General Studies Paper -3

Context: According to the Travel and Tourism Development Index (TTDI) 2024 report published by the World Economic Forum (WEF), India is ranked 39th among 119 countries.

About

• In the previous index published in 2021, India was ranked 54th.
• India’s scores have improved in three areas: Prioritization of Travel & Tourism, Safety & Security, and Health & Hygiene.
• There were 975 million International Tourist arrivals around the world in 2022, wherein India recorded 14.3 million International Tourist Arrivals that represented 1.47% of the international inbound tourism market share.
  • The share of India’s International Tourist Arrivals in Asia & Pacific is 15.66% in 2022.

Types of Tourism offered in India

• Bounded by the Himalayan ranges in the north and edged by a coastline surrounded by three seas, India has magnificent historical sites and royal cities, golden beaches, misty mountain retreats, rich cultures and festivities.
• Adventure tourism: This involves exploration of remote areas and exotic locales and engaging in various activities.
  • For adventure tourism in India, tourists prefer to go trekking to places like Ladakh, Sikkim, and Himalaya.
• Spiritual Tourism : The astounding diversity of religions, cultures, and languages of India is unique and unparalleled.
• Beach Tourism: India’s vast coastline and islands provides ample opportunities for tourism.
  • Kerala, Goa, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep islands attract tourists in large numbers all around the year.
• Cultural tourism: India is known for its rich cultural heritage and an element of mysticism, which is why tourists come to India to experience it for themselves.
• The various fairs and festivals that tourists can visit in India are the Pushkar fair (Rajasthan), Taj Mahotsav (Uttar Pradesh), and Suraj Kund mela (Haryana).
• Wildlife tourism: India has a rich forest cover which has exotic species of wildlife – some of which are even endangered and very rare. This has boosted wildlife tourism in India.
• Medical tourism: Tourists from all over the world come to India to avail themselves of cost-effective but superior quality healthcare in terms of surgical procedures and general medical attention.

Indian Tourism Sector

• The Indian Tourism sector ranks among the fastest-growing economic sectors in the country.
• International Tourist arrival is expected to reach 30.5 million by 2028.
• By 2028, India’s tourism and hospitality industry is projected to generate revenue of over $59 Bn.
  • Additionally, Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) are anticipated to reach 30.5 Mn by 2028.

Challenges

• Infrastructure Deficiencies: Many tourist destinations in India suffer from inadequate infrastructure, including poor road conditions, insufficient public transportation, and inadequate facilities in popular tourist areas.
• Environmental Degradation: Increased tourism lead to environmental problems such as pollution, overuse of natural resources, and damage to wildlife and ecosystems. Sustainable tourism practices are often lacking.
• Lack of Standardization: There is a lack of standardized quality control across various services in the tourism sector, from hotels and restaurants to tour operators. This inconsistency affect the overall tourist experience.
• Seasonality: Many tourist destinations face seasonal fluctuations, with high tourist numbers during peak seasons and low numbers during off-seasons.
• Marketing and Promotion Challenges: Effective marketing strategies are often lacking, and there is a need for better promotion of lesser-known destinations.
• Cultural Sensitivity and Management: Managing cultural heritage responsibly while balancing tourism needs is challenging.
  • There are issues related to respecting local traditions and practices while catering to tourist demands.

Government Initiatives

• Incredible India Campaign: Launched in 2002, this ongoing campaign aims to position India as a premier tourist destination.
  • It focuses on highlighting India’s diverse culture, heritage, and attractions through various media and promotional activities.
• National Tourism Policy: The National Tourism Policy aims to promote sustainable tourism, improve infrastructure, and increase tourist arrivals.
• Swadesh Darshan Scheme: This scheme was launched to develop theme-based tourist circuits across the country.
  • It focuses on creating world-class infrastructure, including roads, amenities, and signage, to improve the tourist experience.
• Prasad Scheme: The Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual, Heritage Augmentation Drive (PRASAD) aims to develop and beautify pilgrimage destinations across India, enhancing facilities and accessibility for spiritual tourism.
• Atithi Devo Bhava Campaign: This initiative promotes hospitality and the cultural ethos of treating guests with utmost respect and care.
  • It includes training programs for service providers in the tourism sector.
• Visa Reforms: The introduction of e-visa facilities for citizens of many countries has simplified the process for obtaining a visa to visit India. This move aims to attract more international tourists.
• Tourism Infrastructure Development: The government has invested in improving infrastructure, including the development of airports, roads, and railways, to make travel more convenient for tourists.
• Support for Sustainable Tourism: The government is promoting eco-friendly and sustainable tourism practices through various schemes and guidelines, including the promotion of responsible tourism.

General Studies Paper -1 

Context: Recently, Wayanad of Kerala faced a devastating landslide that claimed over 250 lives. Factors such as Kerala’s fragile ecosystem, extreme rainfall, and increasing population contributed to this disaster. The loss of lives and livelihoods underscores the urgency of understanding and mitigating landslide risks.

About Landslides

• These are defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. These are a geological phenomenon that involves the sudden and rapid movement of a mass of rock, soil, or debris down a slope under the influence of gravity.
• They are a type of mass wasting, which denotes any downward movement of soil and rock, generally occurring in clay-rich soil.
• In India the entire Himalayan tract, hills/mountains in sub-Himalayan terrains of North-east India, Western Ghats, the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu and Konkan areas are landslide-prone.

