General Studies Paper -3

Context: The President of India, launched India’s first home-grown gene therapy which is CAR-T cell therapy (NexCAR19) for cancer at IIT Bombay.

About

• NexCAR19 is the indigenously developed therapy for B-cell cancers (types of cancers that form in the immune system’s cells) such as leukemia and lymphoma.
• It has been developed collaboratively by Immuno ACT,a company incubated at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IITB), and Tata Memorial Hospital.

CAR-T Cell Therapy

• T cells are the cells of the immune system that fights infections and can kill cancer.
• But, sometimes cancers can evade the T cells and there comes the use of “CAR-T cell therapy” or Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy.
• In this, patients own T cells are taken and modified in the lab so that they can recognise and react against the cancer.
• These modified T cells, also called CAR-T cells are then reinfused back into the patients. Now, these cells can better recognise cancer and are able to attack it.

What are B and T-Cells?

• B-cells and T-cells are a specific type of white blood cell called lymphocytes.
• Types of T cells:
  • Cytotoxic T-cells: They kill cells infected with viruses and bacteria, and they also destroy tumor cells.
  • Helper T-cells:They send signals that direct other immune cells to fight infection.
  • Regulatory T-cells (Tregs): These cells suppress excessive immune responses to prevent autoimmune reactions and maintain immune tolerance. They play a crucial role in preventing the immune system from attacking the body’s own cells and tissues.
• T-cells start in bone marrow, mature in thymus and eventually relocate to lymph tissue or bloodstream.
• B-cellsmake antibodies in response to antigens (antibody generators).
  • There are two main types of B-cells: plasma cells and memory cells. Both types help to protect from infection and disease.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: NATO has completed its 75 years of establishment in 2024.

About NATO

• NATO, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military alliance of countries. 
• Establishment:It was founded in 1949 with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty, more popularly known as the Washington Treaty.
• Aim:To ensure the security and defense of its member countries through collective defense.
• Founding Members: The original members of NATO were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
• Collective Defense:The cornerstone of NATO is Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which states that an armed attack against one or more of its members is considered an attack against all members.
• Decision-Making:Decisions within NATO are made on the basis of consensus among member countries. 
  • The North Atlantic Council,which includes the ambassadors of all member countries, is the principal political decision-making body.
• Members:It has 32 member countries, Finland and Sweden became the 31st and 32nd members respectively.
  • On signing the Treaty, countries voluntarily commit themselves to participating in the political consultations and military activities of the Organization.

Expansion of NATO

• NATO now has32 members across Europe and North America, including the UK, US, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Turkey.
• After the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, many Eastern European countries joined: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
• Sweden and Finland applied to join in 2022, following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. They had been neutral for decades.
• Finland – which has a 1,340km (832 mile) land border with Russia– joined in 2023. Sweden became a member in March 2024.
• With Sweden and Finland joining Nato, it is seeing its biggest expansion since the 1990s.They will add nearly 300,000 active and reserve troops to the alliance’s ranks.
• Ukraine, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Georgia also hope to join Nato.

Concerns of NATO Expansion

• Geopolitical Tensions:Expanding NATO’s borders potentially provokes tensions with neighboring countries, especially those with close ties to Russia.
  • The immediate reason for the Russian – Ukraine war can be associated with the fact the Russia wanted to prevent Ukraine from joining NATO.
• Security Dilemma: NATO expansion can trigger a security dilemma wherein one country’s effort to enhance its security is seen as a threat by another, leading to anarms race or increased military tensions.
• Strategic Interests:Expanding NATO’s membership raises questions about the strategic interests of the alliance and its commitment to collective defense.
  • Some argue that NATO should focus on consolidating its existing members rather than taking on new ones.
• European Security Architecture:NATO expansion could undermine efforts to develop a broader European security architecture, including initiatives such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
• Promoting such new alliances: Countries who sees NATO as a security threat can come up with a counter alliance such as the Warsaw Treaty Organization by the Russia. These alliances can further accelerate the geopolitical tensions.
• Potential for Conflict: NATO expansion raises the risk of conflict, particularly if it involves regions with existing territorial disputes or unresolved conflicts.
  • This could escalate tensions and increase the likelihood of military confrontation.

Way Ahead

• Overall, while NATO expansion can enhance the security of new member states and contribute to the stability of the Euro-Atlantic region, it also poses various challenges and concerns that need to be carefully considered by all parties involved.
• Diplomacy, dialogue, and a nuanced understanding of each other’s security concerns are essential for addressing these concerns and maintaining peace and stability in the region.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The government is bringing into effect a policy that will discourage solar power project developers from relying on imported panels.

