General Studies Paper -3

Context: The National Clean Air Programme missed the 2024 target to push back pollution.

What is the NCAP?

• It was launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in January 2019 as a comprehensive initiative in partnership with various Ministries and States to improve air quality at city, regional and national level.
• It aims to improve air quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and Million Plus Cities) in 24 States by engaging all stakeholders.
• Features : Under NCAP, cities continuously violating annual PM levels in India need to prepare and implement annual Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs).
  • To facilitate this, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change has allocated ₹10,422.73 crore.
  • NCAP envisages reduction by 20-30% in PM 10 concentration over baseline in 2017 by 2024.
    • Target has been revised to achieve reduction in PM10 level up to 40% or achievement of national standards (60 µg/m3) by 2025-26.

Issues and Concerns

• Most cities proactively submitted their Clean Air Action Plans(CAAPs) yet their implementation has been inconsistent.
  • On average, only 60% of the allocated funds have been used thus far, according to the Ministry, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets.
• Implementation delays hinder NCAP’s success, particularly delays in approvals from the competent authorities (for example, the technical specification of tendering processes or for procuring products such as mechanical sweepers and electric buses).
• There is also a lack of standard operating procedures for the implementation process.
• Time-consuming tasks required to implement control measures and the absence of well-defined timelines create further delays.
• Yet other reasons include bureaucratic red-tape and lingering doubts regarding the effectiveness of proposed mitigation measures.
• Pollution from high-emitting industries and other sources outside city limits, carried into urban areas by winds complicates urban air-quality management.
• According to the Portal for Regulation of Air-pollution in Non-Attainment cities, only 37% of cities have completed EI and SA studies, meaning the remaining 63% don’t have a clear idea about what is polluting their air.

Role of scientific tools

• Emissions Inventory (EI) and Source Apportionment (SA) studies are critical to identify and understand the origins of pollution.
• EIs provide insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, allowing experts to forecast future emissions based on demographic shifts and technological advancements across sectors, among other factors.
• EIs also help shape targeted pollution control strategies.
• They have their limitations, too, particularly in assessing the impact of transboundary pollution sources — such as when determining the effect of stubble-burning outside Delhi on the city’s air quality.
• SA studies offer a detailed analysis of contributions from various pollution sources, including those located afar.
• However, they aren’t suited for predictive analysis and require substantial resources, including specialised personnel and equipment for chemical analysis.
• SA studies also can’t distinguish between the origins of pollution, like, say, emissions from diesel trucks 200 m away and 20 km away, because diesel emissions have similar chemical signatures.
• These gaps can be bridged through AQ modelling, which informs our understanding of pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• The cities should look into EI and SA data to pinpoint air pollutants and prepare mitigation measures targeting each polluting activity.
• Based on the potential and infrastructure requirements, cities need to set proper yearly targets and fund them.
• Many existing control measures focus only on primary PM emissions, neglecting their secondary precursors.
• A shift towards comprehensive strategies addressing both primary and secondary pollutants is thus important.
• Beyond the need for data and models, swift implementation on the ground is essential.
• For this, implementation agencies should seek to reduce bureaucratic red tape by utilising shared, standardised technical evaluations.
• As NCAP funding is linked with the performance of cities (based on the annual average PM concentration reduction), prior budgeting and time management play crucial roles.
• Technical feasibility, budgeting, and time estimates need to be part of the initial plans.
• The journey towards cleaner air in India, as charted by NCAP, will be difficult but is necessary.
• NCAP’s success hinges on a multifaceted approach that combines rigorous scientific studies, strategic funds, and swift and effective implementation of mitigation measures.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India was ranked right at the bottom of 180 countries in the Environment Performance Index (EPI) in 2022.

• The ranking raises questions about the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission.

About

• The EPI ranks countries on climate change performance, environmental health, and ecosystem vitality.
  • It measures 40 performance indicators across 11 issue categories, such as air quality, and drinking water and sanitation.
• The government responded to the rank saying the methodology is faulty and does not quantify the Indian scenario objectively.
• The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) aims to enable better living standards, so the poor ranking can be linked to the success of SBM.

What is the Swachh Bharat Mission?