Causes of Landslides

• Natural Causes
  • Heavy Rainfall: Heavy rainfall is one of the most common triggers of landslides. It increases pore water pressure as well as the weight of soil by making it saturated.
  • Erosion: Clay and vegetation present within the soil or rock act as cohesive elements and help bind particles together. By removing these cohesive elements, erosion makes an area more prone to landslides.
  • Earthquakes: Intense ground shaking due to earthquakes causes instability in rocks and soils, thus triggering landslides.
  • Volcanic Eruptions: Ash and debris deposited by volcanic eruptions overload slopes while the accompanied seismic activity causes instability.
• Anthropogenic Causes
  • Deforestation: By holding soils as well as obstructing the flow of falling debris, vegetation cover plays an important role in preventing landslides in any area. Deforestation takes away this preventive cover and increases vulnerability to landslides.
  • Encroachment in Vulnerable Terrains: Of late, humans have been encroaching in landslide-prone areas such as hilly terrains. This has led to increased construction activities in these areas and increased chances of landslides.
  • Uncontrolled Excavation: Unauthorised or poorly planned excavation activities, such as mining, quarrying, etc destabilise slopes and increase the chances of landslides.
  • Climate Change: Climate change caused by various anthropogenic activities has led to abrupt alterations in precipitation patterns and increased frequency of extreme weather events.

Types (On the Basis of Movement)

• Falls: They refer to the type of landslide that involves the collapse of material from a cliff or steep slope, which then falls down the slope and collects near the base.
• Topples: Under this type of landslide, the falling mass undergoes forward rotation and movement around an axis or point at or near the base.
• Slides: Under this type of landslide, there is a distinct zone of weakness that separates the moving material from a more stable underlying material.

Impacts of Landslides in India

• Loss of Lives and Property: Landslides claim lives, destroy homes, and disrupt communities. Vulnerable populations often suffer the most.
• Infrastructure Damage: Roads, bridges, and other infrastructure can be severely affected, hindering connectivity and emergency response.
• Environmental Degradation: Landslides alter landscapes, erode soil, and impact biodiversity. They also contribute to sedimentation in rivers and reservoirs.
• Economic Costs: Landslides result in direct economic losses due to damage and indirect costs related to recovery efforts.

Landslide Prone Areas in India

• ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre created a database of landslide-prone regions of India based on events during 1998 – 2022, and released the Landslide Atlas of India.
• In addition to aerial images, high-resolution satellite images captured using ResourceSat-1 and 2, etc., were used to study the landslides.
• As per this atlas, some of the prominent statistics regarding landslides in India are as follows:
  • India is among the top five landslide-prone countries in the world.
  • Excluding snow-covered areas, around 12.6% of India’s geographical land area is prone to landslides.
• A rough break-up of reported landslides in India is as follows:
  • About 66.5% from the North-Western Himalayas;
  • About 18.8% from the North-Eastern Himalayas
  • About 14.7% from the Western Ghats.
• As per the Landslide Atlas of India, major landslide prone areas in India are as follows:
  • The Northeastern Region (comprises about 50% of the total landslide prone areas in India)
  • Areas of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir lying along the Himalayas.
  • Areas of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu lying along the Western Ghats.
  • The Araku region in Andhra Pradesh along the Eastern Ghats.

Vulnerable Terrain

• Himalayas and Western Ghats: These majestic mountain ranges are among the most vulnerable areas prone to landslides in India. While the Himalayas are well-known for their seismic activity and associated landslides, the Western Ghats—stretching along the western coast of India—are equally susceptible.
  • Interestingly, outside of the Himalayas, Kerala stands out as the most vulnerable state. Its unique topography, characterised by steep slopes and abundant rainfall, contributes to this vulnerability.

Mitigation Measures

• Early Warning Systems: Implementing real-time monitoring and alert systems to notify communities in landslide-prone areas.
  • The ‘Global Status of Multi-Hazard Early Warning Systems 2023’ report analyses the latest data one year into the Early Warnings for All Initiative (EW4All) that was formally launched at the COP27 meeting in Sharm El-Sheikh.
  • It reveals that 101 countries now have multi-hazard early warning systems, which is based on more complete data from the Sendai Framework Monitor.
• Land Use Planning: Proper zoning and regulations to prevent construction in high-risk zones.
• Vegetation Restoration: Reforestation and afforestation help stabilise slopes.
• Slope Stabilization Techniques: These include retaining walls, terracing, and bioengineering methods.
• Education and Awareness: Educating communities about landslide risks and safety measures.

Measures Taken in India

• The Disaster Management Act, of 2005 provides a comprehensive legal and institutional framework for the management of various disasters including landslides.
• The National Landslide Risk Management Strategy (2019) covers all aspects of landslide disaster risk reduction and management, such as hazard mapping, monitoring, and early warning systems.
• The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued Guidelines on Landslide Hazard Management (2009) that outline the steps that should be taken to reduce the risk of landslides.
• The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) has been providing capacity building and other support to various national and state-level disaster management authorities.
• Efforts have been made towards better prediction of weather. E.g. Ensemble Prediction System. This will help predict disasters like landslides.

