General Studies Paper-3

Context: Niti Aayog CEO stated that India should join the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) and Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) trade blocs.

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

• The RCEP bloc comprises;
• 10 ASEAN group members: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, Laos and Vietnam and
• Five FTA partners: China, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand.
• These RCEP countries account for about 30% of the global GDP and 30% of the world population.
• India pulled out of the RCEP in 2019 after entering negotiations in 2013, in view that reduced customs duty would result in a flood of imports from China and trade deficit with other RCEP nations.
• The landmark agreement was signed in November 2020.

Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)

• CPTPP is a free trade bloc spanning five continents, made up of Pacific rim countries of Canada, Mexico, Peru, Chile, New Zealand, Australia, Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the UK and Japan.
• The pact requires countries to eliminate or significantly reduce tariffs and make strong commitments to opening services and investment markets.
• It also has rules addressing competition, intellectual property rights and protections for foreign companies.

Need for Joining the trade blocs

• Capturing the ‘China Plus One’ Opportunity: As global businesses look to diversify beyond China, countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Turkey, and Mexico have already capitalized on this trend.
• India has the potential to emerge as an attractive alternative destination.
• Boosting the MSME Sector: Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) contribute approximately 40% of India’s exports.
• Integrating into larger trade blocs like RCEP and CPTPP could enhance their market reach and growth prospects.
• Economic Growth: The World Bank’s India Development Update emphasized that joining RCEP could boost trade, investment, and GDP growth.
• Trade Expansion: India’s economy, projected to be the third largest by 2027, would benefit from greater integration into global markets, leading to long-term sustainable development.

Challenges of joining these blocs

• Trade Deficit Concerns: India’s existing trade deficit with China is a major deterrent. In FY2023, bilateral trade with China stood at $118 billion, with a deficit of $85 billion.
• Impact on Domestic Sectors: MSMEs and some agriculture sectors will face increased competition from international imports, potentially affecting their viability.
• ASEAN’s trade deficit with China has jumped from $ 135.6 billion in 2023 from $ 81.7 billion in 2020.

Way Ahead

• India should adopt a phased approach to tariff reduction and align its trade policies to be more globally competitive. Ensuring support for vulnerable sectors like MSMEs through subsidies, training, and infrastructure upgrades is needed.
• Strengthening the manufacturing ecosystem and enhancing quality standards can help Indian products compete effectively on the global stage.
• Balanced Trade Negotiations: While joining RCEP and CPTPP, India must negotiate terms that safeguard its economic interests.
• This includes securing provisions that prevent dumping and protect strategic industries.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: With Donald Trump securing a second term as President of the United States ‘Trump 2.0’, the dynamics of US-India trade relations are poised for significant shifts with renewed focus on his ‘America First’ policies, which are expected to impact various sectors of the Indian economy.

Importance of India-US Relations

The relationship between India and the United States has evolved into one of the most significant partnerships in the 21st century. It spans economic, strategic, and cultural dimensions, reflecting the shared values and mutual interests of the world’s largest democracies.

Strategic Interests:

• The two nations are motivated by common interests: India aims to become the world’s third-largest economy, while the US seeks reliable allies to counterbalance China’s growing influence.
• Their shared focus on economic growth and security can lead to deeper co-operation in areas like counterterrorism and Indo-Pacific stability.
• Defence and Security: Trump’s emphasis on reducing US involvement in foreign conflicts might push India to take a more prominent role in regional security.
• It could lead to increased defence collaborations and arms deals, bolstering India’s military capabilities.
• There could be increased cooperation in technology and defence, with the US likely to open up more military hardware for Indian defence forces.

Economic Interests:

• Both India and the US share a pro-business stance and a focus on economic growth, which could drive substantial changes on the global economic stage.
• Trump’s ‘America First’ policy, while often seen as isolationist, aligns with Modi’s ‘Make in India’ initiative, potentially fostering deeper economic ties.
• The Trump administration is expected to revive negotiations for a Free Trade Agreement, which had seen intense discussions during his first term.
• The growth of Global Capability Centres (GCCs) in India, driven by US companies, is one such area where collaboration could flourish.
• Under Trump 2.0, India might face trade skirmishes, but it is better prepared today with export-friendly policies like the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme and the semiconductor program.