About Solar Energy Sector

• Solar energy is the most abundant & cleanest energy resource on earth.
  • India is endowed with vast solar energy potential.
• Solar energy can be used mainly in three ways one is direct conversion of sunlight into electricity through PV cells, the two others being concentrating solar power (CSP) and solar thermal collectors for heating and cooling (SHC).

What is Driving India’s Solar Power Plan?

• India gets around 250 to 300 days of sunshine per year; equivalent to about 2,200–3,000 sunshine hours in a year depending upon the location.
• In terms of energy, it receives around 5,000 trillion kWh of solar energy every year, and the incidence ranges from 4 to 7 kWh per square metre per day in most areas.
• Rampant air pollution emphasizes the need for cleaner energy sources like solar to combat pollution caused by fossil fuels
• Therefore ,the government has undertaken a series of policy measures and provided financial incentives, keeping solar energy at the forefront of the push to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070 and meet 50% of its electricity requirements from renewable sources.
• Status : India, one of the world’s largest emitters of greenhouse gases, has set a target of 500 GW from non-fossil sources by 2030.
  • Solar energy has emerged as a major prong of India’s commitment to achieve these ambitious targets.
• India stands 4th globally in Renewable Energy Installed Capacity, 4th in Wind Power capacity and 5th in Solar Power capacity (as per International Renewable Energy Agency – Renewable capacity statistics 2023).

Benefits 

• Solar provides the ability to generate power on a distributed basis and enables rapid capacity addition with short lead times.
• From an energy security perspective, solar is the most secure of all sources, since it is abundantly available.
• Thesocial and economic benefits include reduction in drudgery among rural women and girls engaged in the collection of fuel wood from long distances and cooking in smoky kitchens, minimization of the risks of contracting lung and eye ailments, employment generation at village level.
• It will lead to the improvement in the standard of living and creation of opportunities for economic activities at village level  in an environment friendly manner.
• It supports the government agenda of sustainable growth, while emerging as an integral part of the solution to meet the nation’s energy needs and an essential player for energy security.

Related Initiatives 

• Solar energy has taken a central place in India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change with the National Solar Mission (NSM)
• PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijlee Yojana :It is a Central Scheme that aims to provide free electricity to one crore households in India, who opt to install roof top solar electricity units.
• The International Solar Alliance (ISA) : It is an action-oriented, member-driven, collaborative platform for increased deployment of solar energy technologies
  • The ISA was conceived as a joint effort by India and France to mobilize efforts against climate change through deployment of solar energy solutions.
  • It was conceptualized on the sidelines of the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris in 2015.
• Permitting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) up to 100 percent under the automatic route,
• Waiver of Inter State Transmission System (ISTS) charges for inter-state sale of solar and wind power for projects to be commissioned by 30th June 2025.
• The Approved Models and Manufacturers of Solar Photovoltaic Modules (Requirement for Compulsory Registration) Order, 2019, requires module makers to submit to an inspection of their manufacturing facilities by the National Institute of Solar Energy.
  • Being on the list as an ‘approved’ manufacturing facility certifies a company as legitimately manufacturing solar panels within its premises and not importing modules.
• In 2010, the Centre launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) to focus on the promotion and development of solar power.

Concerns and  Challenges 

• Despite government nudges, solar power installed capacity had reached only 31 GW, with rooftop solar around 11.08 GW by December 2023.
• The tepid growth of rooftop solar to limited consumer awareness,inconsistent policies, high capital cost and a dearth of suitable financing options.
• Policy uncertainty and regulatory pushbacks have been a major factor limiting growth in rooftop solar
• More importantly, restrictions and/or ambiguity on provisions such as banking of electricity and net metering have undermined rooftop solar opportunities in India
• In recent years, a significant fraction of India’s solar installations has been met by imports.
  • This affects theinterests of domestic panel manufacturers who have to pay the government to be certified while at the same time losing out on orders to the cheaper Chinese panels.

Conclusion and Way Forward 

• India’s energy demand is expected to increase more in the coming decades due to its sheer size and enormous potential for growth and development.
• Therefore,It is imperative for India to not only find alternatives to coal-based fuels but also secure its energy demands in a sustainable manner.
  • Most of this new energy demand must be met by low-carbon, renewable sources.
• The extensive use of solar power plants is a crucial step towards cleaner, cheaper, and sustainable energy, offering benefits at both utility and individual levels.