Suggested Measures

• Gadgil Committee Recommendation
  • Ecologically Sensitive Zones: The report recommended classifying 64% of the Western Ghats into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (EEZs) called ESZ 1, ESZ 2 and ESZ 3, based on Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA).
  • Western Ghats Ecology Authority: Under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, a professional body to manage the ecology of the region and to ensure its sustainable development was recommended by the committee.
  • Ban on Growing Single Commercial Crops: Crops like tea, coffee, cardamom, rubber, banana and pineapple, which have led to “fragmentation of forest, soil erosion, degradation of river ecosystems and toxic contamination of the environment” should be curtailed.
  • Community participation: The panel had urged the Ministry of Environment and Forests to take critical steps to involve citizens, including proactive and sympathetic implementation of the provisions of the Community Forest Resources of the Forest Rights Act.
• On the other hand, there is a need to promote terrace farming which can help reduce landslide risks; afforestation and construction of bunds to reduce the flow of falling materials; retaining walls can be built on mountain slopes to stop the falling materials coming down.
• As suggested by the 10th FYP, mitigation measures should be built into the development process itself.
• Traditional knowledge of the local community should be used to tackle such kinds of disasters. Education and training can help ensure the preparedness of the disaster management authorities as well as the local community.

Conclusion

• While landslides pose a significant challenge, proactive measures can reduce their impact. As we continue to grapple with climate change and environmental degradation, understanding and addressing landslide risks remain critical.
• As we grapple with these natural phenomena, it’s essential to prioritise research, early warning systems, and sustainable land-use practices. By doing so, we can reduce the impact of landslides and protect vulnerable communities.

General Studies Paper -2

Context

• Recently, the Supreme Court of India allowed the sub-categorisation of scheduled castes in reservations, allowing wider protection for underrepresented groups in a 6:1 landmark verdict.

Sub-Categorisation within Scheduled Castes

• The Supreme Court addressed whether sub-classification of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is permissible for the purpose of reservation.
• This ruling has crucial consequences for states that aim to provide broader protection to certain castes that are significantly underrepresented compared to the so-called dominant scheduled castes.

2004 Judgment Revisited

• The bench is revisiting its 2004 judgement in the case of EV Chinnaiah vs. State of Andhra Pradesh.
• In that judgement, the court had held that Scheduled Castes formed a homogenous group, and therefore, no sub-division among them was permissible.
• Now, the court is reconsidering whether this ruling needs to be modified.

Significance of Recent Judgements

• Graded Inequalities: The principal argument for sub-categorisation of SCs has been the graded inequalities among SC communities.
• The thrust of it has been that even among the marginalised, there are communities that have lesser access to basic facilities.
• Unequal Representation: Some communities are more backward and have less representation than others.
  • For instance, the Madiga community has claimed that the benefits, including that of reservation, meant for the SC category had been cornered by the Mala community, with the Madigas being left out.
• Legal Standpoint: A five-judge Bench headed by Justice Arun Mishra has affirmed the competence of the States to give preferential treatment to the weakest among the Scheduled Castes without depriving other castes of any benefit.
  • The Court has noted that the Scheduled Castes list contains many castes and cannot be treated as a homogeneous group.
• Equitable Distribution of Benefits: The Union government has formed a committee of Secretaries to evaluate and work out a method for the equitable distribution of benefits, schemes, and initiatives to the most backward communities amongst the over 1,200 Scheduled Castes across the country.
• Recognizing Diversity: The court acknowledged that ‘historical and empirical evidence indicates that Scheduled castes are not a homogenous class’
  • This recognition of diversity within the SC community is a departure from the earlier stance.

Possible Challenges of Sub Categorisation within Scheduled Castes

• These are primarily based on the legal and practical challenges associated with it.
• Legal Challenges: The Supreme Court held that the State did not have the power to unilaterally sub-categorise communities in the list of SCs or Scheduled Tribes (STs).
  • The Constitution has provided that these lists can only be made by Parliament and notified by the President.
• Data of socio-economic status: The population data related to SC, ST, and OBC categories are not updated since the 2011 census.
  • It hampers the objective and scientific basis for sub-categorisation.
• Untouchability: The social and educational backwardness cannot be applied to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The special treatment is given to the SCs due to untouchability with which they have suffered since ages.

Conclusion

• The recent verdict allows state governments to sub-classify SCs for granting reservation benefits in admissions and public jobs. It overturns the earlier ruling that restricted such sub-categorization.
• It recognises the need to address the varying levels of disadvantage within the SC community and provides a more nuanced approach to reservation policies. It’s a step toward ensuring equitable opportunities for all.

General Studies Paper -2 

Context: The Supreme Court commenced special Lok Adalat drive to amicably settle long-pending disputes as a part of its 75th anniversary celebrations.

• Cases including matrimonial disputes, property disputes, motor accident claims, land acquisition, compensation, service and labour, pending before the apex court will be listed before the Lok Adalats for speedy disposal.

What are Lok Adalats?

• Lok Adalat is one of the alternative dispute redressal mechanisms.
• It is a forum where disputes/cases pending in the court of law or at pre-litigation stage are settled/ compromised amicably.
• Article 39 A: With 42nd Amendment Act of Constitution of 1976, Article 39-A, has been inserted which requires the State to secure that the operation of the legal system:
  • Promotes justice, on a basis of equal opportunity,
  • Provide free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way,
  • Ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities.
• Legal status: Lok Adalats have been given statutory status under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.
• Decision of the Lok Adalat: Under the said Act, the award (decision) made by the Lok Adalats is deemed to be a decree of a civil court and is final and binding on all parties and no appeal against such an award lies before any court of law.
  • If the parties are not satisfied with the award of the Lok Adalat though there is no provision for an appeal against such an award, but they are free to initiate litigation by approaching the court of appropriate jurisdiction by filing a case by following the required procedure, in exercise of their right to litigate.
• Court fee: There is no court fee payable when a matter is filed in a Lok Adalat.
  • If a matter pending in the court of law is referred to the Lok Adalat and is settled subsequently, the court fee originally paid in the court on the complaints/petition is also refunded back to the parties.
• Role of members of Lok Adalats:
  • The persons deciding the cases in the Lok Adalats are called the Members of the Lok Adalats, they have the role of statutory conciliators only and do not have any judicial role.
  • Therefore, they can only persuade the parties to come to a conclusion for settling the dispute outside the court in the Lok Adalat.
  • They shall not pressurise or coerce any of the parties to compromise or settle cases or matters either directly or indirectly.