• The Swachh Bharat (Clean India) Mission (SBM) was launched in 2014 with the goal of achieving universal sanitation coverage by 2019, as a tribute to the 150th Birth Anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.
• It consisted of two sub-missions, urban, and rural or Gramin (G).
  • The urban component of the mission is implemented by the Ministry of Urban Development, and the rural component by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation.
  • SBM(G) sought to improve “the levels of cleanliness through Solid and Liquid Waste Management activities and making Gram Panchayats Open Defecation Free (ODF), clean and sanitized.
• SBM Phase II: The second phase, started in 2020-2021, expands efforts with a focus on safe management of solid and liquid waste and sustainability of ODF.
• An ODF Plus village is one which has sustained its Open Defecation Free (ODF) status along with implementing either solid or liquid waste management systems.
• It would transform villages from ODF to ODF Plus by 2024-25.

Achievements

• SBM Phase I: The programme led to the construction of over 10 crore individual household toilets, taking sanitation coverage from 39% in 2014 to 100% in 2019 when around 6 lakh villages declared themselves Open Defecation Free (ODF).
  • While studies indicate that the SBM-G campaign led to significant economic, environmental and health impacts, contributing to the empowerment of women in particular, it also led to the achievement of SDG 6.2 (Sanitation and Hygiene), 11 years ahead of the stipulated timeline.
• SBM Phase II: 75% villages have achieved ODF Plus status under Phase II of the Mission.
  • The top performing States/UTs which have achieved 100% ODF Plus villages are – Andaman & Nicobar Islands, D&N Haveli, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Ladakh, Puducherry, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Tripura.

Challenges in Implementing Swachh Bharat Mission

• Behavioral Change: One of the primary challenges has been changing deep-rooted cultural attitudes and behaviors towards cleanliness and sanitation.
  • Encouraging people to adopt hygienic practices, such as proper waste disposal and toilet usage, requires sustained efforts in education and awareness campaigns.
• Infrastructure Development: Building adequate sanitation infrastructure, including toilets and waste management systems, especially in rural areas, has been a considerable challenge.
  • Ensuring the availability of facilities in remote and economically disadvantaged regions requires significant investment and logistical planning.
• Maintenance of Infrastructure: Merely constructing toilets is not sufficient; ensuring their proper maintenance and usage over time is crucial.
  • Many toilets constructed under SBM have faced issues of poor maintenance and non-functionality due to lack of ownership or awareness among users.
• Open Defecation: Despite efforts to eradicate open defecation, it remains prevalent in certain areas due to various factors such as lack of awareness, cultural practices, or inadequate toilet facilities.
  • Changing these behaviors requires not only infrastructure development but also community engagement and behavior change communication.
• Waste Management: Proper solid and liquid waste management is essential for maintaining cleanliness and preventing environmental pollution.
  • However, the infrastructure and systems for waste collection, segregation, and disposal are often inadequate, leading to issues such as littering and contamination of water sources.
• Funding and Resources: Adequate funding and resources are necessary for the successful implementation of SBM.
  • While the government has allocated significant funds for the mission, ensuring effective utilization and allocation of resources at the grassroots level remains a challenge.

Way Ahead

• Addressing these challenges requires a multi-pronged approach involving not only government intervention but also active participation and cooperation from communities, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders.
• Sustainable solutions that address the root causes of sanitation and cleanliness issues, along with continuous monitoring and feedback mechanisms, are essential for the long-term success of the Swachh Bharat Mission.

Generals Studies Paper -1 

Context: The Prime Minister addressed the 6th edition of the International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure.

About

• CDRI is a global partnership of National Governments, UN agencies and programmes, multilateral development banks and financing mechanisms, the private sector, academic and knowledge institutions.
• CDRI was launched by the Prime Minister during the United Nations Climate Action Summit in 2019, at New York.
• Members: 31 Countries, 6 International Organizations and 2 private sector organizations.
• Secretariat: New Delhi
• Theme for 6th ICDRI: Investing today for a more resilient tomorrow.

What is Disaster Resilient Infrastructure?

• Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (DRI) refers to the design and construction of infrastructure systems that can withstand, adapt to, and rapidly recover from disasters.
• This resilience ensures uninterrupted essential services even during calamities.
• As urbanization and national growth accelerate, infrastructure, such as power, water, and transportation become ever more crucial.

Need for the DRI?

