General Studies Paper -2

Context: India and Bhutan have been the closest of partners and the best of friends over the past 50 years and more. Both need constant tending, regular dialogue and a lot of care and cooperation.

Overview of India-Bhutan Relations 

• Diplomatic ties: Formal diplomatic ties between the two countries were established in 1968, with the cornerstone being theTreaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in 1949, and subsequently renewed in February 2007.
• High-level exchanges: Over the years, high-level exchanges have played a pivotal role in nurturing the strong bond between India and Bhutan.
• Economic partnership: The economic partnership between India and Bhutan has flourished over the years, driven by theIndia-Bhutan Agreement on Trade, Commerce, and Transit.
  • This agreement, first signed in 1972 and revised multiple times, has facilitated a free trade regime between the two countries, promoting bilateral trade and economic growth.
  • India stands as Bhutan’s top trade partner, both in terms of imports and exports.
  • The bilateral trade volume has seen a significant surge, reaching INR 11,178 crores in 2022.
• India’s investments in Bhutan span various sectors, including banking, manufacturing, electricity generation, and IT services, contributing to Bhutan’s socio-economic development and fostering closer economic integration.
  • India has been a steadfast development partner for Bhutan, extending economic assistance to support its socio-economic progress since the 1960s.
    • India’s contribution to Bhutan’s 12th Five Year Plan, amounting to Rs 5000 Cr., underscores its commitment to supporting Bhutan’s developmental aspirations.
  • Hydropower cooperation: it remains a cornerstone of bilateral economic cooperation between India and Bhutan.
    • Bhutan’s hydro-power potential has been harnessed through mutually beneficial partnerships, contributing significantly to its socio-economic development.
    • The commissioning of projects like the Mangdechhu Hydroelectric Project.
    • The Punatsangchhu-II hydropower project is expected to be completed in 2024 — yet another successful example of the government-to-government model of cooperation in hydropower.
  • Educational and cultural ties: They are integral to their bilateral relations.
    • India has been a key destination for Bhutanese students seeking higher education, with over 1000 scholarships provided annually by the Government of India.
    • Additionally, cultural exchanges and initiatives under the India-Bhutan Foundation have strengthened people-to-people ties, fostering greater understanding and collaboration between the two societies.
  • Human Resource Development: The Nehru Wangchuck Scholarship Scheme, ICCR Scholarships, and ITEC program have further facilitated skill development and capacity building in Bhutan.
  • New avenues for collaboration: including digital initiatives, space cooperation, and technology partnerships.
    • Projects like ‘Digital Drukyul’ and the joint development of satellites reflect the commitment to harnessing technology for mutual benefit and socio-economic progress.
    • The interoperability of flagship projects like RuPay and the BHIM app demonstrates the evolving nature of the bilateral relationship, with a focus on leveraging digital innovations for inclusive growth and development.
  • Recent developments, including progress on rail connectivity links and the establishment of Integrated Check Posts, underscore the commitment to enhancing trade and connectivity between India and Bhutan.

Way Forward 

• As Prime Minister Narendra Modi prepares to visit Bhutan, the stage is set for further strengthening the multifaceted cooperation between the two neighbouring nations across various sectors.
• In the years ahead, India must contribute to the success of the Gelephu Mindfulness City and can perhaps consider the following measures:
  • commence direct flights between Mumbai/Delhi and Gelephu;
  • provide our technology and knowledge in building hard infrastructure to Bhutan (the private sector will take the lead);
  • encourage high-end Indian tourists and businesspersons to visit Gelephu in controlled numbers;
  • Encourage Indian businesses to set up shop in the city.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: In recent years, the frequency and intensity of disputes between the Union government and the States have increased.

Federalism in India

• Meaning:
  • Federalism refers to a vertical division of power in a political system. It is a system in which power is divided between a central authority and other constituents.
  • For e.g. in India, political power is divided between the Central government, state governments and the institutions of local governance.
• Features of a federal system:
  • Multiple levels of government:Federalism, by its very definition, requires multiple levels of government functioning within their defined territory.
  • Division of Power:The power is divided by the division of subjects between the entities so that the chances of conflict are reduced to a minimum.
  • Written Constitution:It ensures there is clarity in the respective division of power. Again, a rigid constitution ensures that this division of power is not easily disturbed.
  • Independent Judiciary:It acts as a dispute resolution mechanism between the different levels of government.
• Interdependence of state and Central Government: 
  • India consciously adopted a version of federalism that made the Union government and State governments interdependent on each other (latter more vis-a-vis the former).
  • Thereby violating the primal characteristic of a federal constitution i.e., autonomous spheres of authority for Union and State governments.
• ‘Holding together’ Federalism: 
  • India’s centralised federal structure was not marked by the process of ‘coming together’ but was an outcome of ‘holding together’ and ‘putting together’.
• Indestructible & Flexibility: 
  • R. Ambedkar called India’s federation a Union as it was indestructible which is why the Constitution does not contain words related to federalism.
  • He also said that India’s Constitution holds requisite flexibility to be federal and unitary on a need basis.