Difference between Lok Adalat and a regular Court

• The difference between Lok Adalat and law court is that the law court sits at its premises where the litigants come with their lawyers and witnesses go to the people to deliver justice at their doorstep.
• It is a forum provided by the people themselves or by interested parties including social activities or social activist legal aiders, and public-spirited people belonging to every walk of life.
• It is just a firm forum provided by the people themselves for enabling the common people to ventilate their grievances against the state agencies or against other citizens and to seek a just settlement if possible.

What are Alternate Dispute Resolution Mechanisms?

• Uses a neutral third party to communicate, discuss the differences and resolve the dispute.
• Important Provisions Related To ADR:
  • Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code, 1908
  • Acts dealing with ADR:
  • Legal Services Authority Act, 1987 (established Lok Adalat System)
  • Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996
• Types: Arbitration, Conciliation, Mediation, Negotiation, Judicial Settlements

General Studies Paper -1

Context: Recent tragic accident at an IAS coaching centre in New Delhi, where flooding led to three IAS aspirants dying, was a largely man-made, hence avoidable, disaster. Such incidents are an increasing feature of localised urban flooding in which human failures play a major role.

Urban Flooding in India: A Growing Concern

• Urban flooding has become distressingly common in many cities, leading to loss of life, property damage, and economic crises. While natural factors like heavy rainfall and changes in topography contribute to flooding, human actions often play a significant role.
• Expanding Cities and Flood-Prone Areas: As cities expand, they often encroach upon flood-prone regions. Settlements in these vulnerable areas have more than doubled since 1985.
• Bengaluru, Gurugram, Mumbai, and other urban centres have witnessed scenes of stagnating water during monsoons. People living in informal structures are particularly at risk.
• The rapid and continuous expansion of cities exacerbates flood risks. It’s essential to account for these risks in urban planning.
• Economic Impact: Urban floods result in both life and livelihood loss. They can also strain government resources and push economies into crises.
  • For instance, a State Bank of India report estimated that the combined economic loss due to the 2023 North India floods and Cyclone Biparjoy in Gujarat was between Rs 10,000-15,000 crore.
• Global Trends: A recent study led by the World Bank analysed global flood patterns and urban expansion.
  • East Asia has seen the highest rate of settlement expansion in flood-prone areas, while Sub-Saharan Africa and North America have expanded less into such zones.
  • Middle-income countries, including India, have more urban settlements in flood-prone zones compared to low- and high-income countries.
• India’s Position: India isn’t among the 20 countries with the most exposed settlements to flood hazards. However, neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar face higher risks.
  • India ranks third globally in terms of new settlements expanding into flood-prone areas (1985-2015), following China and the U.S.

Delhi’s Vulnerability

• Unchecked urban expansion is a significant factor behind chronic flooding in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR).
• Recent heavy rains brought parts of Delhi to a standstill, inundating streets and causing traffic snarls.

Key Factors: Tragic Incident in New Delhi

• Basements and Limited Access: Basements in buildings often have restricted access and ventilation. Getting in and out during floods can be challenging, and being trapped becomes a real danger. Special pumping arrangements are necessary to mitigate flooding.
• Mixed-Use Buildings: As India urbanised and land values soar, buildings are repurposed beyond their original design. Basements, once meant for storage or parking, now serve as income generators. However, this dual use blurs the line between habitation and utility.
• Lack of Clear Regulations: Building bylaws vary across cities. In Delhi, for instance, basements are officially considered storage areas, but mixed-use buildings may use them differently. The Delhi Master Plan 2021 mandates clearance from fire authorities for basement use in coaching centres, but compliance remains uncertain.
• Renewal of Permits and Bribe Culture: Questions arise about permit renewals after inspections. Unfortunately, users often avoid notifying authorities due to bureaucratic hurdles and bribe demands.

Addressing the Issue: What Can Be Done?

• Integrated Urban Planning: Cities must adopt holistic approaches that consider flood risk reduction. This involves zoning regulations, land-use planning, and infrastructure development that prioritise flood resilience.
• Green Infrastructure: Implementing green spaces, permeable pavements, and rooftop gardens can absorb excess rainwater and reduce surface runoff. These nature-based solutions enhance urban resilience.
• Improved Drainage Systems: Upgrading stormwater drainage networks is crucial. Regular maintenance, desilting, and modernising drainage infrastructure can prevent waterlogging.
• Early Warning Systems: Timely alerts can save lives and minimise damage. Developing robust early warning systems that consider local conditions is essential.
• Community Engagement: Involving local communities in flood risk management fosters awareness, preparedness, and resilience. Community-based initiatives can be effective.

Flood-Resilient Buildings

• Preventing Water Entry: Buildings should be designed to prevent water from entering up to a certain level (typically one to 1.5 metres above road level). Non-porous compound walls, flood-barrier gates, and non-return valves on plumbing lines can help achieve this.
• Stormwater Drain Management: Properly maintained stormwater drain networks are crucial. Urban planners must model historic and extreme rainfall events, considering climate change impacts, and formulate effective mitigation measures.