• Disasters exacerbated by climate change are diminishing infrastructure investments across the world.
  • Flash floods in megacities like New York and Seoul claimed many lives and crippled urban infrastructure systems.
  • Earthquakes in Morocco and Turkey were not only devastating for infrastructure but as well as lives and livelihoods.
  • A cloudburst led to glacial lake overflow in Sikkim claiming many lives causing a great amount of damage to the critical infrastructure including roads connecting the mountain state with the rest of India.
• Resilience during Disasters: These consecutive disaster events serve as a stark reminder of the critical importance of designing and investing in infrastructure that is resilient during unpredictable disasters.
• Future Outlook: It is now estimated that by 2030, without substantial investments in fortifying cities globally against potential threats, natural disasters could inflict an annual financial burden of approximately US$314 billion on cities.
  • Therefore, transitioning to Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (DRI) and flexible urban strategies is essential for improving the quality of life for people.
• With the mounting threats of climate change intensifying natural disasters, the shift towards DRI isn’t just strategic—it’s vital for economic stability and human well-being.

Pathways to Make Infrastructure Disaster Resilient

• At the core of Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (DRI) is an understanding of evolving risks, like shifting cyclonic patterns due to global warming.
  • This knowledge helps setting up appropriate building codes and design standards, crucial components that pave the way for integrated resilience across diverse sectors.
• Tailored infrastructure design, such as those responsive to flood risks or preparatory activities like pre-monsoon drain cleaning, solidifies a system’s disaster resilience.
• Regular infrastructure risk assessments are pivotal to find vulnerabilities in critical sectors like transport, power, and telecommunications.
  • These assessments, bolstered by risk mitigation strategies, protect against potential damages.
• Localized evaluations in cities and towns further contribute essential data for holistic planning.

India’s Pathway to DRI

• India’s path to resilience encompasses enhancing disaster risk comprehension across diverse landscapes, powered by geographic information systems (GIS) mapping and innovative technologies.
  • Effective DRI necessitates the confluence of data-driven infrastructure planning, potent risk-informed investments, and propagation of early warning systems.
• Further, central to achieving DRI is the collaboration between all governance tiers, academia, private enterprises, infrastructure experts and local communities.
  • For instance, the successful implementation of the Integrated Flood Risk Management Plan (IFRMP) in Assam’s River Basins (Beki, Buridehing, and Jiadhal) focused on a multi-disciplinary approach involving key stakeholders.
  • The project reduced flood and river erosion risks for approximately 100,000 people along the Beki and Buridehing rivers, and 10,000 will have access to updated flood shelters.

Conclusion

• Building a disaster-resilient infrastructure is a complex task, requiring a blend of strategic planning, innovation, finance, and most importantly, a collective approach.
• Nations need to champion these components, ensuring they are not only prepared for future calamities but also poised for sustainable growth.

Generals Studies Paper-2

Context: Recent estimates of the government show that there is a shortage of three million houses in urban centres.

About the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) Scheme

• It is a flagship and Centrally Sponsored Scheme by the Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), launched in 2015, to provide affordable housing to the urban poor.

Objectives

• The PMAY scheme aims to address the urban housing shortage among the Economically Weaker Section (EWS), Lower Income Group (LIG), and Middle Income Group (MIG) categories, including slum dwellers.
• It includes the rehabilitation of slum dwellers with the participation of private developers, promotion of affordable housing for the weaker sections through Credit Linked Subsidy Schemes (CLSS), affordable housing in partnership with public and private sectors, and subsidy for Beneficiary-led Construction (BLC).
• It ensures a pucca house to all eligible urban households (housing for all) by the year 2022, coinciding with the 75th year of India’s Independence.

Coverage

• It covers the entire urban area consisting of Statutory Towns, Notified Planning Areas, Development Authorities, Special Area Development Authorities, Industrial Development Authorities or any such authority under State legislation which is entrusted with the functions of urban planning & regulations.

Components (Four Verticals)

• In-situ Slum Redevelopment (ISSR): It involves the rehabilitation of slum dwellers with the participation of private developers.
• Affordable Housing in Partnership (AHP): This involves the promotion of affordable housing for the weaker sections through partnerships with the public and private sectors.
• Credit Linked Subsidy Scheme (CLSS): This scheme provides interest subsidy on housing loans to eligible beneficiaries.
• Beneficiary-led Construction (BLC): This involves providing central assistance to eligible families for the construction or enhancement of houses.