Types of Federalism

• Cooperative Federalism: 
  • It refers to the horizontal relationship between the entities in a federal structure.
  • Cooperative federalism refers to the cooperation between the two entities in pursuit of unified socio-economic development of the country.
• Competitive Federalism: 
  • It refers to promoting healthy competition between the states to keep them motivated in pursuit of economic development.
  • The laggard states are expected to put in extra efforts to catch-up with the front-runners, while the front-runners are expected to work hard to retain their ranking in the indices.
• Fiscal Federalism: 
  • It deals with the division of financial powers as well as the functions between multiple levels of the federal government.
  • It has within its ambit the imposition of taxes as well as the division of different taxes between the Centre and the constituent units.
  • Similarly, in the case of joint collection of taxes, an objective criterion is determined for the fair division of funds between the entities.
  • Usually, there is a constitutional authority (like Finance Commission in India) for the purpose to ensure fairness in the division.

About the increasing federal frictions

• Dependence over public expenditure:
  • Continuing economic reforms since 1991 has led to the relaxation of many controls on investments, giving some room to States.
  • But the autonomy regarding public expenditure policies is not absolute as State governments depend on the Centre for their revenue receipts.
  • This equation between the Centre and the States has given way to friction between them in recent days, leaving little room to negotiate.
• Others:Apart from issues around resource sharing, there are other areas that have emerged as sites of conflict. These include:
  • The homogenisation of social sector policies,
  • Functioning of regulatory institutions and
  • The powers of central agencies.
• Increasing influence of centre:
  • Ideally bulk of the policies in these spheres should be at the discretion of States, with an apex central body overseeing the process of resource allocation.
  • However, the apex bodies have often attempted to increase their influence and push States in directions that are amenable to the Centre.

Economic consequences of the federal frictions

• Dilemma of investments:
  • The spread of the Centre’s span of activities leads to a situation where the Centre starts crowding out the States in terms of investments.
  • Consider a case of infrastructure development in recent years.
    • The Centre launched the PM Gati Shakti, a digital platform, to incorporate schemes of various Ministries and State governments to achieve integrated planning and coordinated implementation of infrastructure connectivity projects.
    • All States and UTs had to prepare and operationalise a state master plan in line with the national master plan for seamless implementation.
  • However, the flexibility of States in formulating their master plan is curtailed by the centralisation of planning and implementation of the national master plan.
    • This leads to underinvestment by States.
  • Concentrated spending:
    • The centre’s spending has become more concentrated within the three largest States of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat, accounting for nearly half of the expenditure by 16 States between 2021-22 and 2023-24.
    • Data for 25 States shows that a total of ₹7.49 lakh crore was budgeted for by these States but they spent only ₹5.71 lakh crore which is 76.2% of the total.
      • Investment by these States is important in terms of their impact on regional economies as they induce more local level linkages while national infrastructure projects forge more linkages with the global economy.
    • Little competition:
      • In a scenario of friction with the Centre, State governments will engage in competition with other States and with the Centre. Welfare provisioning is one such area.
      • The Centre with enhanced fiscal space has more spending power, while States’ revenues, especially non-tax revenues, remain flat as possibilities of raising non-taxes are confined to a smaller sphere due to the direct provisioning of many utilities and services by the Centre.
    • Inefficiencies associated with ‘parallel policies’:
      • Federal abrasions lead to either the Centre or the States duplicating the other’s policies.
      • The emergence of parallel schemes is mainly due to the trust deficit prevailing in the federal system, the fiscal costs of which have long run consequences on the economy.

Way ahead

• For securing the implementation of many of its laws and policies, the Centre depends on the States, particularly in the concurrent spheres.
• The States also entrust their executive functions, with the consent of the Centre, to the government or agencies of the Centre (Article 258A).

Such interdependence is inevitable, especially in a large, diverse, developing society and needs to be preserved.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Ministry of Earth Sciences hosted the Inter-Ministerial Joint Workshop on Blue Economy.

About

• MoES has engaged with the World Bankas a knowledge partner to undertake a technical study and prepare a report titled ‘India’s Blue Economy: Pathways for resource-efficient, inclusive and resilient growth in India’.
• The report is expected to cover the areas related to global best practices in Blue Economy implementation, ocean accounting framework, institutional strengthening and innovative finance mechanisms towards implementing the Blue Economy Policy framework.

What is the Blue Economy?

• It is referred as the sustainable use of ocean resourcesfor economic growth, improved livelihoods, and jobs while preserving the health of the ocean ecosystem.

