General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Summit in Kazan, hosted by Russia, focused on Strengthening Multilateralism for Just Global Development and Security.

Key Points of the Summit

• The Kazan Declaration, issued at the summit, is a comprehensive document that emphasizes the need for enhanced cooperation among the participating countries and presents the bloc’s unified stance on key global issues.
• The Kazan Declaration emphasized “Strengthening Multilateralism for Just Global Development and Security” with commitment to fostering peace, ensuring a fairer international order, and promoting sustainable development.
• Russia emphasized a BRICS-led payment system against SWIFT, an international financial network that Russian banks were cut off from in 2022, as well as the escalating situation in West Asia.
• The BRICS nations agreed to explore initiatives, such as BRICS Grain Exchange and BRICS (Re)Insurance Company.
• The summit also endorsed the creation of a BRICS Partner Country category, which would allow other nations to collaborate with BRICS on various projects.
• BRICS R&D Vaccine Center was announced for fostering research in vaccine development.
• India’s initiative to create an International Big Cats Alliance was recognized during the summit.

What is BRICS?

• It is an acronym that refers to a group of five major emerging national economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
• Origin: The term BRIC was coined by British economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 to represent emerging economies.
• The group began holding annual meetings starting in 2006 on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly (UNGA), and its success led to formal summits.
• BRICS nations have met annually at formal summits since 2009.
• South Africa was inducted in 2010.
• Expansion of BRICS: Argentina, Ethiopia, Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE are the six new additions to the BRICS.
• It brings together five of the largest developing countries of the world, representing around 41% of the global population, around 24% of the global GDP and around 16% of global trade.

Significance of BRICS for India

• Strengthening South-South Cooperation: India views BRICS as a platform for fostering collaboration among developing countries, amplifying their voices in global institutions like the UN and World Bank.
• Balancing Global Power: BRICS serves as a counterbalance to Western-dominated alliances such as the G7. For India, this helps in diversifying its foreign relations and reducing dependency on Western powers.
• Trade Diversification: BRICS promotes economic cooperation, trade, and investment between member countries.
• New Development Bank (NDB): It provides BRICS nations with access to funding for infrastructure and sustainable development projects, aligning with India’s growth objectives.

Challenges

• Varying Agendas: India’s concerns over terrorism and border security may differ from other members like China and Russia, who may prioritize their regional and geopolitical interests over these issues.
• Geopolitical Rivalry: China’s growing influence within BRICS, especially with the inclusion of countries like Iran and Saudi Arabia (which have strong ties with China), raises concerns about BRICS tilting towards a pro-China bloc.
• Balancing Middle Eastern Alliances: The inclusion of Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE introduces complexities in India’s relationships within the Middle East.
• Trade Barriers: Intra-BRICS trade barriers such as tariffs, regulatory differences, and currency issues persist, limiting India’s ability to fully capitalize on trade opportunities within the group.

Way Ahead

• India’s participation in BRICS is crucial, both for advancing its national interests and for shaping global governance in an increasingly dynamic geopolitical environment.
• As one of the founding members, India has consistently played a key role in ensuring that BRICS remains a collaborative platform for emerging economies to assert their influence on the global stage.
• BRICS presents India with a unique opportunity to diversify its trade networks, attract foreign investments, and engage in joint infrastructure and development initiatives.
• In this context, India should strategically utilize the resources of the New Development Bank (NDB) to finance critical projects that align with its long-term growth goals.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: In a significant diplomatic development, India and China held their first bilateral talks in five years on the sidelines of the 16th BRICS Summit in Kazan, Russia, marking a crucial step towards mending the strained relations between the two neighbouring countries, which have been marred by a prolonged military standoff along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in eastern Ladakh.

Background

• The roots of the current standoff trace back to China’s aggressive manoeuvres along the LAC in 2020, which led to a prolonged military confrontation.
• The Galwan Valley clash in June 2020, resulting in casualties on both sides, was the most severe conflict between the two nations in decades.
• Since then, both countries have engaged in numerous rounds of diplomatic and military talks to de-escalate the situation, but with limited success.