Trade Policies:

• Trump’s protectionist stance, including higher tariffs on imports, could pose challenges for Indian exporters. During his first term, Trump was vocal about reducing the trade deficit with countries like India.
• Trump’s unpredictable policy shifts could create economic instability. For instance, changes in trade agreements or sanctions on countries like Iran could disrupt India’s energy supplies and increase costs.
• For India, this could complicate trade relations, especially in sectors like IT, pharmaceuticals, and textiles, which rely heavily on the US market.
• His administration-imposed tariffs on several Indian goods, and similar measures could be expected in his second term.

Immigration Overhaul: Deportations and Visa Restrictions:

• Stricter immigration laws could impact the Indian workforce in the US, particularly in the tech sector. With Trump 2.0, there is a likelihood of further restrictions, which could impact the flow of skilled Indian professionals to the US.
• The already difficult process for legal migration to the US, particularly through the H-1B visa program, will likely become even more restrictive under his administration.

Energy Policies:

• Trump’s energy policies, which favour fossil fuel production, could lead to lower global oil prices.
• It might benefit India, a major oil importer, by reducing its import bill.
• However, it also poses challenges for global climate change efforts, an area where India has been making significant strides.

Global Implications

• Trade Wars and Global Economy: The return of Trump’s aggressive trade policies could reignite trade tensions with major economies like China and the European Union.
• It could disrupt global supply chains and impact economic stability worldwide.
• For emerging economies like India, navigating these tensions will be crucial to maintaining growth.
• Geopolitical Dynamics: Trump’s foreign policy, marked by unpredictability and a transactional approach, could alter geopolitical alliances.
• For India, this means balancing its strategic partnership with the US while managing relations with other global powers like China and Russia.
• Climate Change and Sustainability: Trump’s scepticism towards climate change and his support for fossil fuels could slow down global efforts to combat climate change.
• It is a significant concern for India, which is vulnerable to climate impacts and has been actively working towards sustainable development goals.

Opportunities Amid Challenges

• Despite the challenges, there are potential opportunities for India. As Trump seeks to reduce reliance on China, new trade opportunities could emerge for India to attract American firms looking to diversify their supply chains away from China.
• India, with its growing economy and strategic importance, might leverage this to negotiate favourable terms in areas like defence, energy, and technology.
• The strategic alignment on counterterrorism and Indo-Pacific stability offers significant opportunities for collaboration.

Conclusion and Future Outlook

• Trump’s second term is a mixed bag for India. Trumponomics, with its blend of protectionism and pro-business policies, presents a complex landscape for India and the world. While there are opportunities for economic growth and investment, the challenges of trade tensions, energy policies, and climate change cannot be overlooked.
• As India navigates this new phase, strategic diplomacy and adaptive economic policies will be key to leveraging the benefits and mitigating the risks of Trump’s second term.
• While there are opportunities for strategic gains, particularly in defence and bilateral relations, the economic challenges cannot be overlooked.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Union Government issued the sixth draft notification designating approximately 56,825.7 square kilometers of the Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) spanning six states: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

• The notification aims to protect the rich biodiversity of the Western Ghats by imposing restrictions on activities such as mining, quarrying, and large-scale construction within the ESA.
• It had provided the states a 60-day window seeking their views and objections on the villages demarcated as ESA.

Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ)

• In 2002, it was decided that an area around each Protected Areas, requires to be notified as an Eco-Sensitive Zone for creating a buffer as further protection around Protected Areas (PAs).
• The very purpose of declaring ESZ is to create some kind of “Shock Absorber” for the specialized Ecosystem, such as protected areas or other natural sites.
• Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) have unique biological resources, which require special attention for their conservation.
• These areas often contain rare or endangered species, critical habitats, unique ecosystems, or vital natural resources that are essential for maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
• On the basis of proposals and recommendations of the State Government, the Ministry notified the ESZs under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Need to Declare Western Ghats as ESAs