Policy and Preparedness

• India urgently needs robust flood management policies that aligns with the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines on Urban Flooding 2010.
• Policymakers should prioritise flood risk reduction, invest in resilient infrastructure, and promote sustainable urbanisation and pay concerted attention to urban flooding, implementing guidelines effectively.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• Unchecked urban expansion, inadequate regulations, and poor civic infrastructure contribute to chronic urban flooding. As cities grow, we must prioritise flood-resilient designs, enforce regulations, and foster a culture of safety. Only then can we prevent more tragedies like the one in New Delhi.
• Addressing urban flooding requires a multi-pronged approach involving government agencies, urban planners, and citizens. By integrating flood risk reduction into urban development, we can build more resilient cities and protect lives and livelihoods.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recent Governing Council meeting of the NITI Aayog that was skipped by the representatives of several States and Union Territories highlighted both structural and functional issues.

About

• India’s Constitution-makers envisioned the country as a union of States, emphasising unity and integrity. However, over the years, India has transformed significantly—economically, politically, demographically, and socially.
• As the new aspirational India accelerates along its growth trajectory, it’s essential to revisit the concept of fiscal federalism.

National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog

• National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog was established by the government to replace the Planning Commission in 2015 with the aim to move away from the top-down approach of the Planning Commission and focus on ‘Co-operative Federalism’.
• Advisory Role: The NITI Aayog’s primary function is advisory, lacking the authority to distribute resources or allocate funds to states.
  • Unlike the Planning Commission, which allowed consultations with states, the NITI Aayog’s focus shifted toward creating indices to evaluate states.
• Conditional Transfers: In the past, the Planning Commission provided grants to States using the Gadgil-Mukherjee formula. With the Planning Commission disbanded, NITI Aayog could step in to facilitate ‘transformational’ interventions. However, it currently lacks the financial resources for this purpose.
• Resource Allocation: NITI Aayog 2.0 should receive significant resources (perhaps 1% to 2% of GDP) to promote accelerated growth in lagging States. By strategically allocating funds, it can address both Type I and Type II imbalances.
• Competitive Federalism: The unintended consequence of this advisory approach has been ‘Competitive Federalism’.
• Meanwhile, the Finance Ministry retains the power to decide on grants to states. This situation has led to discontent among states, especially those ruled by opposition parties.
• Present Government’s ‘Double Engine’ Approach: It has campaigned in state elections based on providing ‘double engine’ governments (both at the state and central levels). This has raised concerns that investment projects may favour similar party-ruled states.
• Dependence on Regional Parties: Present government now relies on support from parties governing states like Bihar and Andhra Pradesh, which face varying developmental deficits. The Finance Minister’s intention to address their demands in the budget has not gone unnoticed.
• However, over time, the NITI Aayog has faced criticism due to its limited role as an advisory body without direct powers of resource allocation to states.

Concerns and Issues Ahead of NITI Aayog

• Vertical Imbalance: This arises because tax systems often yield more revenue to the Union government than to State or Provincial Governments. Yet, the Constitution assigns relatively greater responsibilities to the States.
  • For instance, post the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax (GST), States shoulder 60% of public expenditure, while the Centre handles 40% to fulfill their constitutionally mandated duties.
• Horizontal Imbalance: This stems from differing levels of development among States due to varying growth rates and disparities in social and infrastructure capital.
  • Traditionally, Finance Commissions have addressed these imbalances effectively, making them the first pillar of India’s fiscal federal structure.
  • However, India’s horizontal imbalance requires a more nuanced approach. It involves two types:
  • Type I Imbalance: This pertains to the provision of basic public goods and services.
  • Type II Imbalance: This results from infrastructure deficits that hinder growth. These deficits are often historically conditioned or path-dependent.

Structural Issues of NITI Aayog

• Replacement of the Planning Commission: Unlike the centralised planning approach of the Planning Commission, NITI Aayog was envisioned as a more flexible and dynamic institution.
  • However, the transition from a centralised planning model to a think tank with a focus on cooperative federalism posed initial challenges. Some critics argue that NITI Aayog lacks the same level of authority and financial resources as its predecessor.
• Composition and Representation: The composition of NITI Aayog’s Governing Council includes all State Chief Ministers, Lieutenant Governors of Union Territories, and several Union Ministers.
  • While this ensures representation, it can also lead to divergent interests and varying priorities.
  • Critics point out that the presence of Union Ministers in the council might dilute the States’ voice, as the Centre’s interests could overshadow those of the States.
• Resource Constraints: Unlike the Planning Commission, which had a dedicated allocation for grants to States, NITI Aayog lacks direct financial resources. It relies on the central budget for its functioning.
  • This resource constraint affects NITI Aayog’s ability to drive transformative interventions at the State level effectively.

Functional Issues of NITI Aayog

• Policy Implementation and Execution: While NITI Aayog formulates policies and provides recommendations, its impact on policy execution remains limited. Implementation lies primarily with individual States and ministries.
• Critics argue that NITI Aayog should play a more active role in monitoring and evaluating policy outcomes.
• Lack of Statutory Powers: Unlike the Planning Commission, NITI Aayog doesn’t have statutory powers. It operates as an advisory body, which limits its ability to enforce policy decisions.
  • Some experts advocate for granting NITI Aayog more legal authority to ensure effective coordination between the Centre and States.
• Cooperative Federalism vs. Competitive Federalism: NITI Aayog promotes cooperative federalism, emphasising collaboration and dialogue between the Centre and States. However, there’s a fine balance between cooperation and healthy competition.
  • Critics argue that NITI Aayog should also encourage competitive federalism, where States compete to improve governance, attract investments, and enhance development outcomes.