Agreement: Reviving Bilateral Ties

• India and China emphasised the importance of maintaining peace and tranquillity at the border, underscoring that mutual trust, respect, and sensitivity should form the foundation of their relationship.
• The Indian Prime Minister highlighted that the restoration of peace in the border areas is essential for the normalisation of bilateral relations.
• The recent agreement, as reported, involves the restoration of patrolling rights in the Depsang Plains and Demchok in Ladakh, areas that have been flashpoints in the ongoing conflict.
• It is seen as a first concrete step towards restoring the pre-2020 status quo ante. Additionally, agreements have been reached in other sectors along the LAC, including Arunachal Pradesh.

Significance

• De-escalation and Stability: The disengagement process, though just the beginning, is crucial for reducing tensions and preventing further military confrontations. It sets the stage for a gradual de-escalation and de-induction of troops, which will require meticulous monitoring and sustained diplomatic efforts.
• Bilateral Relations: For India, this forward movement with China is vital not only for bilateral ties but also for its broader geopolitical strategy.
• It opens up diplomatic space for India as it navigates its relationships with major global powers, including Russia and the West.
• Political Engagement: A potential meeting between Indian Prime Minister and Chinese President on the sidelines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) summit could further solidify this agreement and outline future political and economic engagements.

India-China Partnership and Global Potential

Challenges Ahead

• Implementation: The disengagement process must be followed by de-escalation and de-induction, which will be a slow and complex process requiring constant vigilance1.
• Trust Deficit: The relationship between India and China has been marred by a significant trust deficit. Building confidence and ensuring compliance with the agreement will be critical.
• Broader Issues: The border issue is just one aspect of the complex India-China relationship. Broader issues, including trade imbalances and geopolitical rivalries, need to be addressed to achieve lasting peace and stability.
• Since the 1980s, India and China have sought peaceful resolution of their boundary dispute. Informal summits between leaders, like those in Wuhan (2018) and Chennai (2019), emphasised strategic communication and cooperation.
• The unresolved boundary issue remains a point of contention, leading to occasional tensions.

Conclusion and Way Ahead

• The India-China agreement to restore patrolling rights and begin the disengagement process is a welcome step towards breaking the stalemate. It reflects the patience and fortitude of India’s diplomatic and security establishments.
• However, the journey towards lasting peace and stability will require sustained efforts, realistic expectations, and a commitment to dialogue and cooperation.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, the Canadian government named Indian diplomats as ‘persons of interest’, which escalated the diplomatic tensions between India and Canada, leading to a series of expulsions and accusations from both sides.

India-Canada Relations

• India and Canada share a multifaceted relationship rooted in shared democratic values, cultural diversity, and robust economic ties. However, recent developments have introduced significant challenges, testing the resilience of this bilateral partnership.

Historical Context

• Diplomatic relations between India and Canada were established in 1947, shortly after India gained independence.
• Over the decades, the two countries have collaborated in various fields, including education, trade, and technology.
• High-level visits and agreements have often marked the strengthening of ties, such as the six agreements signed during the Canadian Prime Minister’s visit to India in 2018.

Importance of India-Canada Relations

• Economic and Trade Relations: Economic engagement forms a cornerstone of India-Canada relations. Bilateral trade has been expanding, with both countries exploring opportunities in sectors like information technology, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture.
• Total bilateral trade in 2023 reached USD 9.36 billion, with significant service trade.
• Exports: Pharmaceuticals, electronic goods, jewelry, seafood, engineering goods.
• Imports: Minerals, pulses, potash, and chemicals.
• Canada is also a significant source of foreign direct investment in India, and vice versa.
• Canadian investments in India exceed CAD 75 billion, with over 600 Canadian companies operating in India.
• People-to-People Ties: The Indian diaspora in Canada, one of the largest and most influential, plays a crucial role in fostering bilateral relations.
• Educational exchanges are robust, with a significant number of Indian students pursuing higher education in Canadian institutions. Largest foreign student demographic in Canada is Indian, with around 427,000 students.
• Canada has a significant Indian diaspora (approximately 1.8 million), contributing to its economy and society.
• Diplomatic and Strategic Interests: Both nations have strategic interests that align in many areas, such as counter-terrorism and climate change.
• However, the current diplomatic row has overshadowed these common goals. High-level dialogues continue, but the path to normalization remains fraught with challenges.