Additional Initiatives of MoHUA under PMAY

• Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHCs): It is a sub-scheme under PMAY-U that aims to provide ease of living to urban migrants/poor in the Industrial Sector as well as in the non-formal urban economy by providing access to dignified affordable rental housing close to their workplace.
• Global Housing Technology Challenge – India (GHTC-India): It aims to identify and mainstream a basket of innovative construction technologies from across the globe for the housing construction sector that are sustainable, eco-friendly, and disaster-resilient.

Progress of the PMAY Scheme

• As of now, the PMAY (Urban) scheme has sanctioned 118.64 lakh houses, grounded 114.15 lakh houses, and completed 82.16 lakh houses.
• The Central Assistance Committed is ₹2 Lakh Cr., and the Central Assistance Released is ₹163926 Cr. The total investment is ₹8.07 Lakh Cr.

Challenges ahead of the scheme:

• Housing Shortage: The urban housing shortage has increased by 54%, from 1.88 crore in 2012 to 2.9 crore in 2018.
  • As of April 2024, there is a shortfall of around 40 lakh houses from the sanctioned and completed segments.
• Implementation Issues: There is a shortfall of around 40 lakh houses from the sanctioned and completed segments.
• In-situ Slum Redevelopment: The ISSR vertical has failed, with only 2,10,552 houses sanctioned for eligible beneficiaries.
  • Under the ISSR, only 2,10,552 houses have been sanctioned for eligible beneficiaries.
  • Even if the remaining houses are constructed by the end of 2024, it would have addressed just about 37% of the real need.
  • Almost 2.4 crore households will still be without a roof.
• Unmet Targets: The PMAY-U has only addressed about 25.15% of the housing shortage by delivering 80 lakh homes.

Future of the PMAY Scheme

• In August 2022, the government approved the continuation of the PMAY-U up to December 31, 2024, for the completion of already sanctioned houses till March 31, 2022.
• However, the current housing programme, which was a kind of merger of the Rajiv Awas Yojana into the PMAY, has spent over $29 billion in the last five years providing support for both rural and urban low-cost housing.
• Despite this focus and budgetary infusion, ‘Housing for All’ remains an unfulfilled promise.

Conclusion

• PMAY is a significant step towards achieving the goal of ‘Housing for All’ by 2022. It has made some progress in addressing India’s urban housing shortage, but fallen short of its ambitious goals.

The challenges faced by the scheme highlight the complexities of urban development and the need for comprehensive and sustainable solutions.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Recent media highlights show that large-scale renewable energy development is sensitive to productive activities — agriculture and related livelihoods, with the potential for impacts on food security.

India and Renewable Energy

• India, the world’s third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases, is making significant strides in its transition to renewable energy.
• The country’s efforts are not only crucial for global climate change mitigation but also for addressing domestic energy needs.

Renewable Energy Capacity in India

• India, a country with a rapidly growing economy and increasing energy demands, has made significant strides in its renewable energy sector.
  • It added 18.48 GW of renewable energy capacity in the fiscal year 2023-24, which is over 21% higher than the 15.27 GW added a year ago.
• It was primarily driven by solar installations (12.78 GW) and wind energy (2.27 GW).
• The total installed renewable energy capacity has increased from 76.37 GW in 2014 to 178.98 GW in October 2023, marking an increase of around 2.34 times.

Ambitious Targets

• India has set ambitious targets for renewable energy and plans to install 500 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030. It includes a significant increase in solar and wind energy.
  • It is a significant increase from the previous target of 450 GW.
• The plan involves an investment of at least ₹2.44 lakh crore or ₹2.44 trillion.

Solar Power

• It is a key pillar of India’s renewable energy strategy. The country has 214 sq. km of land under solar parks.
  • However, some studies estimate that India may need 50,000-75,000 sq. km, which is about half the size of Tamil Nadu, to achieve its Net Zero targets.
• The government’s rooftop solar programme aims to enable 10 million households to obtain up to 300 units of free electricity every month.
  • It is expected to save households up to Rs 15,000-18,000 annually.

