — the natural separation of an ocean’s water into horizontal layers by density, with warmer, lighter, less salty, and nutrient-poor water layering on top of heavier, colder, saltier, nutrient-rich water.
• Usually, ocean ecosystems, currents, wind, and tides mix these layers.
• The rise in temperatures, however, has made it harder for water layers to mix with each other. 
• Due to this, oceans are able to absorb less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and the oxygen absorbed isn’t able to mix properly with cooler ocean waters below, threatening the survival of marine life.
• Threat to Phytoplanktons: Nutrients are not able to travel up to the surface of the oceans from below. This could threaten the population of phytoplankton — single-celled plants that thrive on the ocean surface and are the base of several marine food webs.
• Phytoplankton areeaten by zooplankton, which are consumed by other marine animals such as crabs, fish, and sea stars.
• Therefore, if the phytoplankton population plummets, there could be a collapse of marine ecosystems.
• Marine Heat Waves:Warmer oceans cause marine heat waves (MHWs), which occur when the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea rises to 3 or 4 degree Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days. 
• Between 1982 and 2016,such heatwaves have doubled in frequency and have become longer and more intense, according to the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
• MHWs are devastating for marine ecosystems as they contribute to coral bleaching, and also impact the migration pattern of aquatic animals.
• Increase in Intensity of Cyclones:Warmer temperatures lead to a higher rate of evaporation as well as the transfer of heat from the oceans to the air. 
• That’s why, when storms travel across hot oceans, they gather more water vapour and heat.
• This results in more powerful winds, heavier rainfall, and more flooding when storms reach the land — meaning heightened devastation for humans.

Conclusion

• In 2023, the concentration of GHG the highest levels ever recorded in the atmosphere.
• The only way to avoid or blunt the aforementioned consequences is to reduce GHG emissions. 

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The minister of Earth Sciences confirmed that the Samudrayaan mission is scheduled to explore the bed of the ocean by 2025 end.

• India is on a path to send its scientists to study the deep ocean 6 km under the sea surface under the mission.

India’s Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)

• DOM is implemented by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)and was approved in 2021 at a cost of nearly Rs 4,077 crore over a five-year period in a phased manner.

Samudrayaan Mission

• As a part of DOM, India’s flagship deep ocean mission, ‘Samudrayaan’, was initiated in 2021 by the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• With ‘Samudrayaan’, India is embarking on a crewed expedition to reach a depth of 6,000 m to the ocean bed in the central Indian Ocean.
• This journey will be accomplished by Matsya6000, a deep-ocean submersible.

Matsya6000

• The Matsya6000 is India’s flagship deep-ocean human submersible that aims to reach the ocean bed at a depth of 6,000 m.
• Accompanied by three crew members, called “aquanauts”, the submersible carries a suite of scientific tools and equipment designed to facilitate observations, sample collection, basic video and audio recording, and experimentation.
• The submersible will be equipped with a suite of scientific sensors and tools, and have an operational endurance of12 hours, which is expandable up to 96 hours in the event of an emergency.
• Constructed from a titanium alloy, the sphere is engineered to withstand pressures of up to 6,000 bar.
• It can move at a speed of about 5 km/hr using underwater thrusters.

Significance

• So far, countries such as the S., Russia, China, France and Japan have carried out successful deep-ocean crewed missions. India is poised to join the ranks of these nations by demonstrating expertise of and capability for such missions.
• The ‘New India 2030’ document outlines the blue economy as the sixth core objective for India’s growth. The years 2021-2030 have been designated by the United Nations as the ‘Decade of Ocean Science’.
• DOM is one of nine missions under the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC).
• The mission is significant for the sustainable extraction of valuable resources, including polymetallic nodules and polymetallic sulfides.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) celebrated its 19th Foundation Day on 12th March, 2024.

About

• National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR was established in 2007under the Commission for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005.
• The commission’s mandate is to ensure that all laws, policies, programs and administrative systems conform to the vision of the rights of the child as enunciated in the Constitution of India as well as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. 
• A child is defined as a person falling in the age group of 0 to 18 years.
• Functions of NCPCR:NCPCR is constantly broadening the range of activities that can be undertaken such as developing new strategies for better monitoring, developing step-by-step processes to enable the authorities to carry out their duties.
• It also includes preparing policy frameworks, using digital technology for improving the monitoring process, undertaking research studies, and first hand investigation on matters of serious nature.

What rights do Children Have?

• Child rights elaborate upon the do’s and don’ts of dealing with children and matters related to them.
• These needs or requirements of children have been broadly divided into four areas or categories- survival, development, protection and participation.

Constitutional Rights of Children in India

• The Constitution of India guarantees all children certain rights these include:

• Right to free and compulsory elementary education for all children in the 6-14 year age group (Article 21 A).
• Right to be protected from any hazardous employment till the age of 14 years (Article 24).
• Right to be protected from being abused and forced by economic necessity to enter occupations unsuited to their age or strength (Article 39(e)).
• Right to equal opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and guaranteed protection of childhood and youth against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment (Article 39 (f)).

India have following major Acts for children:

• Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012
• Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015
• Rights of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009
• Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2016
• Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006
• Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act (PCPNDT) Act, 1994.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Central Public Works Department (CPWD) recently asked its regional offices to ensure that “all public buildings are accessible to people with disabilities”.

Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)

• As perUnited Nations Conventions on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities PWDs include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.
• As per National Family Health Survey, India’s population of people with a disability has reduced to 1% between 2019 and 2021, from the 2.2% (26.8 million) estimated by the Indian census in 2011.
• As per 2011 population census, 20% of persons with disabilities in India have a disability in movement, 19% have a disability in seeing, 19% have a disability in hearing and 8% have multiple disabilities.

India’s disability law: Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016

• The RPWD Act, 2016provides that “the appropriate Government shall ensure that the PWD enjoys the right to equality, life with dignity, and respect for his or her own integrity equally with others.”
• The Act replaces the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
• It fulfills the obligations to the United National Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), to which India is a signatory.
• The convention was adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 2006, and entered into force in 2008. India ratified the convention in 2007.
• Disability has been defined based on an evolving and dynamic concept.
• The types of disabilities covered are 21and the Central Government has the power to add more types of disabilities.
• The Act provides for penalties for offencescommitted against persons with disabilities and also violation of the provisions of the new law.
• Special Courtswill be designated in each district to handle cases concerning the violation of the rights of PwDs.

Issues/ Challenges 

• Social Stigma: The word disability is being seen as a social stigma, according to which parents feel ashamed of their children, and in fear most of them feel uncomfortable in public upfront.
• Institutional Failures:Indian education system and Government institutions both are failing in making arrangements for the welfare for disabled persons to an extent. There should be proper seats for disabled persons at classrooms as well as at the exam centres.
• Illiteracy is particularly prevalent among disabled people and constitutes a double disadvantage. In addition to being disabled, they are isolated by illiteracy.
• Unemployment: Disabled persons are the ones who are scapegoats in getting fired at tenure of recessions. They are first to be discharged from their services when cost cutting methods are adopted by the companies.
• Poor implementation:According to PwDs and activists, the 2016 guidelines were never implemented, and the 2021 guidelines are being treated similarly. No state has implemented the harmonized guidelines released in 2021, in their building by-laws.
• Lack of awareness and accountability: The implementation of accessibility standards has been haphazard. There is no consistency, there is a lack of budgetary allocation, and no monitoring and sensitisation.

Measures needed

• Change in approach from ‘For’ PWD to ‘By’ PWD: “For” implies actions or initiatives done on behalf of persons with disabilities, while “by” signifies involvement and participation of persons with disabilities in the process.
• Formulation of Comprehensive Inclusive Policies:With focus on addressing unique challenges faced by individuals with disabilities that encompasses social, economic, and gender dimensions.
• The inclusion of persons with disabilities into the economy can help boost global GDP between 3% to 7%,as per the study by the International Labour Organization (ILO).
• Collaborative Process with PWDs and private sector: Where persons with disabilities are not passive recipients but active contributors and the private sector as a key player in promoting employment opportunities for persons with disabilities.
• Opportunities Cafe in Kolkatais run by 16 young adults who have intellectual disabilities, who are trained in hospitality by the cafe itself.
• Attitudinal Shift and Social Justice:The SPARK project by ILO with Women’s Development Corporation in Maharashtra  has contributed to an attitudinal shift towards PWDs by putting them in the lead and trained as Disability Inclusion Facilitators (DIFs).
• Education system:There should be reforms in Education system to build a better society through which disabled persons can face the challenges of life with courage and conscience.
• PWD-friendly infrastructure: Universal accessibility should be incorporated in the site planning and detailed working drawings of public as well as private projects.
• Job-oriented training: Job-oriented training is the need of the time. There should be well trained professionals for training who can ignite the minds and train them to cater the needs of the service industry.
• Vocal and linguistic teachersshould be recruited for the overall well being of the people.

Government Schemes and Initiatives

1. The Harmonised Guidelines and Standards for Universal Accessibility in India, 2021: These guidelines are an enabling step towards strengthening the national mandate of an Accessible India and a self-reliant India with a vision for a universally accessible and inclusive India.
2. Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities: Understanding the special needs of Persons with Disabilities (PwDs), the government carved out a special department under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
3. ‘Divyang’: With a view to change the societal attitude towards PwDs and to encourage them to participate in the society without any feeling of inferiority, the Prime Minister coined the term ‘divyang’ to denote PwDs.
4. Accessible India Campaign: The campaign was launched in 2015 to create a barrier-free environment for divyangjan. The project envisages creation of ramps, help desks and accessible toilets in public places.
5. Sugamya Bharat: To understand the problems of divyangjan, the Government has launched the Sugamya Bharat app. The app lets people provide feedback on accessibility issues for PwDs.
6. Unique Disability Identity Project (UDID):The Project is aimed at easing disability certification, while weeding out fraud in the process.
7. Divya Kala Shakti:It is a scheme of the Government of India to encourage divyangjan to participate in cultural activities.
8. Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase/Fitting of Aids and Appliances (ADIP) Scheme: Under this programme, the Government provides aids and assistive devices to PwDs.

Conclusion

• PWDs constitute one of the most vulnerable sectionsof the country. They also can be a source of untapped potential, which, if harnessed well, may increase the economic growth and development in the country.
• The need of the hour is proper sensitization of the community towards the issues faced by PwDs, as well as to remove the social stigma attached to their integration into the society.