Recent Tensions

• The diplomatic relations between India and Canada have reached a new low, marked by a series of escalating actions and counteractions and have been simmering for over a year, primarily fueled by the killing of Khalistani activist Hardeep Singh Nijjar in British Columbia in 2023.
• Canada has accused Indian diplomats of involvement, leading to mutual expulsions and heightened tensions, and sought to investigate and interrogate the Indian High Commissioner and five other diplomats, naming them ‘persons of interest’ in Nijjar’s killing.
• The Indian government has vehemently denied these allegations, calling them ‘preposterous’ and politically motivated.
• Both countries have since reduced their diplomatic staff, leading to a significant strain on bilateral relations.

Underlying Causes

• Political Dynamics: Canadian government has been accused of leveraging the Khalistani issue to gain political support from pro-separatist groups within Canada.
• Security Concerns: India has expressed concerns over Canada’s alleged leniency towards individuals and groups it considers to be violent extremists and terrorists.
• Extradition Requests: India has shared multiple extradition requests with Canada, including those related to criminal gangs, but claims that no action has been taken.

Implications

• Bilateral Relations: The expulsion of diplomats and the reduction in staff could lead to a significant slowdown in diplomatic and consular services, affecting citizens of both countries.
• International Image: The ongoing spat could impact India’s image on the global stage, especially if allegations of overstepping by Indian intelligence agencies are proven.
• Economic Ties: Trade and investment between the two countries could suffer as a result of the deteriorating diplomatic relations.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• India-Canada relations are at a critical juncture. While historical ties and mutual interests provide a strong foundation, recent events have introduced significant complexities. Moving forward, both nations need to navigate these challenges carefully to restore and strengthen their partnership.
• As the situation unfolds, it is crucial for both India and Canada to navigate this diplomatic crisis with caution. While it is imperative for India to defend its diplomats and national interests, it must also ensure transparency and accountability in addressing the allegations.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the mass bleaching of coral reefs around the world since 2023 is now the most extensive on record.

About

• 77% of the world’s coral reef areas – from the Atlantic to the Pacific to the Indian oceans – have so far been subjected to bleaching-level heat stress.
• The NOAA coral reef authority declared the global bleaching event in 2024, making it the fourth of its kind since 1998.
• Mass bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef have been documented with full-scale surveys in 1998, 2002, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2022 and 2024.
• The previous record from the 2014 to 2017 mass bleaching affected just below 66 percent of the world’s reef area.
• In coming months and years scientists will conduct underwater assessments of dead corals to help tally up the severity of the damage.

What are Corals?

• Corals are invertebrates that belong to a large group of animals called Cnidaria.
• Corals are formed by multiple small, soft organisms known as polyps.
• They secrete a rocky chalk-like (calcium carbonate) exoskeleton around themselves for protection.
• Coral reefs are therefore created by millions of tiny polyps forming large carbonate structures.
• Appearance: Corals range in colour from red to purple and even blue, but are most commonly shades of brown and green.
• Coral are bright and colorful because of microscopic algae called zooxanthellae.
• There are three types of coral reefs – fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls.
• Fringing reefs form along shorelines, barrier reefs form in open water and atolls are circular reefs that have formed around sunken volcanoes.
• Significance: They provide food, shelter, resting and breeding grounds to a quarter of all marine life, acting as nurseries and refuges to protect critical biodiversity.
• They also support more than 1 billion people living in coastal regions around the world by providing food, livelihoods and recreation.