As soon as the targets are moved in line with India’s demand, there is no doubt India can become a clean energy powerhouse.”

General Studies Paper -1

Context: The Uttarakhand government has constituted two teams of experts to evaluate the risk posed by five potentially hazardous glacial lakes in the region.

• These lakes are prone to Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs).

What are GLOFs?

• GLOFs are disaster events caused by the abrupt discharge of water from glacial lakes — large bodies of water that sit in front of, on top of, or beneath a melting glacier.
• As a glacier withdraws, it leaves behind a depression that gets filled with meltwater, thereby forming a lake.
  • The more the glacier recedes, the bigger and more dangerous the lake becomes.

Reasons 

• GLOFs can be triggered by various reasons, including
  • Glacial calving, where sizable ice chunks detach from the glacier into the lake,
  • Inducing sudden water displacement
  • Incidents such as avalanches or landslides can also impact the stability of the boundary around a glacial lake, leading to its failure, and the rapid discharge of water.
• In recent years, there has been a rise in GLOF events in the Himalayan region as soaring global temperatures have increased glacier melting.
  • Rising surface temperatures across the globe, including India, have increased the risk of GLOFs
• Rapid infrastructure development in vulnerable areas has also contributed to the spike in such incidents.

Impacts 

• GLOFs can unleash large volumes of water, sediment, and debris downstream with formidable force and velocity.
• The floodwaters can submerge valleys, obliterate infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and buildings, and result in significant loss of life and livelihoods.
• It has resulted in several disasters in the Himalayan states in recent years.

Geographical Distribution: 

• Commonly associated with glacial regions, especially in mountainous areas with significant glacial activity. Examples include the Himalayas, Andes, and Alps.
  • Since 1980, in the Himalayan region, particularly in southeastern Tibet and the China-Nepal border area, GLOFs have become more frequent
• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), which operates under the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, has identified 188 glacial lakes in the Himalayan states that can potentially be breached because of heavy rainfall.
  • Thirteen of them are in Uttarakhand.

Suggestions 

• There is a need to know more about the dynamics of glaciers and glacial lakes
• Therefore, it is important to learn as much as possible about past events and the dynamics behind them and to assess the overall GLOF risk in the region for better planning and implementation of disaster risk reduction measures and climate change adaptation in the region.
• There is a need to Utilise satellite imagery and remote sensing technology to monitor changes in glacial lakes and identify potential threats.
• Develop and communicate emergency preparedness plans to communities at risk.

About the BIMSTEC Charter

• It was signed and adopted during the Fifth BIMSTEC Summit held in Colombo, Sri Lanka in 2022.
• It provides a legal and institutional framework for BIMSTEC, aiming to create an enabling environment for rapid economic development through the identification and implementation of specific cooperation projects in the agreed areas of cooperation and other areas that may be agreed upon by the Member States.
• It reaffirms the commitment to the principles and purposes of BIMSTEC as enshrined in the Bangkok Declaration of 1997.

Significance of the BIMSTEC Charter

• The adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter formalises the grouping into an organisation made up of member states that are littoral to, and dependent upon, the Bay of Bengal.
• The Charter allows BIMSTEC to engage in external relations with non-member States, developmental partners, and regional as well as the UN and International Organisations.
• It stresses the need for a fair, just, equitable, and transparent international order and reaffirms faith in multilateralism with the United Nations at the centre and the rule-based international trading system.

BIMSTEC and India

• Alignment with Foreign Policy:BIMSTEC aligns with India’s ‘Neighbourhood First’ and ‘Act East’ policies.
  • It provides a natural platform for India to foster greater regional cooperation in South and Southeast Asia.
• Economic Integration: BIMSTEC is an important element in India’s strategy for economic cooperation with South East Asian countries.
  • The BIMSTEC Free Trade Area Framework Agreement, signed in 2004, aims to increase trade and economic integration among member countries.
• Security Cooperation: India plays a significant role in BIMSTEC’s security cooperation. Under the new changes adopted in the summit, India has become the ‘security pillar’ of BIMSTEC.
  • It includes cooperation in areas such as counter-terrorism and transnational crime.
• Connectivity and Infrastructure Development: The BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport Connectivity seeks to connect several major transport projects in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand and establish a shipping network across the Bay of Bengal.
  • It aims to benefit the littoral states as well as the Bay of Bengal dependent states like Nepal and Bhutan.