Recent Recommendations and Best Practices

• Common Vision: Prime Minister stressed the need for a common vision between the Centre and states to achieve a developed India by 2047.
  • He urged states to take financially prudent decisions and use platforms like the Gati Shakti Portal for infrastructure and logistics.
• State-Level Best Practices: States highlighted various best practices, including green strategies, zone-wise planning, tourism, urban planning, and quality workmanship
• Easing MSME Exports: NITI Aayog recommends simplifying e-commerce routes for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) to boost exports, including creating a single national trade portal for approvals and compliances.
• Integration into Global Value Chains: NITI Aayog emphasises integrating India into global value chains and adapting to emerging trading systems.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• As India celebrates its 75th year, reimagining fiscal federalism becomes critical. NITI Aayog, with adequate resources and a clear mandate, can be the catalyst for a more balanced and competitive federal structure—one that aligns with the evolving needs of our diverse nation.
• NITI Aayog has made significant contributions, addressing these issues will be crucial for its continued effectiveness in shaping India’s development path, and it needs to evolve to strike a better balance between advisory functions and active engagement with states, fostering genuine cooperative federalism.

NITI Aayog needs to regain some of the responsibilities that the Planning Commission had for states, including meaningful consultations on grants and projects to promote true cooperative federalism.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: There is growing demand for a caste-based census to be conducted by the Centre to precisely understand the economic well-being of the marginalised communities.

About the Census

• It refers to a periodic and systematic collection of demographic, economic, and social data of a population within a specific region.
• It is typically conducted by governments to gather detailed information about the population’s characteristics and living conditions.
• The Census provides crucial data that governments, businesses, researchers, and policymakers use for various purposes such as planning public services, allocating funding, and making informed decisions.

Census in India

• The Census in India has been conducted regularly since 1871, and the first complete Census was conducted in 1881.
• Initially, the Census was primarily aimed at assessing revenue and taxation needs under British colonial rule.
• Over time, its scope expanded to include demographic, social, and economic data.
• It is conducted under the provisions of the Census Act of 1948, which empowers the Government of India to conduct periodic population surveys. It outlines the procedures, responsibilities, and penalties related to census activities.
• Frequency: The Census of India is conducted on the Decennial Census (interval of every ten years), meaning it takes place every ten years.
• The most recent Censuses were conducted in 2011.

Importance of Census in India

• Understanding Demographics: The census provides a snapshot of India’s demographic structure. It tells us how many of us there are, where we live, our age groups, gender distribution, and more. It is crucial for policymakers, researchers, and social planners.
• Resource Allocation: Governments allocate resources based on population data. Whether it’s building schools, hospitals, or roads, decisions hinge on accurate population figures. It helps distribute funds fairly across states and regions.
• For instance, if a state has a rapidly growing population, it needs more schools and healthcare facilities.
• Tracking Progress: Decade by decade, the census paints a canvas of India’s journey. One can see improvements in literacy rates, healthcare access, and gender ratios.
• Planning for the Future: By analysing trends from past censuses, demographers predict future population growth. It informs urban planning, infrastructure development, and environmental policies.
• Social Justice and Equity: The census ensures that marginalised communities aren’t left behind. It captures data on caste, religion, and other social parameters. It helps identify disparities and design affirmative action policies.
• Political Representation: The census plays a very important role in redrawing-of-constituency maps. It determines how many seats each state gets in the Lok Sabha. Accurate population data ensures fair representation.

Delaying of Census

• When it comes to the decennial Census—the grand national headcount that shapes our understanding of demographics, social structures, and resource allocation—time is of the essence.
• Unfortunately, we find ourselves in a situation where the Census, originally slated for 2021, remains in limbo due to delays.

Waiting Game

• The Centre’s decision not to extend the deadline for freezing administrative boundaries beyond June 30, 2024, raised hopes that the Census operations would finally kick off in October 2024.
• The Budget for 2024-25 allocated a mere ₹1,309.46 crore for the Census—a significant reduction from the ₹3,768 crore allocated in 2021-22.
• It hints that the Census might not happen anytime soon, even after considerable delay.

Why Does It Matter?

• Access to Welfare Schemes: Conducting the Census on a priority basis is non-negotiable. Since the last Census in 2011, our population has grown, and so have the needs of our citizens.
• Access to government welfare schemes—ranging from healthcare to education to employment—is often tied to Census data. Without an updated Census, many remain excluded from these crucial benefits.
• Women’s Reservation Act: It aims to reserve 33% of seats in both Parliament and State Assemblies for women. However, its implementation hinges on accurate Census data. Until we count heads and households anew, this transformative legislation remains in a holding pattern.
• Economic Well-Being of Marginalised Communities: There’s a growing demand for a caste-based Census. Precisely understanding the economic well-being of marginalised communities requires granular data. Without it, targeted policies and affirmative action become shots in the dark.

Conclusion and Way Forward: What Needs to Happen?