Coral Bleaching

• Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel the colourful algae living in their tissues.
• Without these helpful algae, the corals become pale and are vulnerable to starvation and disease.
• A bleached coral is not dead, but ocean temperatures need to cool off for any hope of recovery.
• At least 14% of the world’s remaining corals were estimated to have died in the previous two global bleaching events.
• Scientists had previously projected that coral reefs would cross a tipping point at 1.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 F) of global warming, whereby up to 90% of reefs would be lost.
• The latest record bleaching adds to growing evidence that reefs have already passed a point of no return at just 1.3 C (2.3 F) of warming.

What triggers Coral Bleaching?

• The leading cause of coral bleaching is climate change.
• A warming planet means a warming ocean, and a change in water temperature—as little as 2 degrees Fahrenheit—can cause coral to drive out algae.
• Coral also bleaches for other reasons, like extremely low tides, pollution, or too much sunlight.
• The ongoing bleaching has been made worse by El Nino, a natural climate pattern that can temporarily warm some oceans, which ended in May.

Concerns

• Coral bleaching matters because once these corals die, reefs rarely come back.
• With few corals surviving, they struggle to reproduce, and entire reef ecosystems, on which people and wildlife depend, deteriorate.
• This would have dire implications for ocean health, subsistence fisheries and tourism.

Impact of Coral Bleaching

• Wildlife: Thousands of marine animals depend on coral reefs for survival.
• Coral reefs provide shelter, spawning grounds, and protection from predators.
• They also support organisms at the base of ocean food chains.
• As reef ecosystems collapse, already at-risk species may face extinction.
• Humans: Coral reefs are natural barriers that absorb the force of waves and storm surges, keeping coastal communities safe.
• Every year, reefs provide about $2.7 trillion in goods and services, according to a 2020 estimate by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network.
• Bleached coral also compounds the overfishing crisis by removing links in the food web and depriving some fish of a place to spawn and develop.
• Reef tourism brings in billions of dollars each year and supports thousands of jobs.

Can corals recover from bleaching?

• Corals can recover from bleaching over time, but only if temperatures drop and conditions return to normal.
• When this happens, the algae returns and the corals gradually regain their health.

Way Ahead

• Strengthening Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
• Implementing coral restoration techniques, such as coral gardening and breeding resilient coral species, to enhance recovery after bleaching events.
• Advocating for global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to limit temperature increases and ocean acidification.
• Increasing investment in research to better understand coral resilience, bleaching triggers, and recovery processes, alongside developing advanced monitoring technologies.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: A recent assessment by an organisation commissioned by Wetlands International, highlighted the critical importance of wetlands in the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP) submitted after the COP15.

About

• It provides insights into how effectively the wetlands have been incorporated into NBSAPs worldwide.
• It aims to highlight the crucial role that wetland conservation and restoration play in the successful implementation of the Global Biodiversity Plan.

Major Findings

• The assessment includes 24 NBSAPs from around the world, representing 12 per cent of the 196 countries that are parties to the Convention on Biodiversity.
• 83 percent of the submitted NBSAPs explicitly mention wetlands, inland waters or freshwater in their targets.
• 71 percent of the plans articulate specific measures for restoration (Target 2) and 50 percent include protection for these important ecosystems (Target 3).
• Fewer NBSAPs provide specific, measurable targets, indicating a need for improvement in those areas.
• 16 NBSAPs mentioned specific wetland types, including mangroves, rivers, lakes and peatlands.
• Among these, mangroves, rivers and lakes received the highest mentions, indicating their importance in various environmental targets.
• Recommendation: The report emphasised the need for countries to enhance the integration of wetlands within national biodiversity targets, establishing clear, measurable goals for wetland restoration and protection.
• The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF)
• GBF was adopted by the COP15 to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2022.
• It has been promoted as a “Paris Agreement for Nature”.
• The GBF contains 4 global goals and 23 targets.
• Among the twenty-three targets to be achieved by 2030 include halving the introduction of invasive species, and $500 billion/year reduction in harmful subsidies.
• “Target 3” is especially referred to as the “30X30” target.
• ’30X30′ target
• Under it, delegates committed to protecting 30% of land and 30% of coastal and marine areas by 2030, fulfilling the deal’s highest-profile goal, known as 30-by-30.
• The deal also aspires to restore 30% of degraded lands and waters throughout the decade, up from an earlier aim of 20%.
• Also, the world will strive to prevent destroying intact landscapes and areas with a lot of species, bringing those losses “close to zero by 2030”.