India’s Blue Economy

• India has a 7,517 km long coastline and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)of over two million square km is rich in living and non-living resources.
• India’s blue economy accounts forroughly 4% of the GDP and is estimated to increase once the mechanism is improved.
• The coastal economy also sustains over 4 million fisherfolk and other coastal communities.
• Four primary industries in India can fuel its blue economy; fishing, aquaculture, ports, and shipping.

Significance of the Blue Economy

• Economic Growth:The Blue Economy presents significant opportunities for economic growth through sectors such as fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, maritime transport, renewable energy, and biotechnology.
• Resource Utilization:It promotes the sustainable utilization of marine resources, including fish stocks, minerals, and energy sources, ensuring their availability for current and future generations.
• Renewable Energy: The Blue Economy encourages the development of renewable energy sources such as offshore wind, wave, and tidal energy, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change.
• Tourism: Coastal and marine tourism is a key component of the Blue Economy, generating revenue, employment, and supporting local economies in coastal regions.
• Climate Change Mitigation:Healthy oceans play a crucial role in regulating the Earth’s climate.
  • The Blue Economy promotes conservation efforts and sustainable practices that help mitigate the impacts of climate change, such as preserving coastal ecosystems and reducing carbon emissions.
• Biodiversity Conservation:By promoting sustainable practices and responsible management of marine resources, the Blue Economy contributes to the conservation of marine biodiversity and the protection of endangered species and habitats.

Challenges

• Pollution and environmental degradation:India’s coastal areas face significant pollution from various sources, including industrial discharge, untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, and plastic waste.
  • Pollution harms marine ecosystems, affects biodiversity, and undermines the sustainability of fisheries and other marine industries.
• Overexploitation of marine resources:Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing exacerbates the problem, leading to depletion of fish stocks and loss of livelihoods for coastal communities.
• Climate change impacts:Rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and changes in ocean temperature and currents due to climate change affect fisheries, aquaculture, coastal infrastructure, and biodiversity.
• Maritime security challenges:India’s maritime security is threatened by various factors, including piracy, illegal trafficking, maritime terrorism, and territorial disputes.
• Limited institutional capacity and infrastructure: Developing and managing the blue economy requires robust institutional frameworks, governance mechanisms, and infrastructure.
  • However, India faces challenges related to capacity constraints, inadequate funding, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and regulatory gaps, hindering effective management and sustainable development of marine resources.

Steps Taken by Government of India to Promote Blue Economy

• National Policy Framework:Government has formulated a National Policy Framework for the Blue Economy, which provides a strategic roadmap for sustainable development and management of marine resources.
  • The framework aims to integrate various sectors such as fisheries, aquaculture, shipping, tourism, and renewable energy to promote holistic growth.
• Sagarmala Programme: The Sagarmala Programme is a flagship initiative aimed at modernizing India’s ports, enhancing port connectivity, and promoting port-led development.
  • It focuses on optimizing logistics efficiency, promoting coastal shipping, and developing coastal economic zones to stimulate economic growth and create employment opportunities.
• National Marine Fisheries Action Plan (NMFAP): The plan includes measures to improve fishery resources assessment, enhance infrastructure and technology in the fisheries sector, and promote aquaculture development.
• Blue Economy Cell:The Ministry of Earth Sciences has established a dedicated Blue Economy Cell to coordinate research, policy formulation, and implementation of Blue Economy initiatives.
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM):The government has implemented the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Program to promote sustainable development and conservation of coastal ecosystems.
• Marine Spatial Planning (MSP):India has initiated efforts to develop Marine Spatial Planning frameworks to ensure efficient and sustainable use of marine space.

Way Ahead

• The Blue Economy in India is poised for significant growth in the next few years.
• The Blue Economy Mission undertaken by the government can lead to the sector becoming the next economic multiplier, depending on the execution of the policies that have been decided.
• The sector is the sixth dimension of the government’s ‘Vision of New India by 2030’; with the Blue Economy policies aiming for long-term economic advantages in order to achieve the greater goals of growth, job creation, equity, and environmental protection.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has introduced a new set of amendments to India’s Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2024.

About

• It defines biodegradable plastics as not only capable of degradation by biological processes in specific environments such as soil, landfill but also as materials that do not leave any microplastics.
• Rules specify that the makers of disposable plastic ware can label them as biodegradable only when they do not leave any microplastics behind.

Need for the Amendment

• Ambiguity:After the Union government banned single-use plastic in 2022, and recommended the adoption of biodegradable plastic, the question of what exactly constituted biodegradable plastic was unanswered.
• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)refused to provide a ‘provisional certificate’ to licence the products as biodegradable because the CPCB only considers as biodegradable a plastic sample that has 90% degraded, and such a process takes at least two years. 