• The entire Western Ghats is the second most landslide-prone region of the country after the Himalayas.
• Absence of ESA cover to Western Ghats resulted in continuation of several environmentally-hazardous human activities, including massive deforestation for mining and construction over the years, leading to loosening of soil and affecting hillside stability.
• Biodiversity: The Western Ghats are considered one of the 8 “hottest hotspots” of biological diversity in the world.
• Covering an area just under 6% of India, the Western Ghats contain more than 30% of all plant, fish, herpeto-fauna, bird, and mammal species found in India.
• Many species are endemic, such as the Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) and the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus).
• 50% of India’s amphibians and 67% of fish species are endemic to this region.
• The Western Ghats perform important hydrological and watershed functions.
• Approximately 245 million people live in the peninsular Indian states that receive most of their water supply from rivers originating in the Western Ghats.
• Conservation: In 2012, the Western Ghats were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their exceptional biodiversity and ecological value.
• Several areas of the Western Ghats are designated as protected areas, including national parks and wildlife sanctuaries like Silent Valley National Park, Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, and Agasthyakoodam.

State’s Reaction

• The Chief Ministers argued that the proposed conservation schemes were too restrictive to allow any development work in the hills that run parallel to the western coast.
• Maharashtra and Goa sought a reduction in the extent of ESA within the respective states for allowing development works.
• The then govt in Karnataka urged the Centre in 2022 to withdraw the draft arguing that it would adversely affect the livelihood of the people in the state.
• The illegal mining lobby and tourism industry put pressure on the government to delay the notification.

Recommendations of Committees on Western Ghats

• Gadgil Report (2011)
• Recommended declaring the entire Western Ghats as an ESA.
• Strong focus on restricting developmental activities across the region.
• Three-tier categorization of the region: It created three categories of protection regimes and listed activities that would be allowed in each based on the level of ecological richness and land use.
• Emphasized forest rights and sustainable livelihoods.
• The report recommended the creation of a Western Ghats Ecological Authority (WGEA) at both the national and state levels to monitor and enforce conservation efforts.
• Environmentalists supported, but state governments and industries strongly opposed.
• Kasturirangan Report (High-Level Working Group Report, 2013)
• Recommended declaring only 37% of the region as an ESA.
• Focused on regulating development in identified sensitive areas while allowing more flexibility in other regions.
• Focused on core ecologically sensitive areas.
• Focused more on development balance and economic activities.
• Recognized the importance of sustainable livelihoods, but with less emphasis on forest rights.
• Argued for strengthening the existing framework of environmental clearances and setting up of a state-of-the-art monitoring agency.
• State governments and industries found it more balanced, though some environmentalists felt it was too lenient.

Conclusion

• The Western Ghats are inhabited even in the areas categorised as natural landscapes.
• It is not possible to plan for Western Ghats only as a fenced-in wilderness zone.
• This is the difference between the natural landscapes of a densely populated country like India and the wilderness zones of many other countries.
• Policymakers have to create a fine balance and promote a development that is sustainable in the cultural and natural landscapes.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: India has reaffirmed its commitment to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR), a UN-backed global agreement adopted in 2015.

The framework aims for the substantial reduction of disaster risks and losses to protect lives, livelihoods, and the assets of communities and nations.

Key Dimensions of India’s Disaster Risk Reduction Initiatives

• Adoption of the Sendai Framework Principles: The Sendai Framework emphasizes reducing vulnerabilities and enhancing resilience. India has incorporated these principles into national policies, such as the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), which aligns closely with Sendai’s four priority areas:
• Understanding Disaster Risk
• Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance
• Investing in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for Resilience
• Enhancing Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response
• International Cooperation and Global Partnerships: India promotes knowledge sharing, technology transfer, and joint initiatives on disaster resilience.
• For instance, the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), initiated by India, now includes 40 countries and seven international organizations. This initiative aligns with the Sendai Framework.
• Strengthening Regional and Local Resilience: India’s National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) and the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG), which addresses flood and drought risks, are tailored to the Sendai principle of contextual disaster resilience.
• The Heat Action Plan implemented in Gujarat and other states, aimed at mitigating risks from extreme heat waves.
• Enhancing Financing for Disaster Risk Reduction: India has prioritized disaster financing, an often-overlooked area. The National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) and State Disaster Response Funds (SDRF) allocate resources for quick responses and long-term resilience building.
• At the G-20, India underscored the need to upscale DRR financing and proposed Nature-based Solutions (NbS) as cost-effective approaches to mitigate risks while conserving ecosystems.
• Example: The recent floodplain restoration project on the Mula-Mutha River in Pune aims to use NbS for flood resilience by restoring wetlands, which absorb excess rainfall, reduce erosion, and replenish groundwater.