What is a Wetland?

• A wetland is an ecosystem in which the land is covered by water—salt, fresh, or somewhere in between—either seasonally or permanently. It functions as its own distinct ecosystem.
• It includes water bodies such as lakes, rivers, underground aquifers, swamps, wet grasslands, peatlands, deltas, tidal flats, mangroves, coral reefs, and other coastal areas as well.
• These wetlands can be classified into three segments such as inland wetlands, coastal wetlands, and human-made wetlands.

Wetlands in India

• India includes high-altitude wetlands of the Himalayas, floodplains of rivers such as Ganges and Brahmaputra, lagoons and mangrove marshes on the coastline, and reefs in marine environments.
• India has around 4.6% of its land as wetlands, 85 Wetlands of India covering are under the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
• Presently, India stands first in South Asia and third in Asia in terms of number of designated sites.

Importance of Wetlands

• Biodiversity Hotspots: Wetlands are among the most biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth, supporting a wide variety of plant and animal species.
• Water Filtration and Purification: Wetlands act as natural filters, trapping and removing pollutants and sediments from water.
• Flood Control and Water Regulation: Wetlands function as natural buffers against floods by absorbing and slowing down excess water during heavy rainfall or storm events.
• Carbon Sequestration: The waterlogged conditions in wetlands slow down the decomposition of organic matter, leading to the accumulation of carbon in the soil.
• Economic Benefits: Wetlands support various economic activities, including fisheries, agriculture, and tourism. They provide valuable resources for local communities and contribute to the overall economy.

Threats to Wetlands

• Urbanization: Wetlands near urban centres are under increasing developmental pressure for residential, industrial and commercial facilities.
• Agricultural activities: Following the Green Revolution of the 1970s, vast stretches of wetlands have been converted to paddy fields.
• Deforestation: Removal of vegetation in the catchment leads to soil erosion and siltation.
• Pollution: Unrestricted dumping of sewage and toxic chemicals from industries has polluted many freshwater wetlands.
• Aquaculture: Demand for shrimps and fishes has provided economic incentives to convert wetlands and mangrove forests to develop pisciculture and aquaculture ponds.
• Introduced species: Indian wetlands are threatened by exotic introduced plant species such as water hyacinth and salvinia.
• Climate change: Increased air temperature; shifts in precipitation; increased frequency of storms, floods; and sea level rise also affect wetlands.
• Drought: Prolonged dry periods lead to reduced water levels in wetlands, impacting their ecological functions and the species that depend on them.

Conclusion

• Conserving and properly managing wetlands is crucial to maintaining the ecological functions and ensuring the continued provision of the services they offer to both the environment and society.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Global Framework on Water Scarcity in Agriculture (WASAG) adopted the Rome Declaration on Water Scarcity in Agriculture.

About

• The declaration was launched on the occasion of the High-level Rome Water Dialogue, taking place on the sidelines of FAO’s annual World Food Forum (WFF).
• The Declaration was aimed at addressing water scarcity increasingly exacerbated by the climate crisis.
• The WASAG initiative was launched at the United Nations Climate Conference in Marrakesh in 2016 to support countries in addressing water scarcity challenges.

What is Family Farming?

• Family farming refers to agricultural activities that are managed and operated by families, relying primarily on family labor.
• It encompasses all family-based agricultural activities, including crops, forestry, fisheries, and pastoralism.