Challenges Of Renewable Energy

• High Upfront Costs: One of the most significant challenges of renewable energy is the high upfront costs associated with the installation of renewable energy technologies.
  • While renewable energy sources like solar and wind power save money in the long run, the initial setup costs can be prohibitive.
  • It is particularly true in developing countries, where the cost of borrowing is high.
• Infrastructure and Technical Challenges: Renewable energy technologies require specific infrastructure and technical expertise.
  • For instance, solar and wind energy systems require extensive land use, which can lead to conflicts over land rights.
  • Additionally, these systems require regular maintenance and skilled technicians for installation and repair.
• Variability and Intermittency: The variability and intermittency of renewable energy sources pose significant challenges.
  • Solar and wind power, for instance, are dependent on weather conditions and time of day, making them less reliable than traditional energy sources.
  • It necessitates the development of energy storage systems and grid infrastructure capable of managing these fluctuations.
• Policy and Regulatory Hurdles: Policy uncertainties and regulatory barriers can also hinder the growth of renewable energy.
  • Inconsistent policies and lack of long-term planning can create an uncertain investment environment, discouraging private sector involvement.
  • Furthermore, bureaucratic red tape and complex permitting procedures can delay project implementation.
• Access to Raw Materials: Access to raw materials and rare earth metals is another challenge facing the renewable energy sector.
  • These materials are essential for the manufacture of renewable energy technologies, and a projected shortage could impact the sector’s growth.
• Geographical Disparities: Geographical disparities in the adoption of renewable energy technologies also pose a challenge.
  • While some regions have abundant renewable resources, others may lack the necessary infrastructure or resources to harness these energies.

Renewable Energy and Concerns like Food Security in India

• India, the third-largest energy consumer in the world, is making significant strides in its transition to renewable energy.
  • The transition to renewable energy in India is fraught with challenges. Land use for renewable energy may strain a variety of ecosystems. Moreover, electricity generation has to compete with alternative uses for land such as agriculture, urbanisation, human habitation and nature conservation.
• The Land Use Challenge: Large-scale renewable energy projects, particularly solar parks, require extensive land use.
  • Some studies estimate that India may need 50,000-75,000 sq. km of land, about half the size of Tamil Nadu, to achieve its Net Zero targets.
  • This land requirement poses a significant challenge as it may lead to the conversion of agricultural land into solar farms.
• Impact on Food Security: The conversion of agricultural land for renewable energy projects could potentially impact food security.
  • Experts worry that this push for renewable energy may lead to food insecurity in the future as the country would need at least 400,000 hectares of land by 2030 to achieve its renewable goals.
  • Agriculture is a critical sector in India, providing livelihoods for millions of people and playing a vital role in ensuring food security.
  • Any policy that could potentially disrupt agricultural practices or reduce the amount of land available for farming needs to be carefully considered.

Balancing Renewable Energy and Food Security

• Balancing the need for renewable energy with the need to ensure food security is a complex challenge. It requires careful planning and policy-making65. Policymakers need to consider the potential impacts of renewable energy projects on agricultural practices and food security.
• One potential solution is to promote the use of wastelands for renewable energy projects.
  • It could help to reduce the pressure on agricultural land and ensure that food production is not adversely affected.
• Budgetary Provisions: India is exploring innovative solutions to these challenges. For instance, the Union Budget 2024-25 has allocated Rs 10,000 crore for a grid-based solar power scheme.
  • It includes provisions for viability gap funding for offshore wind energy for an initial capacity of 1 GW.
• Global Recognition: India’s efforts in renewable energy have received global recognition. During his visit to India, the UN commended India on its shift towards renewable energy.
• It stated that India can become a true global superpower in the fight against climate change if it speeds up its shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• Despite these challenges, the transition to renewable energy is crucial for mitigating climate change and achieving sustainable development.
  • It requires concerted efforts from governments, businesses, and individuals alike.
• Policymakers need to provide clear and consistent policy signals to encourage investment in renewable energy.
• Technological innovations are needed to improve the efficiency and reliability of renewable energy systems.
• Finally, public awareness and education are crucial for fostering acceptance and uptake of renewable energy technologies.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Aditya L1 solar mission of the ISRO is continuously sending data about the Sun.

What is the Aditya-L1 mission?

• Aditya-L1 is the first space-based Indian observatory to study the Sun. It was launched on September 2, 2023 by the PSLV-C57.
• Solar observatory is placed at Lagrangian point L1 for “Observing and understanding the chromospheric and coronal dynamics of the Sun” in a continuous manner.
• Placing the Aditya-L1 in a halo orbit around L1 point has advantages as compared to placing in a Low Earth Orbit (LEO):
  • It provides a smooth Sun-spacecraft velocity change throughout the orbit, appropriate for helioseismology.
  • It is outside of the magnetosphere of Earth, thus suitable for the “in situ” sampling of the solar wind and particles.
  • It allows unobstructed, continuous observation of the Sun, and view of earth for enabling continuous communication to ground stations.
• It is equipped with seven payloads (instruments) on board with four of them carrying out remote sensing of the Sun and three of them carrying in-situ observation.