Challenges Associated with BIMSTEC for India

• Uneven Progress:Despite being in existence for over 25 years, the pace of cooperation within BIMSTEC has been somewhat uneven.
  • The progress across different sectors has been inconsistent, which has affected the overall effectiveness of the organisation.
• Regional Conflicts among member states:It can hamper the smooth functioning of BIMSTEC.
  • For instance, the Rohingya refugee crisis created tensions between Myanmar and Bangladesh, which affected the working of BIMSTEC.
• Legal and Institutional Challenges: Finalising legal instruments for various initiatives, such as coastal shipping and road transport, can be time-consuming and complex.
  • These can slow down the progress towards stronger trade relations among the member countries.
• Security Concerns:Terrorism remains a significant threat to peace and stability in the region.
  • While BIMSTEC has been working towards strengthening cooperation against terrorism, it continues to be a major challenge.

Conclusion

• The BIMSTEC Charter represents a significant step forward in regional cooperation. It provides a robust framework for the organisation to work towards a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable Bay of Bengal Region.

As BIMSTEC enters a new era with the adoption of its Charter, it is poised to play a crucial role in fostering regional cooperation and integration.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Present circumstances call for a new chapter in India-Africa relations.

 India-Africa relations

• India and Africa have a time-honoured partnership based on shared values and the country enjoys considerable goodwill within Africa.
• India’s trade with Africa has grown from US$ 68.5 billion in 2011-12 to US$ 90.5 billion in 2022-23 and Indian investors have also expanded their footprint in Africa.
• India is now one of the top five investors in Africa.

Developments 

• India and Africa have made effective contributions to protect the interests of developing countries at international fora, particularly theWorld Trade Organisation (WTO).
  • They moved joint proposals such as the Agriculture Framework Proposal and India and South Africa proposed an intellectual property right waiver for COVID-19 vaccines at the WTO.
• India used its G20 presidency to solidify its position as the leader of the Global South.
  • The African Union became a full member of the G-20
• Indian investments in Africa reached $98 billion in 2023, with trade totalling $100 billion.
• Indian social enterprises and NGOs are exporting low-cost, scalable solutions, from eco-friendly houses to rural women solar engineers.

Importance 

• Africa’s significant growth rate of 8 per centand its young population, with 60 per cent under the age of 25, estimated to reach 1.1 billion people by 2040.
• Global forums:  Africa’s influence in global forums will be important for India’s vision for global governance.
  • As the Global South houses three-fourths of humanity and over 39 per cent of the global GDP.
• Cooperation in the critical minerals sector: Africa, with 30 percent of the world’s mineral reserves, is vital to power the energy transition.
  • To build solar panels and batteries necessary for a low-carbon future, access to minerals classified as “critical”, “transition” or “green” is key.
  • Given the geographical concentration of critical minerals, diversifying sources and fostering strategic partnerships with resource-rich nations are imperative for India’s growth and national security.

Challenges 

• The twin shocks of the COVID-19 pandemicand the Ukraine-Russia conflict have dealt heavy blows to African economies and much of the continent is currently reeling under debt distress and food insecurity.
• China has emerged as one of largest trading partners and one of largest investors in the African continent through its steady diplomacy and extensive economic engagement.
• Theinordinate delay in the fourth India-Africa Forum Summit, after three consecutive summits in 2008 (New Delhi), 2011 (Addis Ababa), and 2015 (New Delhi), does not bode well for the partnership.

Conclusion and Way Forward 

• In this era of geopolitical competition and realignment, India’s multifaceted relationship with African nations is poised for a fundamental transformation.
  • As India’s aspirations for the Global South take shape, leveraging historical partnerships with African countries remains imperative.
• India should actively engage with the AU to hold the India-Africa Forum Summit as soon as possible.
  • The India-Africa Forum Summit should build on the gains made at the G20 summit and spell out the agenda for the future.
• Africa’s food security and agricultural transformation should be one of the top priorities for India-Africa engagement in the coming years.
• Given India’s longstanding commitment to education and capacity building in Africa, New Delhi could revamp existing collaborations or establish new ones with African technical organisations.
  • This endeavour would bolster negotiation skills, training in project management, and devising industry-specific technical courses.

Indian research institutes engaging with Africa’s research community can facilitate the creation of solutions to address Global South challenges.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, a majority in the Lower House of Nepal supported the proposal seeking endorsement of the BIMSTEC Charter.