India’s Five DRR Priorities Highlighted at the G-20 Meeting

• Early Warning Systems: India’s effective early warning systems for cyclones and heat waves have set benchmarks for disaster preparedness. This was demonstrated during Cyclone Tauktae, where timely alerts helped reduce fatalities.
• Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure: Through CDRI, India assists global communities in constructing resilient infrastructure that withstands floods, earthquakes, and cyclones.
• Disaster Financing: India emphasized increasing DRR financing, integrating it into policy planning, and securing public-private partnerships to enhance resource availability.
• Resilient Recovery: India supports post-disaster recovery with a focus on building back better, incorporating resilience into reconstruction efforts. The reconstruction in Kerala after the 2018 floods is an example, incorporating flood-resilient infrastructure and building standards.
• Nature-Based Solutions (NbS): India promotes NbS, such as wetland restoration and afforestation, as sustainable measures that reduce disaster impacts while preserving biodiversity.

Challenges and Gaps in Disaster Risk Reduction in India

• Funding Constraints: Despite efforts, disaster financing remains limited, and public-private partnerships for DRR are still developing.
• Infrastructure Vulnerability: Urban areas are often not built to withstand high-magnitude disasters. Rapid urbanization without adequate risk assessments increases vulnerability.
• Data and Research: There is a need for localized disaster risk data and enhanced research on emerging risks like climate-induced disasters.
• Implementation of Nature-Based Solutions: NbS require careful planning and long-term investments, but limited resources and competing priorities can slow implementation.

Way Forward for Strengthening Disaster Risk Reduction

• Increase DRR Financing: Establish more robust public-private partnerships for disaster risk financing, create targeted funds for vulnerable areas, and encourage investments in DRR through tax incentives.
• Expand CDRI and Global Alliances: Continue to strengthen CDRI and explore new collaborations with countries facing similar disaster challenges, facilitating global knowledge exchange and capacity building.
• Focus on Localized Early Warning Systems: Enhance community-specific early warning systems, particularly for floods and landslides in high-risk zones like Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
• Invest in Resilient Urban Planning: Implement stricter building codes, enforce zoning laws, and incentivize climate-resilient urban infrastructure to reduce vulnerabilities.
• Advance Research and Development: Invest in disaster research, including climate-resilient crops, eco-friendly infrastructure, and flood management technologies, to anticipate and address emerging risks.
• Promote Nature-Based Solutions (NbS): Expand NbS projects in coastal, riverine, and forested areas to manage risks sustainably, integrating these solutions into broader development plans.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)’s Living Planet Report 2024 reveals a drastic 73% decrease in the average size of monitored wildlife populations over the past 50 years, from 1970 to 2020.

Key Findings

• Wildlife Population Decline: An average 73% decline in monitored wildlife populations between 1970 and 2020, with freshwater species declining the most at 85%, followed by terrestrial (69%) and marine (56%).
• Main Threats: Habitat loss, largely due to food systems, followed by overexploitation, invasive species, disease, and pollution (particularly impacting Asia and the Pacific).
• Tipping Points and Ecosystem Risks: Wildlife decline signals risks of ecosystem tipping points, with critical thresholds potentially leading to irreversible damage—e.g., Amazon dieback and coral reef loss affecting global food security and livelihoods
• India’s Wildlife Status: India’s vulture populations are critically endangered, with significant declines for three species between 1992 and 2002.
• Conservation efforts have helped some species recover, including tigers (3,682 in 2022) and snow leopards (718 in recent assessments).
• Wetland Loss in Chennai: Chennai’s wetlands have shrunk by 85% due to urban expansion, exacerbating flood and drought vulnerabilities.
• Initiatives like the Tamil Nadu Wetland Mission are focused on restoring wetlands to improve resilience