Biodegradable and Compostable Plastics

• Biodegradable plastic involves plastic goods being treated before they are sold.
  • When discarded, the material is expected to decompose naturally over time though there are no tests yet to determine if such plastics completely degrade.
• Compostable plastics, on the other hand, do degrade, but require industrial or large municipal waste management facilities to do so.
• Biodegradable plastic and compostable plastic are projected as the two broad kinds of technological fixes to India’s burgeoning problem of plastic waste pollution.

What is Plastic and Microplastics?

• The word plastic is derived from the Greek word plastikos, meaning “capable of being shaped or moulded.”
• Plastic refers to a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient with their defining quality being their plasticity – the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation in response to applied forces.
  • This makes them extremely adaptable, capable of being shaped as per requirement.
• The basic building blocks of plastics are monomers, which are small molecules that can join together to form long chains called polymers through a process called polymerization. 
• Microplastics: Plastics break down into their smaller units called microplastics– officially defined as plastics less than five millimetres in diameter.
  • These microplastics find their way across the planet, from the depths of the Pacific Ocean to the heights of the Himalayas.
  • According to the most recent global estimates, an average human consumes at least 50,000 microplastic particles annually due to contamination of the food chain, potable water, and air.

Environmental Concerns of Microplastics

• Marine Pollution: Microplastics enter oceans through various pathways, including direct disposal, runoff from land, and fragmentation of larger plastic debris.
  • Marine organisms such as fish, seabirds, and marine mammals ingest microplastics, leading to physical harm, blockages in digestive systems, and potential transfer of toxins up the food chain.
• Freshwater Contamination:Microplastics are also found in freshwater environments, such as rivers, lakes, and streams.
• Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification:Microplastics have the potential to accumulate in the tissues of organisms through processes like ingestion and adsorption.
  • As predators consume prey containing microplastics, these contaminants biomagnify, reaching higher concentrations in organisms at the top of the food chain, including humans.
• Habitat Degradation:Microplastics presence interfere with nutrient cycling, sediment stability, and the behavior of organisms.
  • In some cases, microplastics create microenvironments that favor the growth of harmful bacteria or invasive species, further disrupting ecosystem dynamics.
• Global Distribution:Microplastics have been detected in diverse environments worldwide, including remote and pristine locations far from major sources of plastic pollution.
  • Their global distribution highlights the pervasive nature of plastic contamination and underscores the need for coordinated international efforts to address this issue.

India’s Efforts In Tackling Plastic Waste

• Ban on single-use plastics:India has banned the production, use, and sale of single-use plastics such as bags, cups, plates, cutlery, and straws in many states.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR):The Indian government has implemented EPR, making plastic manufacturers responsible for managing and disposing of the waste generated by their products.
• Plastic Waste Management Rules:India introduced the Plastic Waste Management Rules in 2016, which provide a framework for managing plastic waste through various measures, including recycling and waste-to-energy initiatives.
• Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022: 
  • The guidelines on EPR(Extended Producer Responsibility) coupled with the prohibition of identified single-use plastic items.
  • It banned the manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of carry bags made of virgin or recycled plastic less than seventy-five micrometers.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan:The Indian government launched the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, a national cleanliness campaign, which includes the collection and disposal of plastic waste.
• Plastic Parks:Government has set up Plastic Parks, which are specialized industrial zones for recycling and processing plastic waste.
• Beach clean-up drives:The Indian government and various non-governmental organizations have organized beach clean-up drives to collect and dispose of plastic waste from beaches.
• India is a signatory to MARPOL (International Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution).
• The “India Plastic Challenge – Hackathon 2021 
  • It is a unique competition calling upon start-ups /entrepreneurs and students of   Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to develop innovative solutions to mitigate plastic pollution and develop alternatives to single-use plastics.

General Studies Paper-3 

Context: India’s solar waste could reach 600 kilotonnes by 2030 as per a study published by Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) in collaboration with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

Key Findings

• Waste Generation:India’s installed 7 gigawatt (GW) capacity, as of FY23, has generated about 100 kilotonnes (kt) of cumulative waste, which will increase to 340 kt by 2030.
  • This volume will increase 32 times by 2050 resulting in about 19000 kt of cumulative waste.
• States Contribution:Around 67 percent of this waste is expected to be generated in five states: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Rajasthan will account for 24 percentof the waste generated by 2030, followed by Gujarat accounting for 16 percent, and Karnataka accounting for 12 percent.

India’s Solar Capacity

• Globally, India has emerged as a significant player in renewable energy, ranking fourth in total renewable power capacity additions and fifth in solar power capacity.
• From 2014 to 2024, India also saw an expansion in its installed capacity for energy generation, increasing from74 GW in FY 2014-15 to 74.31 GW in FY 2023-24 (till January). 
• It is slated to jump to 292 GW of installed solar capacity by 2030.