About the BIMSTEC Charter

• It was signed and adopted during the Fifth BIMSTEC Summit held in Colombo, Sri Lanka in 2022.
• It provides a legal and institutional framework for BIMSTEC, aiming to create an enabling environment for rapid economic development through the identification and implementation of specific cooperation projects in the agreed areas of cooperation and other areas that may be agreed upon by the Member States.
• It reaffirms the commitment to the principles and purposes of BIMSTEC as enshrined in the Bangkok Declaration of 1997.

Significance of the BIMSTEC Charter

• The adoption of the BIMSTEC Charter formalises the grouping into an organisation made up of member states that are littoral to, and dependent upon, the Bay of Bengal.
• The Charter allows BIMSTEC to engage in external relations with non-member States, developmental partners, and regional as well as the UN and International Organisations.
• It stresses the need for a fair, just, equitable, and transparent international order and reaffirms faith in multilateralism with the United Nations at the centre and the rule-based international trading system.

BIMSTEC and India

• Alignment with Foreign Policy:BIMSTEC aligns with India’s ‘Neighbourhood First’ and ‘Act East’ policies.
  • It provides a natural platform for India to foster greater regional cooperation in South and Southeast Asia.
• Economic Integration: BIMSTEC is an important element in India’s strategy for economic cooperation with South East Asian countries.
  • The BIMSTEC Free Trade Area Framework Agreement, signed in 2004, aims to increase trade and economic integration among member countries.
• Security Cooperation: India plays a significant role in BIMSTEC’s security cooperation. Under the new changes adopted in the summit, India has become the ‘security pillar’ of BIMSTEC.
  • It includes cooperation in areas such as counter-terrorism and transnational crime.
• Connectivity and Infrastructure Development: The BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport Connectivity seeks to connect several major transport projects in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand and establish a shipping network across the Bay of Bengal.
  • It aims to benefit the littoral states as well as the Bay of Bengal dependent states like Nepal and Bhutan.

Challenges Associated with BIMSTEC for India

• Uneven Progress:Despite being in existence for over 25 years, the pace of cooperation within BIMSTEC has been somewhat uneven.
  • The progress across different sectors has been inconsistent, which has affected the overall effectiveness of the organisation.
• Regional Conflicts among member states:It can hamper the smooth functioning of BIMSTEC.
  • For instance, the Rohingya refugee crisis created tensions between Myanmar and Bangladesh, which affected the working of BIMSTEC.
• Legal and Institutional Challenges: Finalising legal instruments for various initiatives, such as coastal shipping and road transport, can be time-consuming and complex.
  • These can slow down the progress towards stronger trade relations among the member countries.
• Security Concerns:Terrorism remains a significant threat to peace and stability in the region.
  • While BIMSTEC has been working towards strengthening cooperation against terrorism, it continues to be a major challenge.

Conclusion

• The BIMSTEC Charter represents a significant step forward in regional cooperation. It provides a robust framework for the organisation to work towards a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable Bay of Bengal Region.
• As BIMSTEC enters a new era with the adoption of its Charter, it is poised to play a crucial role in fostering regional cooperation and integration.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Punjab and Haryana high court has made it clear that courts can order release of an accused of money laundering under police custody without fulfilling twin conditions as mandated under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002.

About the Act 

• PMLA forms the core of the legal framework put in place by India to combat money laundering. 
• PMLA and the Rules notified there under came into force with effect from July 1, 2005 .
  • The PMLA was enacted by India’s Parliament under Article 253 which empowers it to make laws for implementing the international conventions.
• The Act seeks to combat money laundering in India and has three main objectives:
  • to prevent and control money laundering
  • to confiscate and seize the property obtained from the laundered money
  • to deal with any other issue connected with money laundering in India.
• Director, FIU-IND and Director (Enforcement)have been conferred with exclusive and concurrent powers under relevant sections of the Act to implement the provisions of the Act.
• The Act was amended by the Prevention of Money Laundering (Amendment) Act, 2009 and by the Prevention of Money Laundering (Amendment) Act, 2012.

Emerging Issues 

• Crime proceeds: PMLA revolves around the “crime proceeds”which are laundered.
  • persons who have nothing to do with the crime but who have some involvement at a later stage in the laundering process are also guilty under this law.
  • an accused under PMLA is presumed to be guilty until proven innocent.
    • A fundamental principle of Anglo-Saxon jurisprudence is that a person is presumed innocent until proven guilty. PMLA turns this principle upside down.
  • Large number of Offences: PMLA includes a large number of offences in the schedule which have nothing to do with the original purpose of this law.
    • its ambit has been extended to cover even offences not related to drug trafficking, organised crimes, and other serious crimes.
  • Lack of Transparency : Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR): the absence of a procedure to commence investigation and summoning, while the accused was not made aware of the contents of the Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR).
  • The bail provision:  The bail provision of the PMLA Act (Section 45) is invested with a lot of political significance in present day India.
    • It was held unconstitutional by a two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court of India in Nikesh Tarachand Shah vs Union of India (2018) as violating Article 14 and Article 21.
      • But In 2022, the Supreme Court upheld the validity of various provisions of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) which empowers ED to make arrests, conduct search and seizures and attach proceeds of crime.