• Budgetary Provisions: The 2025-26 Census Budget must be robust enough to accommodate the postponed 2021 Census. We need to allocate resources for house listing, housing census, and updating the National Population Register (NPR).
• Preliminary Preparations: Thankfully, groundwork has been underway. State and Union Territory Census Directorates have been prepping—updating maps, testing questionnaires, and training staff. Once the new Census date is fixed, they’re ready to roll. A quick refresher training is all they need.
• Digital Census: The future is digital. Collecting Census data via mobile apps streamlines the process. The ₹1,309.46 crore in the 2024-25 budget could fund essential preliminary activities, including finalising enumeration areas, refining questionnaires, and training core staff for the digital shift.
• The Census isn’t just about numbers; it’s about empowerment, equity, and informed policymaking. Let’s prioritise it, come what may. Our nation’s well-being depends on it.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, the Commerce Secretary of India has attended the 14th BRICS Trade Ministers’ Meeting held under the BRICS Presidency of the Russian Federation.

• Theme for this year’s BRICS engagement titled as ‘Strengthening Multilateralism for Just Global Development’.

Background: About BRICS

• It is an acronym that refers to a group of five major emerging national economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
• It started after the meeting of the Leaders of Russia, India and China in St. Petersburg on the margins of the G8 Outreach Summit in 2006, as a formal grouping, and was formalised during the 1st meeting of BRIC Foreign Ministers on the margins of UNGA in New York in 2006.
  • Initially, the grouping was termed BRIC as South Africa was inducted in 2010 and from there on it has been referred to as BRICS.
  • The governments of the BRICS states have met annually at formal summits since 2009.
• Over a period of time, BRICS countries have come together to deliberate on important issues under the three pillars of political and security, economic and financial and cultural and people-to-people exchanges.
• It brings together five of the largest developing countries of the world, representing around 41% of the global population, around 24% of the global GDP and around 16% of global trade.

Importance BRICS

• Economic Cooperation: BRICS facilitates economic collaboration through initiatives such as the New Development Bank (NDB), aimed at funding infrastructure projects in member countries.
  • Economic collaboration within BRICS facilitates trade diversification, technology transfer, and infrastructure development, which are crucial for India’s economic growth and development aspirations.
• Global Governance Reform: India uses BRICS as a platform to advocate for reforms in international financial institutions like the IMF and World Bank, aiming to increase the voice and representation of emerging economies in global economic governance.
• Cultural and Academic Exchange: BRICS fosters cultural and academic exchanges, promoting people-to-people ties and enhancing mutual understanding among member countries.

Expansion of BRICS

• It was done as per the decision adopted by the 15th BRICS Summit in 2022. Argentina, Ethiopia, Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE are the six new additions to the BRICS.
  • Significance of Expansion of BRICS likely to focus on the strengthening of the group with the inclusion of countries from the Middle East and the Representative of Developing Countries and strengthening the Voice for Global Governance.

Recent Trade Ministers’ Meeting Focus Areas

• WTO Development Aspect: The Commerce Secretary emphasised the need to strengthen the multilateral trading system with the World Trade Organization (WTO) at its core, including addressing long-pending issues related to development and special and differential treatment.
• Global Value Chains (GVCs): Effective functioning of joint value chains was discussed, recognizing their critical role in international trade.
• MSMEs and Digitalisation: Interaction among Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) was highlighted, along with India’s success story in digitalization and e-commerce.
• Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Cooperation among SEZs was deemed relevant for fostering economic growth.

Multilateralism and Urgent Reforms

• Permanent Solution to Public Stock Holding: Addressing food security concerns.
• Two-Tier Dispute Settlement System: Enhancing the effectiveness of dispute resolution.
• WTO Reform: Making the organisation more responsive to the needs of emerging economies.
• ‘30 for 30’ Initiative: Proposing at least 30 operational improvements to the WTO by its 30th anniversary in 2025.
• Resilient Supply Chains: Decentralisation and diversification were advocated to enhance supply chain resilience.
• Paperless Trade: The Commerce Secretary emphasised digitalization of trade documents, such as the Bill of Lading.
• Affordable Emerging Technologies: Collaboration for green transition and climate resilience was highlighted.
• Climate-Related Measures and MSMEs: Concerns were raised about climate-related unilateral measures impacting trade.
  • Such measures were seen as conflicting with Multilateral Environmental Agreements and ignoring the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
  • The importance of MSMEs in global value chains was reiterated.

Conclusion

• The 14th BRICS Trade Ministers’ Meeting provided a platform for dialogue on critical trade-related issues, emphasising cooperation, inclusiveness, and the pursuit of just global development.
• As we continue to navigate the complexities of international trade, BRICS remains committed to strengthening multilateralism and fostering equitable growth.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: Cereal Grains have overtaken sugarcane as the primary feedstock for the production of ethanol used in blending with petrol.

About

• In the current supply year 2023- 2024, sugar mills and distilleries supplied 401 crore liters of ethanol to oil marketing companies.
• Of that, 211 crore liters or 52.7% was ethanol produced using maize and damaged foodgrains (mainly broken/ old rice not fit for human consumption), while sugarcane-based feedstocks (molasses and whole juice/ syrup) accounted for the remaining 190 crore liters.
• This is the first time that the contribution of grains to India’s ethanol production has surpassed 50%.

What is Ethanol?

• Ethanol is 99.9% pure alcohol that can be blended with petrol.
• Alcohol production involves fermentation of sugar using yeast. In cane juice or molasses, sugar is present in the form of sucrose that is broken down into glucose and fructose.
• Also grains contain starch, a carbohydrate that has to first be extracted and converted into sucrose and simpler sugars, before their further fermentation, distillation and dehydration to ethanol.