Significance of Family farming

• Family farming, with over 550 million farms worldwide, is the backbone of food production, accounting for over 90 per cent of all farms,
• It produces 70 to 80 percent of the world’s food in value terms.
• Family farmers, especially in low- and middle-income countries, grow diverse, nutritious food, support crop biodiversity and manage natural resources responsibly.
• The United Nations Decade of Family Farming (UNDFF) 2019-2028 was adopted on December 20, 2017 by the UN General Assembly unanimously and supported by 104 countries.

Challenges Faced by Family Farming

• Climate Change: It is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as droughts, floods, and unpredictable weather patterns, which affect crop yields and food production.
• Access to Resources: The small family farms face limited access to land, water, financial services, technology, and markets, impeding their ability to increase productivity and income.
• Policy and Institutional Support: In many regions, family farmers receive insufficient government support in terms of subsidies, infrastructure, and favorable policies that could help them compete in larger markets.

Way Ahead

• Promoting climate-smart agricultural practices is essential to help family farmers adapt to changing environmental conditions.

Engaging the younger generation in farming through education, skill development, and financial incentives will help ensure the continuity of family farming.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister pointed to a declining fertility rate in southern states, which has dropped to 1.6—well below the national average of 2.1.

Trends in Southern India Population

• Declining Fertility Rates: Southern Indian states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala have already reached or are nearing replacement-level fertility (2.1 children per woman). For instance:
• Andhra Pradesh achieved this in 2004.
• Kerala reached this level as early as 1988.
• These states have significantly lower fertility rates compared to Northern India, contributing to slower population growth.
• Aging Population: With lower fertility rates and increasing life expectancy, the population in Southern India is aging rapidly:
  • Kerala’s 60+ population is projected to rise from 13% in 2011 to 23% by 2036.
  • Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are also witnessing a similar demographic shift, creating a growing proportion of elderly residents.
• Population Growth Contribution: Southern states are projected to contribute only 9% to India’s total population growth from 2011 to 2036. In contrast, Northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar will account for a much larger share of India’s future population growth.
• Internal Migration and Workforce: Due to declining birth rates and a shrinking working-age population, Southern states are becoming more reliant on migrants from Northern India to fill labor shortages and maintain economic growth.
• Impact on Political Representation: Slower population growth in Southern India raises concerns about political representation. After the delimitation of constituencies, Southern states might lose some parliamentary seats, while more populous Northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar may gain representation.
• Economic and Healthcare Strain: The growing elderly population in Southern states is expected to increase healthcare expenditures and place further demands on social security systems.

Challenges With Population Decline

• Economic Impact: A high percentage of the aging population does imply that the state may have to spend more on taking care of this growing population.
  • There is an increased pressure on pension systems and social security.
• Need of Caregiving: With a rise in the elderly population, there is a growing need for caregivers.
  • Families can struggle to balance caregiving responsibilities with work and personal lives.
• Social Isolation: Older adults often face social isolation, especially in urban areas where traditional family structures are changing.
• Impact on women: Poverty is inherently gendered in old age when older women are more likely to be widowed, living alone, with no income and with fewer assets of their own, and fully dependent on family for support.
• Policy Development: There is a need for comprehensive policies addressing the needs of older adults, including healthcare, housing, and social welfare.
• North-South Divide: Northern states like Uttar Pradesh, which contribute more to India’s population, may see increased political and economic focus, affecting resource distribution.

Way Ahead

• Promoting Internal Migration: Southern states can alleviate workforce shortages by drawing in workers from Northern India, which has a larger working-age population. This can help bridge the gap created by a declining young population in the South.
• Workforce Development: Investments in automation, advanced technology, and skills retraining programs will be key to efficiently managing a shrinking labor force. This approach can maintain productivity while mitigating the effects of fewer young workers.
• Incentivize families: Focus on healthcare, education, and employment opportunities—could be more effective in encouraging higher birth rates.

Balanced Growth: To minimize regional disparities, equal emphasis on economic and social development across both Northern and Southern states is crucial. This can ensure sustainable internal migration and reduce socio-economic imbalances across regions

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The UDAN scheme has completed 8 years of Implementation.