Impacts

• Ecosystem Imbalance: Wildlife plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance. Predator-prey relationships, pollination, and nutrient cycles are disrupted when species decline, leading to ecosystem instability and collapse.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Declining wildlife populations reduce genetic diversity, making ecosystems less resilient to environmental changes, diseases, and natural disasters. This loss weakens ecosystem health and adaptability.
• Threats to Food Security: Wildlife supports food systems through pollination, pest control, and soil health. Declines in species like bees and other pollinators directly affect crop yields and global food supply.
• Impacts on Human Health: Healthy ecosystems regulate diseases by controlling pest populations and offering natural barriers. With declining biodiversity, the risk of zoonotic diseases (like COVID-19) increases, impacting human health.
• Economic Consequences: Many industries, including agriculture, fishing, and tourism, rely on healthy ecosystems. Wildlife declines can harm these sectors, leading to job losses and economic instability, particularly in communities that depend on natural resources.
• Cultural and Social Impact: Wildlife holds cultural, spiritual, and recreational value for communities worldwide. The loss of iconic species can diminish cultural identities and reduce opportunities for nature-based recreation and tourism.

Challenges Related to Conservation of Biodiversity

• Despite international commitments (Global Biodiversity Framework, Paris Agreement, UN SDGs), current national actions are inadequate for 2030 targets, risking dangerous tipping points.
• Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Expanding agriculture, urbanization, and infrastructure development lead to the destruction and fragmentation of habitats, disrupting ecosystems and endangering species.
• Climate Change: Rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events impact ecosystems, pushing species out of their natural habitats and altering food and water availability.
• Wildfires are lasting longer and becoming more intense, with extreme fire events happening more often—even reaching as far as the Arctic Circle.
• Overexploitation of Resources: Unsustainable hunting, fishing, logging, and harvesting lead to declines in species populations and degradation of ecosystems, threatening biodiversity.
• Pollution: Industrial, agricultural, and plastic pollution harms wildlife and natural habitats. Pollutants like pesticides and heavy metals can disrupt reproductive and immune systems in species.
• Invasive Species: Non-native species introduced into ecosystems can outcompete, prey on, or spread disease to native species, often leading to declines or extinctions of indigenous populations.
• Lack of Funding and Resources: Conservation efforts often suffer from inadequate funding, limiting the ability to protect habitats, monitor species, and implement sustainable practices.
• Weak Policy and Enforcement: Insufficient or poorly enforced laws on habitat protection, hunting, and resource extraction hinder effective conservation efforts and allow illegal activities to thrive.
• Human-Wildlife Conflict: Expanding human populations and encroachment into natural habitats increase the likelihood of conflict with wildlife, which can lead to harm for both people and animals.
• Loss of Genetic Diversity: Reduced genetic diversity makes species more vulnerable to diseases, reduces adaptability to changing environments, and increases the risk of extinction.
• Awareness and Education Gaps: A lack of public awareness and understanding about biodiversity’s importance can limit support for conservation efforts and sustainable practices.

Conclusion and Way forward

• Expand protected areas, restore damaged ecosystems, and engage Indigenous communities to enhance conservation efforts.
• Promote sustainable farming, reduce food waste, and encourage plant-based diets to reduce the impact of food production on biodiversity.
• Shift to renewable energy sources, reduce fossil fuel use, and ensure minimal harm to ecosystems, helping to limit climate change effects.
• Redirect investments from environmentally harmful sectors to nature-friendly, sustainable activities, securing long-term environmental benefits.
• WWF-India stresses collective action across sectors to align climate, conservation, and sustainable development policies, aiming for a resilient, thriving future.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The under-representation of women in judiciary, that is expected to embody fairness and equality, highlights a significant gap in achieving true gender parity. Despite various efforts, women continue to face substantial barriers in entering and advancing within the judiciary.

Women in the Judiciary in India

• Women judges bring diverse perspectives and experiences, which can enhance public trust in the judiciary and improve the quality of judicial decisions. Their presence is also linked to efforts to combat corruption and uphold human rights.
• As of recent available data, women constituted only about 13.4% of judges in the High Courts and a mere 9.3% in the Supreme Court of India.
• It is even more pronounced in certain states, where some High Courts have either no women judges or just one.
• While the district judiciary shows a more encouraging figure of 36.3% women judges, the higher echelons of the judiciary remain predominantly male.
• Further, the representation of women is uneven across High Courts, with States which include Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Manipur, Meghalaya, Odisha, Tripura and Uttarakhand having either no women judges or just one woman judge.