What are the seven payloads?

• The Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) will study the Corona, imaging and spectroscopy, and Coronal mass ejections.
• The Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT) will focus upon the Photosphere and Chromosphere imaging- narrow and broadband. It will also measure the solar irradiance variations.
• The Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS) and High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS) will study the soft and hard X-ray flares from the Sun over a wide X-ray energy range.
• The Aditya Solar wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX) and Plasma Analyser Package For Aditya (PAPA) will analyze the electrons and protons in the Solar wind or particles. It will also study the energetic ions.
• The Advanced Tri-axial High Resolution Digital Magnetometers will study the interplanetary magnetic field at L1 point.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The article discusses India’s need to prepare for hotter summers and water stress, shifting from temporary disaster relief to long-term climate resilience. It highlights the interconnectedness of water, food, and energy, and calls for policies, efficient water use, and increased adaptation funding.

What is the current status of water in India?

• India houses 18% of the world’s population but only has 4% of its freshwater resources.
• Approximately half of India’s rivers are polluted.
• The country’s major reservoirs are at only 38% capacity.
• India is the largest user of groundwater globally.
• Three-quarters of India’s districts are vulnerable to extreme climate events.
• A study by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) revealed that 55% of tehsils in India have experienced a significant increase of over 10% in southwest monsoon rainfall in the last decade compared to the previous three.

What are the impacts of water scarcity on India?

• Agricultural Dependency: About 45% of India’s population works in agriculture, which is highly dependent on water for irrigation, influencing crop yields and harvest timing.
• Economic Impact: Water scarcity affects the economy, particularly through agriculture, which employs the largest sector of the workforce.
• Energy Production: Water is crucial for clean energy solutions like green hydrogen production and pumped storage hydropower, necessary for a sustainable power grid.
• Climate Vulnerability: Increased frequency of extreme weather events like floods and droughts disrupts water availability and agriculture.
• Urban Stress: Urban areas face challenges like insufficient water for domestic use and industrial activities due to inefficiencies and pollution.

What should be done?

• Improve Policy Integration: Develop and implement policies that recognize the interconnections between water, food, and energy systems to manage resources more holistically.
• Enhance Water Use Efficiency: Focus on achieving the National Water Mission’s goal to increase water efficiency by 20% by 2025, utilizing water accounting to measure and manage water usage effectively.
• Expand Reuse Initiatives: Promote the reuse of urban wastewater as detailed in AMRUT 2.0, reducing non-revenue water and maximizing available resources.
• Increase Funding for Adaptation: Boost financial support for water-related climate adaptation, utilizing tools like the Green Credit Programme to fund initiatives that improve water management and promote agricultural resilience.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Ahead of the UN meeting in Canada, India chooses to ‘regulate’, not ban, single-use plastic.

About the Single Use Plastics:

• Single-use plastics have become a ubiquitous part of our daily lives, used in everything from packaging to consumer goods.
  • These are those that are discarded after one-time use.
• However, the environmental impact of these materials is now a major global concern.

The Global Plastic Problem:

• Plastic’s invention in 1907 led to its widespread use due to affordability, durability, and aesthetic appeal.
• Major single-use plastic applications include food and beverages (31%), bottle and container caps (16%), plastic bags (11%), and straws, stirrers, beverage bottles, and containers (7%).
  • However, the non-degradable nature of these materials has led to significant environmental challenges.
• India, a country with a population of over 1.4 billion, has chosen to regulate, rather than outright ban, single-use plastic.

Challenges Associated with Single-Use Plastics:

• Enforcement and Compliance: One of the significant challenges associated with single-use plastics is the enforcement and compliance of regulations.
  • While many governments have implemented regulations to restrict the use of single-use plastics, ensuring compliance can be challenging.
• Waste Management: India lacks an organised system for the management of plastic waste, leading to widespread littering across its towns and cities.
  • Many plastic items end up in landfills or as litter in the streets, rivers, and other public spaces.
  • This not only creates unsightly and unhygienic conditions but also poses severe threats to the environment and wildlife.
• Economic Impact: The economic impact of single-use plastics is another significant challenge. Many alternatives to single-use plastics are currently more expensive, which can burden retailers and consumers.
  • Furthermore, there are more than 22,000 plastic manufacturing units in India, and it will take time before enough numbers are brought under the alternative segment to make a tangible difference to the packaging sector’s environmental footprint.
• Health Risks: Single-use plastics pose environmental, social, economic, and health risks to people by contributing to the climate crisis, ecosystem degradation, and resource use.
  • Microplastics, non-biodegradability, and their carbon footprint compound these issues.