Conclusion and Way Forward 

• India as a signatory to the treaties and an important participant in the international process and the fight against money laundering, is bound legally and morally, to adopt the global best practices and respond to the changing needs of the times .
  • But legal and constitutional safeguards must be kept in mind in this context .
• The Supreme Court’s decision in Pankaj Bansal vs Union of India is a significant step towards enhancing transparency, accountability, and fairness in the arrest procedures under PMLA.
  • It delved into an important point of law — how is the enforcement directorate (ED) required to “inform” persons arrested under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002, (PMLA) of the grounds of their arrest.
  • In addition to increased transparency, the decision will foster better corporate governance.
• There must be a global consensus on the need to have a law to deal effectively.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Public debt management is getting wider attention in Centre-State financial relations, against the backdrop of the recently constituted Sixteenth Union Finance Commission.

About

• Kerala, had filed a suit in the Supreme Court of India against the Centre’s decision on the net borrowing ceiling of States.
• These recent developments relate to a clarion call for “asymmetric fiscal rules” relating to deficits and debts in India.

Centre-State Financial Relations

• The Indian Constitution has all the features of a federation with the specification of financial powers and functional responsibilities of the Centre and the States .
• The Union and the State Lists under the Seventh Schedule prescribed in the Constitution under Article 246 contain subjects in respect of which the Union and the States have exclusive jurisdiction to make laws, respectively.
  • In addition, a few subjects are listed in the Concurrent List in respect to which both the Union and the States have concurrent powers to make laws.
• Article 270of the Constitution provides for the scheme of distribution of net tax proceeds collected by the Union government between the Centre and the States.
  • The taxes that are shared between the Centre and the States include corporation tax, personal income tax, Central GST, the Centre’s share of the Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST) etc.

Basis for Allocation

• The share of States from the divisible pool (vertical devolution) stands at 41% as per the recommendation of the 15th FC.
• The distribution among the States (horizontal devolution) is based on various criteria.
• The criteria as per the 15th FC can be briefly explained as follows.
  • ‘Income distance’ : It is the distance of a State’s income from the State with highest per capita income.
    • States with lower per capita income would be given a higher share to maintain equity among States.
  • ‘Population ’is the population as per the 2011 Census.
  • ‘Forest and ecology’consider the share of dense forest of each State in the aggregate dense forest of all the States.
  • ‘The demographic performance’criterion has been introduced to reward efforts made by States in controlling their population.
  • ‘Tax effort’ as a criterion has been used to reward States with higher tax collection efficiency.

Concerns of States Government

• Over the years, the share of Union Finance Commission tax transfers has declined for a few States.
• The Union government has sought to keep an increasing share of its proceeds out of the divisible pool so that they need not be shared with States.
• It has also not been devolving the shares of net proceeds to the States as mandated by successive FCs.
• The Fifteenth Finance Commission has designed the tax transfer formula based on population (15%), area (15%), income distance (45%), demographic transition (12.5%), forest and ecology (10%) and tax effort (2.5%).
  • The weightage given to the distance of per capita income in the Finance Commission tax transfer formula adversely affects growing States, including Kerala.
    • This leads to the debate on equity versus efficiency principles of intergovernmental fiscal transfers.

Suggestions and Way Ahead 

• Judicious bargaining with the Finance Commission relating to magnitude and criteria (with weightage decisions) is key to ensuring the progressivity of fiscal transfers to the State.
• There needs to be a negotiation with the Sixteenth Finance Commission for specific-purpose transfers to tackle State-specific issues such as demographic transition, inward and outward migration and climate change crisis.
• Fiscal transfer based on the advancement of gender budgeting(including the care economy infrastructure) in the State is critical to redress gender inequalities.
• Apart from addressing rightful complaints on the inequalities in horizontal devolution, the stance of the 16th FC on vertical devolution would be critical to the survival of fiscal federalism in India.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, the Association of Democratic Reforms (ADR) scrutinised the affidavits of the sitting MPs, and revealed several sitting MPs with criminal charges.