Ethanol blending

• The ‘National Policy on Biofuels’ notified by the government in 2018 envisaged an indicative target of 20% ethanol blending in petrol by 2030.
• In 2014 only 1.5 per cent ethanol was blended in petrol in India.
• Given the encouraging performance and various interventions made by the government since 2014, the 20% target was advanced to 2025-26.

Why is maize being promoted to produce ethanol ?

• Till 2017-18, ethanol was being produced only from molasses, the dense dark brown liquid byproduct containing sucrose that mills cannot economically recover and crystallize into sugar.
• However Sugarcane is a water-guzzling crop. A NITI Aayog report says that just one liter of ethanol produced from sugarcane consumes at least 2,860 liters of water.
• India will require 1320 million tons of sugarcane, 19 million hectares of additional land and 348 billion cubic meters of extra water to produce enough ethanol to meet the 20% ethanol blending target of 2025.
• Further the Food Corporation of India’s (FCI) has restricted the use of rice on concerns over cereal inflation and hence maize has emerged as the top ethanol feedstock.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: Environmental concerns related to artificial intelligence (AI) are increasingly gaining attention as we witness the rapid integration of AI technologies into various aspects of our lives.

About

• Artificial Intelligence (AI), which is expected to enable transformative changes across several domains, including attempts to find solutions to climate change, has a very heavy emissions footprint, the scale of which is becoming evident only now.
• Recently, Google, in its annual environment report released, reported a 13% increase in its emissions footprint in 2023 compared with the previous year. The rise was attributed mainly to the increased electricity consumption in its data centres and supply chains.
• Google said its data centres consumed 17% more electricity in 2023, and added that this trend was expected to continue in the coming years because of greater deployment and usage of its AI tools.

Reasons For Heavy Emissions Footprint of AI

• Energy Consumption: AI models require substantial computational power for training and inference. As machine learning algorithms become more advanced, their hunger for electricity grows.
  • For instance, a simple AI query can consume between 10 and 33 times more energy than a regular Google search. Image-based AI searches may use even more energy. It translates to higher electricity consumption in data centres.
• Data Processing and Heat Generation: AI models sift through vast amounts of data during processing, which demands more electrical signals.
  • Additionally, the increased workload generates heat, necessitating powerful air-conditioning or cooling systems in data centres.
• Increased Demand of Water: There is an increased demand on water resources as well, required for cooling of data centres. There is inadequate data on water consumption of data centres but the centre that serves OpenAI’s GPT-4 model in Iowa (US) is reported to have consumed 6% of the district’s water supply in July 2022.
• Global Electricity Demand: Data centres currently account for 1% to 1.3% of global electricity demand. Projections suggest this could double (reaching 1.5% to 3%) by 2026, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).
  • In comparison, despite the growing number of electric vehicles, their share of global electricity consumption remains around 0.5%.
• Country-Level Impact: In some regions, data centres’ electricity consumption as a share of national demand has already crossed double digits.
  • For example, in Ireland, where tax incentives attract data centres, this share has reached 18%.

Addressing the Challenge

• Efficient Algorithms: Developing more energy-efficient AI algorithms can reduce computational requirements.
• Monitoring and Optimization: AI can be deployed to monitor emissions in existing processes and optimise them to eliminate wastage or inefficiencies. For instance, AI-driven predictive maintenance can reduce energy consumption in industrial settings.
• Green AI Research: Researchers are exploring ways to make AI greener, such as using renewable energy sources for data centres or designing AI models with lower energy footprints.
• Ethical AI: As we advance AI, we must prioritise ethical considerations, including environmental impact.
  • UNESCO’s Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence aims to shift the balance of power between people, businesses, and governments developing AI.

AI’s Role in Climate Action

• Predictive Capabilities: AI can enhance predictions related to climate events. For instance, Google’s flood forecasting initiative uses AI and geospatial analysis to provide real-time information on riverine floods, helping communities prepare and respond.
• Efficiency Improvements: AI can optimise energy usage. Google Maps, powered by AI, suggests fuel-efficient routes, potentially preventing millions of metric tons of CO2 emissions.
• Smart Grids: AI supports the growth of smart grids by handling massive data generated by smart metres, grid monitoring devices, and renewable energy sources. It aids in balancing supply and demand, crucial for integrating renewables effectively.
• Large-scale Deployment of AI: Other estimates suggest that the large-scale deployment of AI could help in significant reductions of emissions globally. A recent study found that application of AI to corporate and industrial practices could result in a 5-10% reduction in global emissions by 2030, while generating a value worth $1.3 trillion to $2.6 trillion through additional revenues or cost savings.

Way Forward: Balancing Innovation and Sustainability

• As we embrace AI’s potential, we must strike a balance between innovation and environmental responsibility.
• Responsible Deployment: Organisations should use AI to monitor and predict emissions, optimise existing processes, and eliminate inefficiencies. Responsible deployment can reduce the overall environmental impact.
• Energy-Efficient Algorithms: Researchers and practitioners should focus on developing energy-efficient AI algorithms. Techniques like model quantization and pruning can help reduce computational requirements.
• Collaboration: Governments, industry, and research institutions must collaborate to create guidelines and policies that promote sustainable AI development.
  • In India, where the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology is working on a framework for responsible AI, finding this balance is crucial. The huge environmental toll of AI and data centres will become evident soon, and proactive measures are essential.

Conclusion

• While AI holds immense promise, we must tread carefully to ensure its benefits do not come at the cost of our planet. Balancing technological progress with environmental responsibility is crucial for a sustainable future.