Solar Waste

• Solar waste refers to the waste generated during the manufacturing of solar modules and waste from the field (project lifetime).
• Manufacturing involves two streams of waste, including the scrap that’s produced and the waste generated from PV modules failing quality tests.
• Waste from the field involves three streams of waste. 
  • Waste generated during transporting and handling— the damaged modules are considered as waste.
  • Waste produced due to the damage incurred by solar modules during their lifetime.
  • When the modules reach their end-of-life and are not usable anymore.
• Thestudy only focused on waste from the field (project lifetime) category and excluded waste generated during manufacturing.

Key Recommendations

• The policymakers should maintain a comprehensive database of the installed solar capacity, which would help in estimating solar waste in the following years.
• The MoEFCC should issue guidelines for collecting and storing solar waste.
  • Furthermore, it should also promote safe and efficient processing of stored waste.
• Solar cell and module producers should start developing waste collection and storage centres to adhere to the responsibilities assigned in the E-waste Management Rules 2022.
• Policymakers should incentivise recyclers, and push stakeholders to effectively manage the growing solar waste.

Solar Waste Recycling Methods

• Conventional Recycling or Bulk Material Recycling:It involves mechanical processes like crushing, sieving, and shearing of the waste.
  • While the majority of recycled materials consist of glass, aluminium, and copper, more valuable materials like silver and silicon cannot be recovered through this method.
• High Value Recycling: It involves the use of a combination of mechanical, chemical, and thermal processes to recycle the modules.
  • Unlike conventional recycling, this method can recover silver and silicon also with the help of chemical processes.

General Studies Paper-3 

Context: Inequality is worsening in India with the share of top 1% in total income at new high as per the paper released by World Inequality Lab.

Major Findings

• Concentration of Wealth:Wealth is highly concentrated even within the top 1 percent.
  • In 2022-23, the top 1 percent wealth share was 39.5 percent, 29 percentage points went just to the top 0.1 percent, 22 percentage points to just the top 0.01 percent and 16 percentage points to just the top 0.001 percent.
• Rise over the Years:In 1961, bottom 50 percent and top 1 per cent shares were identical; by 2022-23, the top 1 percent share was more than 5 times larger.
• Lack of Data:The quality of economic data in India is notably poor and has seen a decline recently. It is therefore likely that these new estimates represent a lower bound to actual inequality levels.

Reasons for Economic Inequality in India

• Historical Factors:India’s history, including colonization and feudalism, has led to the accumulation of wealth in the hands of certain groups.
  • These historical inequalities have persisted over time, influencing wealth distribution patterns.
• Economic Policies:Economic policies, including liberalization and privatization measures implemented since the 1990s, have spurred economic growth in certain sectors, benefitting those with access to capital and resources.
  • However, these policies have also widened income and wealth inequalities, with the gains of economic growth disproportionately accruing to the wealthy.
• Urban-Rural Divide: There exists a significant gap in development between urban and rural areas.
  • Urban centers tend to attract more investment and offer better job opportunities, leading to the concentration of wealth in these regions.
• Access to Education and Opportunities:Disparities in access to education persist, particularly among marginalized communities, exacerbating wealth inequality.
• Informal Economy:A significant portion of India’s workforce is employed in the informal sector, where workers often lack job security, social protections, and access to formal financial services.
  • The informal economy perpetuates economic vulnerability and contributes to income disparities.
• Globalization and Market Forces: The benefits of globalization have not been evenly distributed, leading to the concentration of wealth among a select group of individuals and corporations that are well-positioned to capitalize on global market trends.

Suggestions As per the Report

• The paper finds suggestive evidence that the Indian income tax system might be regressive when viewed from the lens of net wealth.
  • A restructuring of the tax code to account for both income and wealth, and broad-based public investments in health, education and nutrition are needed to enable the average Indian, and not just the elites, to meaningfully benefit from the ongoing wave of globalisation.
• A “super tax” of 2 percent on the net wealth of the 167 wealthiest families in 2022-23 would yield5 percent of national income in revenues and create valuable fiscal space to facilitate such investments.
• Addressing wealth disparity in India requires comprehensive policy measures aimed at promoting inclusive economic growth, improving access to education and opportunities, addressing social discrimination, combating corruption, and implementing progressive taxation and wealth redistribution policies.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: Almost 90 per cent of the extra heat trapped by greenhouse gases has been absorbed by the oceans, making them steadily warmer over the decades, according to the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).

About:

• The average global sea surface temperature (SST)for February 2024 stood at 06 degree Celsius, the highest ever in a dataset that goes back to 1979, as per the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).
• The previous record of 20.98 degree Celsius was set in August 2023.

Why are the oceans getting warmer?

• Human factors:Since the Industrial Revolution kicked off in the 19th Century, human activities such as burning fossil fuels have released high levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide are some of the notable GHGs, which essentially trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
• As a result, the average global temperature has risen at least 1.2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial times.
• Warming Rate:The top part of the ocean is warming up about 24% faster than it did a few decades ago, and that rate is likely to increase in the future.
• Absorption by oceans:Almost 90 per cent of the extra heat trapped by GHGs has been absorbed by the oceans, making them steadily warmer over the decades.
• El Niño: A weather pattern that refers to an abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean has contributed to both ocean warming and rising global surface temperatures.