Criminalisation of Politics in India

• It is a phenomenon, where individuals with criminal charges are elected to positions of power, posing a significant threat to the democratic fabric of the nation.
• It refers to the involvement of individuals with criminal charges or backgrounds in Indian politics. It means that persons with criminal backgrounds contest in the election and get selected as a member of parliament or state legislature.

Major Reasons

• Unholy Nexus between Bureaucracy and Politicians; Religion and Caste; Vote Bank Politics; Ineffective Legal Provisions; and Lack of Transparency and Accountability etc.

The Extent of the Problem: Key Findings of ADR 

• Criminal Charges:Out of the 514 sitting Lok Sabha MPs analysed, 225 (44%) have declared criminal cases against themselves.
  • ADR revealed that among the sitting MPs with criminal charges, 29% face serious criminal cases, including allegations of murder, attempt to murder, promoting communal disharmony, kidnapping, and crimes against women.
  • Out of the sitting MPs with serious criminal cases against them, nine face murder cases.
• Educational Background, Age, and Gender:73% of the MPs have graduate or higher educational qualifications, while only 15% of the sitting MPs are women.
• State-wise Distribution:More than 50% of the MPs from Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Himachal Pradesh face criminal charges.
• Party-wise Distribution: Among major parties, the BJP and the Congress have the highest number of billionaire MPs.
• Highest Declared Assets:5% of the analysed MPs are billionaires, with assets exceeding ₹100 crore.

Other Key Reasons Highlighted By ADR Earlier:

• Electoral Bonds:The Supreme Court held that the Electoral Bonds Scheme was unconstitutional for violating the right to information of voters.
• Registered Unrecognised Political Parties:According to a report by ADR, the number of registered unrecognised political parties has increased two-fold from 2010 to 2019.
• Election Commissioners Appointment:ADR argues that the present practice of appointment of Election Commissioners by the Centre is violative of Articles 14 and Article 324 (2) and the basic features of the Constitution.

Issues of Criminalization of Politics

• Question of safety & security:The main purpose of governance is to provide safety and security to citizens who elect their representatives for this role.
  • But if the elected members themselves have criminal records, would they be interested in a criminal justice system that is prompt and efficient?
• Low conviction rate:As per the National Crime Records Bureau’s 2021 report, only 10,416 cases of murder were disposed of during the year with just a 42.4% conviction rate.
  • The law minister has admitted to more than 4.7 crore cases pending in various courts.
• Situation in police stations: Politicians play a very powerful role at police stations, compromising both integrity and impartiality of field staff.
  • In due course, ordinary criminals graduate to be dreaded ones and form gangs extorting money, grabbing land, threatening witnesses in criminal cases, etc.
• Impact on Democracy: The presence of criminals in politics undermines the very essence of democracy. It erodes public trust in the political system and compromises the integrity of our institutions.
• Moreover, it raises serious questions about the kind of representation citizens are receiving and the quality of governance being delivered.

Measures to Curb Criminalisation

• The Vohra Committee set up by the Centre in 1993 sounded a note of warning saying that “some political leaders become the leaders of these groups and, over the years, get themselves elected to local bodies, state assemblies, and the national Parliament.
• Law Commission’s 179th report:It recommended an amendment to the Representation of People Act 1951, and suggested the people with criminal backgrounds should be disqualified for five years or until acquittal.
  • It also recommended that the person who wants to contest the election must furnish details regarding any pending case, with the copy of the FIR/complaint, and also furnish details of all assets.

The Legal Framework:

• Representation of the People Act, 1951:It provides the basis for disqualifying a sitting legislator or a candidate on certain grounds.
  • However, there is no provision regulating appointments to offices within political parties.
• Right to Information Act, 2005:Efforts have been made to bring political parties under the Right to Information regime to usher in transparency within political parties.