Global Perspective & Trends

• Overall Representation: On average, women make up just over 25% of the world’s judicial officers.
• However, this figure varies widely by region and country. In some areas, women constitute less than 10% of the judiciary.
• Progress in OECD Countries: In many OECD countries, women now make up more than 54% of professional judges.
• It is partly due to the growing number of women entering the legal profession and judiciary over recent decades.

Challenges

• Barriers To Entry Level: Measures such as recruitment quotas, have been implemented in some states, resulting in over 50% of successful candidates in the civil judge (junior) division being women.
• However, these measures alone are insufficient. The Judicial Service Rules in many states require a minimum period of continuous practice for elevation to the Bench, a criterion that disproportionately affects women who often juggle family responsibilities without adequate support.
• Retention: Women who manage to enter the judiciary often encounter a discouraging environment that fails to accommodate their specific needs.
• The lack of maternity benefits, minimum stipends, and supportive infrastructure such as childcare facilities further complicates their career progression.
• Vicious Cycle: With fewer women in senior positions, there are limited role models and mentors for aspiring female judges.
• It perpetuates a male-dominated culture, making it harder for women to break through the glass ceiling.

Other Challenges

• The lack of supportive infrastructure, gender stereotypes, and social attitudes further hinder their progress.
• Additionally, the requirement for continuous practice for elevation to the Bench poses a significant challenge for women who juggle family responsibilities.

Suggested Reforms

• Government and Judicial Initiatives: The government and judiciary have recognised the need for greater gender diversity.
• The Chief Justice of India has voiced support for 50% representation of women in the judiciary, emphasising that it is a matter of right, not charity.
• Efforts are being made to ensure social diversity in judicial appointments, with recommendations to consider women candidates for higher judiciary positions.
• Retired Supreme Court judge Justice Hima Kohli has advocated for several measures to support women in the legal profession that are essential to dismantle systemic barriers and promote an environment that fosters equality, ensuring that women not only enter the legal profession but also thrive within it. These include Flexible Working Hours; Parental Leave; Mentorship and Skill Development; Addressing Gender Bias; and Infrastructure Improvements etc are vital.

Way Forward

• Addressing the under-representation of women in the judiciary requires a multifaceted approach. Policy reforms that ensure equitable working conditions, such as maternity benefits and flexible working hours, are crucial.
• Additionally, creating a supportive environment that encourages the retention and promotion of women is essential that includes mentorship programs, gender sensitivity training, and infrastructural support.
• The judiciary must reflect the diversity of the society it serves. Ensuring greater representation of women in the judiciary is not just a matter of fairness but also essential for delivering justice that is truly inclusive and representative of all segments of society.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Anti Defection Law in India, a crucial instrument designed to maintain the stability of governments and uphold the integrity of democratic institutions, has several gaps which need to be addressed to make it more effective and impartial.

Anti-Defection Law in India: An Overview

• The Anti-Defection Law in India, encapsulated in the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution, was introduced through the 52nd Amendment Act in 1985.
• It was enacted to address the rampant issue of political defections, which were destabilising elected governments and undermining the democratic process.

Historical Context

• The need for an anti-defection law arose from the frequent party-switching by legislators, a practice that led to political instability.
• This phenomenon, often referred to as ‘Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram’ became particularly notorious in the 1960s when a legislator in Haryana switched parties multiple times in a single day.

Key Provisions

• The Anti-Defection Law lays down the grounds for disqualification of Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) on the basis of defection. A member can be disqualified if they:
• Voluntarily give up the membership of their political party.
• Disobey the directives of the party leadership on a vote, such as a confidence motion or budgetary matters.
• However, the law allows for a ‘merger’ if at least two-thirds of the members of a legislative party decide to join another party, thus avoiding disqualification.