Why are rising sea surface temperatures a cause of worry?

• Impact on Marine Life:Higher ocean temperatures can have irreversible consequences for marine ecosystems.
• For instance, warmer oceans lead to an increase in ocean stratification— the natural separation of an ocean’s water into horizontal layers by density, with warmer, lighter, less salty, and nutrient-poor water layering on top of heavier, colder, saltier, nutrient-rich water.
• The rise in temperatures made it harder for water layers to mix with each other: Due to this, oceans are able to absorb less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and the oxygen absorbed isn’t able to mix properly with cooler ocean waters below, threatening the survival of marine life.
• Effect on nutrient circulation:Nutrients are also not able to travel up to the surface of the oceans from below. This could threaten the population of phytoplankton — single-celled plants that thrive on the ocean surface and are the base of several marine food webs.
• Phytoplankton are eaten by zooplankton, which are consumed by other marine animals such as crabs, fish, and sea stars. Therefore, if the phytoplankton population plummets, there could be a collapse of marine ecosystems.
• Marine heat waves (MHWs):Warmer oceans cause marine heat waves (MHWs), which occur when the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea rises to 3 or 4 degree Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days.
• Between 1982 and 2016, such heat waves have doubled in frequency and have become longer and more intense, according to IPCC.
• MHWs are devastating for marine ecosystems as they contribute to coral bleaching, which reduces the reproductivity of corals and makes them more vulnerable to life-threatening diseases and also impact the migration pattern of aquatic animals.
• Extreme weather events: According to several studies, higher ocean temperatures may also result in more frequent and more intense storms like hurricanes and cyclones.
• Warmer temperatures lead to a higher rate of evaporation as well as the transfer of heat from the oceans to the air. That’s why, when storms travel across hot oceans, they gather more water vapor and heat. This results in more powerful winds, heavier rainfall, and more flooding.
• Deoxygenation and Sea-Level Rise:Ocean warming leads to deoxygenation, a reduction in the amount of oxygen dissolved in the ocean and sea-level rise resulting from the thermal expansion of seawater and continental ice melting.

Suggestions/Recommendations

• Adhere to Paris agreement goals:Limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius would reduce the increase in exposure of agricultural land to drought by between 21% , 80% of the increased human exposure to heat stress can be avoided and also economic damages due to fluvial flooding can be reduced.
• Enhanced efforts: The researchers warned that more effort is needed to reduce global warming, as currently the policies in place globally are likely to result in 3 degrees Celsius of global warming.
• Expansion of protected area:The findings also showed that an expansion of protected area networks is necessary in order to deliver climate resilient biodiversity conservation.
• Mitigation as well as adaptation: Greater emphasis needs to be placed on both climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation to avoid large increases in risk to both human and natural systems.
• Restore ecosystems:A good way to combat the effects of climate change on natural systems and soak up carbon from the atmosphere is to restore ecosystems to their natural state. This has the additional benefit of restoring the natural capital bank in these areas.

Way Ahead

• These disastrous consequences of global warming are set to become worse as the world continues to get warmer.
• The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) in its 2023 State of Global Climate report said there was a 66 percent chance that at least one of the years between 2023 and 2027 would cross the threshold of 1.5 degree Celsius above pre-in- dustrial levels.
• The way to avoid or blunt the aforementioned consequences is to reduce GHG emissions.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: The Chennai-based space start-up will launch its first rocket Agnibaan Sub Orbital Technology Demonstrator from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.

India’s share in Space Industry

• India constitutes 2-3% of the global space economy and is expected to enhance its share to more than 10% by 2030.
• With over 400private space companies, India ranks fifth globally in no. of space companies.

Private players in space industry

• Indian start-ups are taking active interest in the space market, from just 1 start-up in the space sector in 2012 to 189 start-ups in 2023. 
• The funding received by these start-ups reached a total of $124.7 Mn in 2023from $67.2 Mn in 2021.
• The Skyroot, have launched India’s first privately built rocket, Vikram-S, into space, with plans to revolutionize satellite launches.

Regulation of the Private sector in the Space industry in India

• National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe):It is an autonomous and single window nodal agency in the Department of Space for the promotion, encouragement and regulation of space activities of both government and private entities.
• New Space India Ltd (NSIL):It is mandated to transfer the matured technologies developed by the ISRO to Indian industries.
• All of them are under the purview of the Ministry of Defence.