India’s Efforts Related to Single-Use Plastics:

• Regulatory Measures: In 2022, India implemented the Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules (2021) that banned 19 categories of ‘single-use plastics’.
  • These include items such as plastic cups, spoons, earbuds, decorative thermocol, wrapping or packaging film used to cover sweet boxes and cigarette packets, and plastic cutlery.
  • However, it does not include plastic bottles – even those less than 200ml— and multi-layered packaging boxes (like in milk cartons).
  • Despite the ban, enforcement has been inconsistent, with several outlets continuing to retail these goods.
    • The current ban only addresses about 11% of single-use plastic in India.
• International Commitments: India is a party to the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA).
  • In all, 124 nations are part of the UNEA, and India has signed a resolution to draw up an agreement in the future that will make it legally binding for signatories to address the full life cycle of plastics, from production to disposal.
• Public Awareness and Participation: The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) to manage 100% of solid waste scientifically.
  • It is being implemented with resolve, and progress is monitored, measured and results placed in the public domain.
  • SBM 2.0 also emphasises the need for plastic management – working towards minimising single-use plastic and operationalising recycling and reuse through processing.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): EPR policies, which hold producers responsible for the disposal of their products, are often part of regulatory approaches.
  • These policies can incentivize producers to design products that are easier to recycle or dispose of.

Way Ahead:

• The upcoming U.N. meet will involve discussions on ‘problematic and avoidable plastic products including single-use plastics’, which refer to sections of plastics that are likely to harm the environment as well as human health.
• The aim is to implement global and national measures such as removing these products from the market, reducing production through alternate practices or non-plastic substitutes, and redesigning problematic items to meet criteria for sustainable and safe product design.
• India has called a ‘zero draft’, that vouches for ‘regulating’ instead of ‘not allowing’, the production, sale, import, and export of problematic and avoidable plastic goods.
  • It has, however, agreed to a ‘science-based criteria’ for identifying such plastics.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, India delivered the strategic BrahMos cruise missile and articulated its full support in upholding national sovereignty for the Philippines.

About the South China Sea

• It is one of the most strategically and economically important waterways in the world, extending from the Strait of Malacca in the southwest, to the Strait of Taiwan in the northeast.
  • It is a crucial maritime gateway and junction for shipping between the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
• It is surrounded by several nations, including China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
• The region is rich in natural resources, including oil, gas, and fisheries, and serves as a crucial trade route for various economies.

Economic Importance of the Region

• Trade Route: The South China Sea serves as a crucial trade hub for various economies of East Asia, South Asia, and beyond.
  • A trade of more than $5.3 trillion happens on these waters. It makes up about one-third of all marine traffic.
• Natural Resources: The region has proven oil reserves of around 7.7 billion barrels, with an estimate of 28 billion barrels in all.
  • Natural gas reserves are estimated to total around 266 trillion cubic feet.
  • The Philippines is counting on the US and its allies to play a crucial role in its plans to explore energy resources in the disputed South China Sea.
• Fisheries: More than half of the world’s fishing vessels are in the South China Sea, and millions of people depend on these waters for their food and livelihoods.

Territorial Disputes

• The territorial disputes in the South China Sea primarily involve China and several Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries.
• China claims sovereignty over virtually the entire South China Sea, putting it at odds with the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Brunei, who all maintain claims over islands, reefs, and undersea resources in the region.
  • These disputes have implications for the freedom of navigation and overflight.
• The South China Sea dispute essentially revolves around multiple claims to the land features — islands and reefs — and associated territorial waters.

India and South China Sea

• India’s stance on the South China Sea has seen a significant shift in recent years, reflecting its broader strategic and economic aspirations on the global stage.
• India has been increasing cooperation, defence as well as economic, with these countries to take its resistance to maritime Chinese influence to China’s own backyard.