Major Concerns and Issues

• Loopholes and Misuse: Despite amendments, the law has several loopholes. For instance, the provision allowing a split if one-third of the members defect was misused until it was amended.
• Even now, the requirement for a two-thirds majority for a merger can be manipulated.
• Role of the Speaker: The Speaker of the House, who decides on disqualification petitions, is often seen as biassed, especially if they belong to the ruling party.
• It has led to delays and questionable decisions, undermining the law’s effectiveness.
• Judicial Delays: Cases of defection often end up in courts, leading to prolonged legal battles.
• The lack of a fixed timeframe for the Speaker to decide on defection cases further exacerbates the issue.
• Freedom of Expression: The law’s stringent provisions sometimes restrict legislators’ freedom of expression and their ability to represent their constituents’ views effectively.
• Ethical Concerns: The law has not entirely succeeded in curbing unethical practices. Legislators continue to switch allegiances for personal gain, and political parties often engage in ‘poaching’ members from rival parties.
• Impact on Democracy: The anti-defection law, while aiming to provide stability, has sometimes stifled legitimate dissent within parties. Legislators are forced to toe the party line, even if it goes against their conscience or the interests of their constituents.

Amendments and Reforms

• The law has undergone significant amendments to close loopholes. The 91st Amendment Act of 2003 was a major reform, which made it more challenging for small-scale defections by requiring a larger consensus for a merger.
• Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachillhu (1992): Supreme Court of India upheld the sweeping discretion available to the Speaker in deciding cases of disqualification of MLAs.

Proposed Reforms

• Independent Adjudicatory Mechanism: Establishing an independent tribunal to decide on disqualification petitions can help reduce biases and expedite the process.
• Clearer Definitions: Providing clearer definitions of what constitutes defection and voluntary resignation can help in better implementation of the law.
• Clear Timeframes: Implementing strict timeframes for the Speaker or the adjudicatory body to decide on defection cases can prevent undue delays.
• Periodic Review: Regularly reviewing and updating the law to address emerging challenges and loopholes can ensure its continued effectiveness.
• Recent political events have highlighted the need for a comprehensive review to tighten the law and address its shortcomings.
• Transparency and Accountability: Increasing transparency in the decision-making process and holding decision-makers accountable can enhance trust in the system.
• Ensuring that legislators remain accountable to their constituents while adhering to party discipline is crucial. It can be achieved by balancing party directives with individual freedom of expression.
• Publicly accessible records of defection cases and decisions can help achieve this.
• Encouraging Internal Democracy: Promoting internal democracy within political parties can reduce the need for defections.
• Allowing more freedom for legislators to express dissent within the party can help address grievances without resorting to defection.
• Ethical Guidelines and Enforcement: Strengthening ethical guidelines for legislators and ensuring strict enforcement can help curb unethical practices.
• It could include penalties for parties and legislators involved in “poaching” members.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• The Anti-Defection Law remains a crucial instrument in maintaining the stability of governments and the integrity of democratic institutions in India.
• However, continuous reforms and vigilant implementation are necessary to ensure it effectively curbs the menace of political defections.
• By closing loopholes, ensuring impartial adjudication, and promoting ethical conduct, the law can better serve its purpose of upholding the democratic principles of accountability, representation, and integrity of democratic institutions.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: October 31 is observed every year as World Cities Day.

• The world’s urban population has reached an estimated 4.7 billion, or 57.5% of the world’s total population, with projections to double by 2050.
• The theme for this year’s World Cities Day is ‘Youth Climate Changemakers: Catalysing Local Action for Urban Sustainability’.

Urbanisation in India

• In Western countries, urbanisation followed industrialisation, which created jobs that absorbed rural labour.
• Their urbanisation was sustained also because of massive economic transfers from colonies.
• In contrast, India’s urbanisation is largely driven by economic distress, resulting in poverty-driven urbanisation, with both rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration.
• During the COVID-19 pandemic, the strain on urban planning became apparent, as reverse migration trends highlighted gaps in infrastructure.
• According to the 2011 Census, India’s urban population increased from 27.7% in 2001 to 31.1% in 2011, at a rate of 2.76% per year.
• World Bank estimates suggest around 40% of India’s population live in urban areas, in around 9,000 statutory and census towns.
• How well India manages this urban transformation will play a critical role in realizing its ambition of becoming a developed country by 2047, the 100th year of independence.