Steps taken by Government

• SpaceTech Innovation Network (SpIN): SpIN is a one-of-its-kind public-private collaboration for start-ups and SMEs in the space industry.
• The Indian Space Policy 2023 was notified to implement the vision for unlocking India’s potential in the Space sector through enhanced private participation.
• Various schemes to encourage the private sector have been implemented by IN-SPACe, i.e., Seed Fund Scheme, Pricing Support Policy, Mentorship support, Design Lab for NGEs, Skill Development in Space Sector, ISRO facility utilization support, Technology Transfer to Non-Governmental Entities (NGEs).

FDI in space sector

• Under the amended FDI policy, 100% FDI is allowed in the space sector. The entry route for the various activities are as follows:
• Up to 74% under Automatic route:Satellites-Manufacturing & Operation, Satellite Data Products and Ground Segment & User Segment.
• Up to 49% under Automatic route: Launch Vehicles and associated systems or subsystems, Creation of Spaceports for launching and receiving Spacecraft.
• Up to 100% under Automatic route: Manufacturing of components and systems/ sub-systems for satellites, ground segment and user segment.

Significance of privatization of space sector

• Private companies operate with a profit motive, which drives them to reduced costsin space missions and satellite launches.
• Privatization introduces competition into the space industry, which can drive efficiency and innovation.
• Private players facilitate the commercialization of space applicationsand services for agriculture, disaster management, urban planning, navigation, and communication, among other sectors.
• private companies have a greater degree of autonomy in making decisions, which enables them to take up new projects.
• It helps to generate employment, enable modern technology absorption and make the sector self-reliant.

Challenges

• Space technology is expensive and needs heavy investment.  This kind of lucrative power is available only with selected rich corporates, thus can lead to monopolization of the sector. 
• Building and operating space technology and infrastructure require specialized technical expertise and resources.
• Protecting intellectual property rights (IPR)is crucial for incentivizing innovation and investment in the space sector.
• Indian private companies in the space sector have to face stiff competition from the established players such as SpaceX, Blue Origin etc in the international market.

Way Ahead

• Private entities are now actively involved in crucial aspects of research, manufacturing, and fabrication of rockets and satellites, fostering a vibrant ecosystem of innovation.  It is expected to integrate Indian companies into global value chains.
• With this, companies will be able to set up their manufacturing facilities within the country duly encouraging ‘Make In India (MII)’and ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiatives of the Government.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India and Brazil concluded the first ‘2+2’ defence and foreign ministerial dialogue.

About

• Discussions spanned defence, space, energy, critical minerals, tech, counter-terrorism and regional, multilateral & other issues of mutual interest.
• It was co-chaired by an additional secretary in the external affairs ministry and joint secretary in the defence ministry.

What are 2+2 meetings?

• The 2+2 meetings signify the participation of two high-level representatives, Ministers holding Foreign and Defence portfolios, from each of the two countries who aim to enhance the scope of dialogue between them.
• Having such a mechanism enables the partners to better understand and appreciate each other’s strategic concerns and sensitivities taking into account political factors on both sides, in order to build a stronger, more integrated strategic relationship.
• India has held 2+2 meetings with ministers from the USA, Australia, Japan, the United Kingdom and Russia.

Brief on India- Brazil Relations

• Diplomatic Relations:Relations were established in 1948, and the two countries have been Strategic Partners since 2006.
• Both sides also have several Joint Working Groups to take forward sectoral cooperation.
• Trade Relations:In 2022, the bilateral trade expanded by 32% to US$15.2 billion (India’s exports US$8.8 billion & Imports – US$6.4 billion).
• India and Brazil have established Trade Monitoring Mechanism as an institutional mechanism to monitor and identify bottlenecks in bilateral trade and take appropriate measures to address them.
• Defence & Security Cooperation:India and Brazil signed an agreement in 2003 for cooperation in defence. Meetings of Joint Defence Committee (JDC) are held as an institutionalized mechanism for defence cooperation.
• Security Cooperation:India and Brazil established a Strategic Dialogue mechanism in 2006 to cover regional and global issues of mutual concern.
• The two countries have an Extradition Treaty, Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in Criminal Matters and an Agreement of Transfer of Sentenced Persons in place.
• Space Cooperation: India and Brazil signed a framework agreement for peaceful use of outer space in 2004 as well an Agreement for inter-institutional cooperation between the space agencies.
• Both countries have been collaborating in Data sharing and satellite tracking of Indian satellites.
• Multifora Relations:India and Brazil share a very close and multifaceted relationship both at bilateral level as well as in plurilateral fora such as BRICS, BASIC, G-20, G-4, IBSA, International Solar Alliance, as well as in the larger multilateral bodies such as the UN, WTO, UNESCO, and WIPO.