About

• The Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) – UDAN (Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik) is a component of India’s National Civil Aviation Policy (NCAP) 2016, launched by the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) in 2016, with a 10-year vision.
• It aims to improve infrastructure and connectivity in India, especially in remote and underserved regions.
• The first UDAN flight took off in 2017, connecting Shimla to New Delhi.

Features of the UDAN Scheme

• A Market-Driven Approach: Airlines assess demand on specific routes and submit proposals during bidding rounds.
  • The scheme incentivizes airlines to connect underserved regions by offering them support through Viability Gap Funding (VGF) and various concessions.
• Support Mechanisms:
  • Airport Operators: They waive landing and parking charges for RCS flights, and the Airports Authority of India (AAI) does not levy Terminal Navigation Landing Charges (TNLC) on these flights.
  • Union Government: For the first three years, excise duty on Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) purchased at RCS airports capped at 2%.
  • State Governments: States have committed to reducing VAT on ATF to 1% or less for ten years and providing essential services such as security, fire services, and utility services at reduced rates.

Significance of the Scheme

• Fuelling Growth of the Aviation Industry: Over the past seven years, it has catalysed the emergence of many new and successful airlines.
  • It has also generated a rising demand for new aircraft of all sizes, broadening the spectrum of planes deployed on RCS routes.
• Promoting Tourism: Initiatives like UDAN 3.0 have introduced tourism routes connecting several destinations in the Northeast region, while UDAN 5.1 is focused on expanding helicopter services in hilly areas to stimulate tourism, hospitality, and local economic growth.
• Boosting Air Connectivity: RCS-UDAN has connected 34 states and Union Territories across the country.
  • A total of 86 aerodromes have been operationalized, including ten in the Northeast region and two heliports.
• Number of Airports Increased: The number of operational airports in the country has doubled from 74 in 2014 to 157 in 2024 and the aim is to increase this number to 350-400 by 2047.

Conclusion

• UDAN is not just a scheme; it is a movement aimed at empowering every Indian with the gift of flight.
• Enhancing regional connectivity and ensuring affordability has fulfilled countless citizens’ aspirations while stimulating economic growth and job creation.
• The UDAN scheme remains a game changer for Indian aviation, contributing significantly to India’s vision of a connected and prosperous nation.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: The Supreme Court is hearing petitions to criminalize non-consensual sexual acts in marriage as rape.

• Justice J.B. Pardiwala questioned why wrongful confinement, intimidation, and assault are criminal offenses, but forced sexual intercourse by a husband is not considered rape.

Historical Context:

• Marital Rape Exception (MRE) stems from colonial English law, particularly the “doctrine of coverture,” which stripped married women of legal autonomy.
• The MRE was influenced by historical views, notably from jurist Matthew Hale in the 18th century, asserting that marriage equates to irrevocable consent.
• England abolished the MRE in 1991, but India retained it.

Statistics on Marital Violence:

• Data from the National Family Health Survey-5 (2019-2021) shows that nearly one-third of married women in India have faced physical or sexual violence from their husbands.
  • Additionally, global statistics reveal that approximately three-quarters of all sexual assaults transpire within intimate settings, often perpetrated by someone familiar to the survivor.

Current Legal Framework:

• Section 375 of the IPC and Section 63 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita exclude non-consensual sexual intercourse by a husband from the definition of rape if the wife is over 15 or 18 years old, respectively.
• They provide legal immunity for husbands regarding non-consensual sex with their wives.
• A married woman can seek relief under other laws, like the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, but these are limited.

Issues and Concerns

• Petitioners assert that the current laws violate women’s rights to bodily integrity, autonomy, and dignity.
  • The exception is deemed unconstitutional, violating:
• Article 14 (equal protection under the law).
• Article 15(1) (right to non-discrimination).
• Article 21 (right to privacy and bodily integrity).
• The harm experienced by women from rape, regardless of the perpetrator’s relationship to them, is fundamentally the same.
• It is argued that recognizing a married woman’s right to refuse sex would not undermine marriage; it affirms sexual autonomy.
  • It is argued that consent must be an unequivocal and voluntary agreement, applicable to married women as well.