India’s Evolving Position

• Recently, India articulated its full support for the Philippines in upholding its national sovereignty amid the ongoing South China Sea dispute between Philippines and China.
• In 2023, a joint statement between India and Philippines had called for China to adhere to the rules-based maritime order and acknowledge the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruling (2016) in favour of the Philippines.
  • These are part of an evolving approach that signals a departure from India’s earlier more cautionary and neutral position vis-à-vis the South China Sea.
• India has significantly enhanced its military and diplomatic engagement with claimant states such as the Philippines and Vietnam.
  • It has been offering military aid and more supportive rhetoric to China’s rival claimants.

Economic Stakes and Strategic Engagements

• India’s engagement with the region was initially primarily economic, driven by its Look East Policy, which aimed to enhance economic integration with Southeast Asia and the imperative to secure energy resources to fuel its growing economy.
• The participation of Indian state-owned enterprises, such as the ONGC Videsh, in oil and gas exploration projects in Vietnam’s Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) and other similar ventures not only signified India’s economic stakes in the region but also its support for the principle of freedom of exploration and exploitation of maritime resources within the bounds of international law, specifically UNCLOS.

Policy Transformation

• The transformation of India’s policy orientation from Look East to Act East has marked a shift towards a more strategic and active engagement with the Indo-Pacific region.
• It reflects India’s acknowledgment of the changing geopolitical landscape and the need for a more proactive and multifaceted foreign policy approach with the Act East Policy emphasising not only economic integration but also strategic partnerships and expanded security cooperation with countries in the Indo-Pacific including Vietnam, Malaysia, and Singapore, besides the Philippines.

Geopolitical Impact and International Stance

• Major Asia-Pacific economies could lose up to 12% of their GDP if the geopolitical tensions were to force closure of key trade routes in the region.
• The United States champions a free and open Indo-Pacific and has made clear that Beijing’s claims to offshore resources across most of the South China Sea are completely unlawful, as is its campaign of bullying to control them.
  • The U.S. stands with its ally, the Philippines, in the face of this escalation that directly threatens regional peace and stability.

Way Ahead

• The disputes in the South China Sea require a political framework, which can only be created through dialogue.
• Leaders of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) should try to find a political solution through ‘quiet diplomacy’.
  • The potential for resolving this issue through legal methods is very low.
• One of the most important ways to de-escalate the current tensions in the South China Sea for both parties is to avoid hostile actions against each other, uphold a more reconciliatory attitude and emphasise the need to cooperate rather than compete.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: India has lost 2.33 million hectares of tree cover since 2000, equivalent to a six percent decrease in tree cover during this period, according to the latest data from the Global Forest Watch monitoring project.

• The Global Forest Watch tracks forest changes in near real-time using satellite data and other sources.

Findings

• Primary Forest Loss: India lost 4,14,000 hectares of humid primary forest (4.1 per cent) from 2002 to 2023, making up 18 percent of its total tree cover loss in the same period.
• Tree Cover Loss: From 2001 to 2023, India lost 2.33 Mha of tree cover, equivalent to a 6.0% decrease in tree cover since 2000.
  • From 2013 to 2023, 95% of tree cover loss in India occurred within natural forest.
  • Five states accounted for 60 percent of all tree cover loss between 2001 and 2023.
  • Assam had the maximum tree cover loss followed by Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and
• Tree Cover Gain: In India, the top 6 regions were responsible for 54% of all tree cover gain between 2000 and 2020. Karnataka had the most tree cover gain.
  • From 2000 to 2020, India gained 1.4% of the global total.
• All Tree Cover: As of 2010, the top 7 regions represent 55% of all tree cover.
  • Arunachal Pradesh had the most tree cover followed by Assam, Chhattisgarh, Kerala and Odisha.
• Loss Due to Forest Fires: India lost 35,900 hectares of tree cover due to fires from 2002 to 2022, with 2008 recording the maximum tree cover loss due to fires.
  • From 2001 to 2022, Odisha had the highest rate of tree cover loss due to fires. Arunachal Pradesh lost 198 hectares, Nagaland 195 hectares, Assam 116 hectares, and Meghalaya 97 hectares.
• Carbon Sink: Between 2001 and 2022, forests in India emitted 51 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent a year and removed 141 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent a year.
  • This represents a net carbon sink of 89.9 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent a year.

Conclusion

• The tree cover loss data featured on the Global Forest Watch represents the best available spatial figures on how forests are changing around the world.
• The monitoring and alert system is designed to empower people everywhere with the information they need to better manage and conserve forest landscapes.