Challenges in the Relations

• Geopolitical Competition:Both India and Brazil are emerging powers with aspirations for greater global influence. This can sometimes lead to competition, particularly in international forums like the UN, where both countries seek greater representation and influence.
• Trade Barriers:Trade between India and Brazil has not reached its full potential, partly due to various trade barriers and protectionist measures in both countries. These barriers hinder the growth of bilateral trade and investment.
• Infrastructure and Connectivity: Improving infrastructure and connectivity between the two countries remains a challenge.
• Better air and sea connectivity, as well as improved transportation links, are essential for boosting trade and people-to-people contacts.

Way Ahead

• Overcoming the challenges requires sustained diplomatic efforts, enhanced economic cooperation, and a commitment to finding common ground on global issues.
• Despite the obstacles, the potential benefits of a stronger India-Brazil partnership make overcoming these challenges a worthwhile endeavor.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: It is observed that the gender gap in access to mobile phones has an impact on financial inclusion.

About Financial Inclusion

• Financial inclusion means that individuals and businesses have access to useful and affordable financial products and services that meet their needs.
• The Reserve Bank of India, releasing the National Strategy for Financial Inclusion (2019-2024), defined ‘financial inclusion’ as “the process of ensuring access to financial services and timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker sections and low-income groups at an affordable cost.
• Financial inclusion has been identified as an enabler for 7 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.  

Importance Financial Inclusion for Women 

• Financial inclusion is critical to achieving the economic empowerment of women—one of the targets under the fifth Sustainable Development Goal on gender equality.
• Access to financial services gives opportunities for generating income, accumulating assets, and participating more fully in economic activities, thereby promoting social and economic empowerment.
• Financial inclusion has a positive impact on women’s control over household resources by increasing their savings.
• It will result in direct improvements in outcomes of health, education, and employment.
• In turn, such progress helps achieve collective goals of eradicating poverty, promoting inclusive growth, and reducing inequality
• Additionally, women play a crucial role in promoting entrepreneurship by channeling their savings into starting or expanding small businesses.
• The adoption of digital payments across the world was boosted by COVID-19 and digital payments, in turn, have widened financial inclusion
• The percentage of women who have a bank or savings account that they themselves use has increased from 53 percent in NFHS-4 (2015-16) to 79 percent in NFHS-5.

Challenges 

• Although the country’s programmes promoting financial inclusion have increased the percentage of women having access to a bank account, wide gaps remain in account use, and access to savings and credit.
• Women continue to face barriers to accessing financial services for various reasons: they are more likely to lack proof of identity or a mobile phone, and live far from a bank branch.
• The barriers that women face are gendered: restrictive social norms, mobility constraints, lack of identification, limited financial literacy, insufficient assets for collateral, and low levels of digital literacy
• COVID-19 and the gendered digital divide : the pandemic increased the need for contactless financial products and services, accelerating the shift to digital finance in many economies.
• However, the tools and skills required to use digital financial products and services are not available to all, which has brought attention to the digital divide that affects women in particular.

Initiatives

• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) :It aims to promote financial inclusion in every household in the country.
• PMJDY offers an overdraft facility of INR 10,000 to the woman of the household for operating the savings account satisfactorily, without asking for security or how she will spend the money.
• Direct Benefits Transfer (DBT) : A key policy driver in women’s uptake and use of financial services in India has been the Direct Benefits Transfer (DBT) initiative for women account holders.
• The DBT also brings benefits to the government: it eliminates intermediaries, brings in transparency, and lowers the costs of distributing social security
• DBT covers wages for the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, LPG subsidy, and free food grains under the Public Distribution System.
• The Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana targets the financial inclusion of women by providing collateral-free loans up to INR 1 million for small and micro enterprises.
• The Unified Payments Interface (UPI)system has also revolutionised digital payments, making it easier for women to engage in financial transactions and investments.

Suggestions for Women’s Financial Inclusion

• Appoint more women Business Correspondents: They are retail agents that provide doorstep banking services in rural areas.
• Introduced in 2006, BCs have emerged as the predominant delivery model in the country for financial services
• Promote women’s access to, and literacy in digital tools
• Deepen convergence with self-help groups. In India, self-help groups (SHGs) have historically played an important role in the financial inclusion of women through the SHG-Bank Linkage Programme.
• SHGs can also be tapped to run financial literacy centres for women.
• Collect gender-disaggregated data and develop strategies to form women-centric approaches.
• Promote digital credit for medium and small businesses.

Conclusion

• Financial inclusion is essential for economic growth and sustainable development; for women, it is a pathway to economic and social empowerment.
• The existing challenges must be addressed through a women-centric approach to financial inclusion that prioritises equal access for women to the full range of financial services available to men.
• This will allow them the same opportunities as men to participate fully in economic activity.
• Ensuring the optimal use of women’s savings in India requires a focus on efficient mobilisation and allocation, leveraging financial markets and institutions.
• Government policies with a gender-sensitive approach are pivotal in encouraging women’s participation in productive investments.
• India’s digital infrastructure is crucial in enabling women’s savings to be channelled into productive capital and investments.