Government’s Stance:

• The Centre argues against striking down the MRE, claiming it could undermine marriage, lead to false allegations, and should be considered a social issue rather than a legal one.

Judicial Observations:

• Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud noted the inconsistency in law where certain acts are classified as rape if committed by a stranger but not by a husband.
• The Supreme Court has previously acknowledged that intimate partner violence can constitute rape.
• A 2022 Karnataka High Court ruling allowed for the prosecution of husbands for marital rape.

Future Outlook

• The Court has the authority to evaluate whether the MRE violates fundamental rights and to potentially strike it down if it does.
  • The court is considering whether to create a new offense or simply align existing laws with constitutional values.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The 2024 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index, is published with the theme of Poverty Amid Conflict.

About Global Multidimensional Poverty Index

• MPI is published annually by the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative.
• The index utilizes 10 indicators across these three dimensions.
• If a household is deprived in one-third or more of these indicators, it is considered multidimensionally poor.

Key Findings

• Across 112 countries and 6.3 billion people, 1.1 billion people (18.3 percent) live in acute multidimensional poverty.
• Poor people live in rural areas: 962 million (83.7 percent) live in rural areas.
  • Around 70.7 percent of all poor people live in rural areas of Sub- Saharan Africa (463 million) and South Asia (350 million).
• The five countries with the largest number of people living in poverty are India (234 million), Pakistan (93 million), Ethiopia (86 million), Nigeria (74 million) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (66 million).
  • Together, these five countries account for nearly half (48.1 percent) of the 1.1 billion poor people.
• Approximately 584 million people under 18 are living in extreme poverty, making up 27.9% of all children globally, compared to 13.5% of adults.
• Poverty in conflicted regions: The report noted that 2023 witnessed more conflicts than at any time since World War II causing displacement of over 117 million people.
• Nearly 40% of the 1.1 billion people live in poverty, approximately 455 million, are situated in countries experiencing conflict.

Reasons for India’s poor performance

• Regional Disparities: Rural poverty rates remain high due to inadequate infrastructure, poor service delivery, and limited economic opportunities outside agriculture.
• Poor nutrition: India struggles with severe malnutrition, particularly among children.
• Quality of education: The quality of education in many government-run schools is poor, leading to insufficient learning outcomes.
• Water and sanitation: Poor access to safe drinking water and inadequate sanitation, particularly in rural areas, continues to push many households into multidimensional poverty.
• Economic setbacks: The COVID-19 pandemic severely disrupted India’s economy, leading to job losses, reduced incomes, and increased vulnerabilities for millions of households.

Government Steps for Poverty alleviation

• National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013: It gives legal entitlement to 67% of the population (75% in rural areas and 50% in urban areas) to receive highly subsidized foodgrains.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) (2016): This initiative was introduced to provide LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) connections to women belonging to Below Poverty Line (BPL) families.
• Ayushman Bharat scheme: It offers health insurance coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family per year to shield beneficiaries from the financial burden of expensive medical treatments, thereby preventing them from falling deeper into poverty due to healthcare costs.
• National Nutrition Mission (POSHAN Abhiyaan): Launched in 2018, the mission aims to reduce malnutrition by focusing on stunting, undernutrition, and anemia, especially among children, adolescent girls, pregnant women, and lactating mothers.
• Right to Education Act (RTE): The RTE Act, enacted in 2009, provides free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 years.
• Swachh Bharat Mission: The mission aims to achieve universal sanitation coverage by constructing toilets and promoting cleanliness.

Way Ahead

• India has made significant strides in poverty reduction through various initiatives but there is room for further improvement.
• Promoting sustainable livelihoods, improving the quality of service delivery, and leveraging digital solutions for better implementation will ensure that multidimensional poverty continues to decline.