Related Supreme Court Judgement

• In 2002: Every candidate contesting election had to declare his criminal and financial records along with educational qualifications.
• In 2005: A sitting MP or MLA will be disqualified from contesting the election if convicted and sentenced to imprisonment for two years or more by a court of law.
• In 2014: The Supreme Court accepted the Law Commission recommendations and passed an order directing that trials against sitting MPs and MLAs should be concluded within a year of charges being framed and conducted on a day-to-day basis.
  • As a follow-up to these directives, in 2017, the government started a scheme to establish 12 special courts for a year to fast-track the trial of criminal cases against MPs and MLAs.
• In 2021:The political parties need to upload on their websites and social media platforms the details of pending criminal cases against their candidates and the reasons for selecting them as also for not giving tickets to those without criminal antecedents.
• Recently, the Supreme Court published some necessary mandates to avert the criminalisation of politics as many lawsuits have been withdrawn against MPs and MLAs in the past.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• The criminalisation of politics in India is a grave issue that needs immediate attention. The involvement of criminals in politics not only undermines the democratic process but also hampers the development of the nation.
• There is a need to fix the role of Political Parties that should be more transparent and accountable in their candidate selection process.
• The Election Commission of India and other respective authorities need to take transparency measures about the Political Parties and their funding to the People of India so that they can make informed decisions while exercising their vote.
• It is high time that stringent measures are taken to curb this menace and restore faith in the democratic system.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Recently, India has accelerated the efforts to improve infrastructure and connectivity along the Line of Actual Control with China.

Enhanced Connectivity and Development

• The Line of Actual Control (LAC) in Arunachal Pradesh, a contested border area between India and China, has seen significant developments in infrastructure and connectivity in recent years.

Boosting Connectivity:

• The Indian Army has been instrumental in connecting remote areas of the state, speeding up efforts to improve infrastructure along the LAC.
• It has both military and civilian advantages, boosting tourism and quickening the Army’s movements.
• The work on the 2,400-km-long Trans Arunachal Highway is nearing completion, and the focus of infrastructure development has shifted to the trans-frontier highway, which will connect all the valleys in the state.
  • It aims to significantly reduce time and effort for both military and general movement, especially in eastern Arunachal Pradesh.
• Nechiphu Tunnel:It is the 500-metre long Nechiphu Tunnel on Balipara-Chariduar-Tawang Road in Arunachal Pradesh. This tunnel, along with the under construction Sela Tunnel, will provide all-weather connectivity to the strategic Tawang Region.

Enhancing Surveillance:

• In the last few years, the Army has significantly upgraded firepower and infrastructure along the LAC in the Tawang sector of Arunachal Pradesh.
• The pace of capability and infrastructure development in the rest of the state has gained significant pace in the last few years.
• This includes road infrastructure, bridges, tunnels, habitat and other storage facilities, aviation facilities, and upgradation of communications and surveillance.

Associated Challenges

• Geographical Challenges:The areas along the LAC in Arunachal Pradesh are characterised by high-altitude terrain and sparse population.
  • It makes infrastructure development and connectivity a challenging task.
• Educational Limitations: The remote areas along the LAC have limited access to quality education.
  • It is a significant challenge as it affects the quality of life for the residents of these areas.
• Financial Constraints:The cost of infrastructure development in these remote and difficult terrains is high.
  • It poses a significant challenge in terms of resource allocation and management.
• Security Concerns:The proximity to the contested border with China adds a layer of complexity to the infrastructure development process.
  • Ensuring the security of the infrastructure projects and the workers involved is a major challenge.
• Lack of Last-Mile Connectivity:While major highways and other connectivity improvements are being constructed, providing last-mile connectivity to the most forward posts is a significant challenge.

Related Government Initiatives

• Inter-state Border Areas Development Programme (ISBADP):It aims to provide facilities for the socio-economic development of the people living along the Inter-State boundary with Assam.
  • Projects taken up under this program are to ensure sustainability and provide value addition to any given product.
• Border Areas Development Department (BADP):It is to meet the special developmental needs and well-being of the people living in remote and inaccessible areas situated near the International Boundary (IB).
  • The provision of essential infrastructure facilities and opportunities for sustainable living would help integrate these areas with the hinterland, create a positive perception of care by the country and encourage people to stay on in the border areas, leading to safe and secure borders.
• Infrastructure Development by Ministry of Home Affairs:It includes the construction of fences, floodlighting, roads, Border Out Posts (BOPs), Company Operating Bases (COBs), and deployment of technological solutions along the India-Pakistan, India-Bangladesh, India-China, India-Nepal, India-Bhutan, and India-Myanmar borders.
• Vibrant Villages Programme: It has been instrumental in developing remote villages in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • Under this programme, primary health centres and residences of school teachers are being upgraded, and concrete tracks are being laid.
  • It has brought about a significant improvement in the quality of life for the residents of these villages.

Conclusion

• The development of infrastructure and connectivity along the LAC in Arunachal Pradesh is a testament to India’s commitment to securing its borders and improving the lives of its citizens in border areas. While challenges remain, the progress made so far is promising and sets the stage for a more connected and secure future.