Urban challenges in India:

• Outdated Plans: Spatial and temporal plans are often outdated and fail to accommodate population growth.
• Overcrowded Unplanned Areas: Since the 1980s, deindustrialisation has led to job losses in cities like Ahmedabad, Delhi, Surat, and Mumbai.
• Many workers displaced by this trend moved to peri-urban areas, where they live in overcrowded conditions.
• Currently, 40% of India’s urban population resides in slums.
• Climate Change: Climate change severely impacts Indian cities.
• Cities face severe pollution and are increasingly subject to urban flooding and heat island effects.
• Inequality in Development: Inequality is widening, with exclusive developments catering to the wealthy while millions lack basic housing.
• Waste Management: Rapid urbanization has led to increased waste generation, and many cities struggle with effective waste collection and disposal, resulting in environmental degradation.
• Transportation and Traffic Congestion: Inadequate public transport systems, coupled with a rise in private vehicle ownership, contribute to severe traffic congestion and pollution.

Steps Taken by Government of India to Tackle Urbanisation Challenges

• As per the 12th Schedule of the Constitution of India, urban planning is a State subject.
• Government of India provides financial and technical support to the States.
• State Town Planning Departments and Urban Development Authorities act as city and state level urban anchors.
• Smart Cities Mission: Launched in 2015, this initiative aims to promote sustainable and inclusive cities by using smart technology for better infrastructure, transportation, and services.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): This mission focuses on ensuring basic services like water supply, sewerage, and urban transport to improve the quality of life in cities, particularly for the urban poor.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): This housing scheme aims to provide affordable housing to the urban poor.
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban): Launched in 2014, this initiative focuses on promoting cleanliness and sanitation in urban areas.
• NITI Ayog: The Managing Urbanisation (MU) Division provides data-based policy inputs for making India’s urbanisation manageable, economically productive, environmentally appropriate, and equitable.
• It offers advice and policy guidance to key stakeholders involved in urban planning, development, and management.
• PM SVANidhi scheme is a special micro-credit facility launched by ministry for providing affordable loans to street vendors.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India launched the updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) 2024-2030, at the COP 16 to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Major Highlights of NBSAP

• India has updated the NBSAP to align with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF) establishing the National Biodiversity Targets (NBTs).
• It outlines 23 National Biodiversity Targets focused on reducing threats to biodiversity, ensuring sustainable use of resources, and enhancing tools for implementation.
• Each target is linked to specific strategies aimed at promoting ecosystem resilience, species recovery, and sustainable management practices.
• Implementation: The MoEFCC serves as the central agency responsible for coordinating biodiversity conservation efforts across India.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• The CBD is a part of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), came into being in 1993.
• It has three major objectives—conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits.

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF)

• GBF was adopted by the COP15 to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2022.
• It has been promoted as a “Paris Agreement for Nature”.
• The GBF contains 4 global goals and 23 targets.
• Among the twenty-three targets to be achieved by 2030 include halving the introduction of invasive species, and $500 billion/year reduction in harmful subsidies.
• “Target 3” is especially referred to as the “30X30” target.
• ’30X30′ target
• Under it, delegates committed to protecting 30% of land and 30% of coastal and marine areas by 2030, fulfilling the deal’s highest-profile goal, known as 30-by-30.
• The deal also aspires to restore 30% of degraded lands and waters throughout the decade, up from an earlier aim of 20%.
• Also, the world will strive to prevent destroying intact landscapes and areas with a lot of species, bringing those losses “close to zero by 2030”.

Major Outcomes of Cop 16

• Cali Fund: It is a multilateral mechanism, including a global fund, to share the benefits from uses of digital sequence information (DSI) on genetic resources more fairly and equitably.
• It will be non-binding (voluntary) where firms are expected to contribute 1% of their profit or 0.1% of their revenue.
• Indigenous People and Local Communities: A new Programme that sets out specific tasks to ensure the meaningful contribution of indigenous peoples and local communities towards the three objectives of the Convention was adopted.
• Synthetic biology: An expert group will guide identification of synthetic biology’s potential benefits and review the potential impacts of recent technological developments.
• Invasive Alien Species: It proposes guidelines for managing invasive alien species, touching on issues such as e-commerce, multicriteria analysis methodologies and others.
• Biodiversity and Health: A Global Action Plan on Biodiversity and Health designed to help curb the emergence of zoonotic diseases, and prevent non-communicable diseases, it embraces a holistic “One Health” approach.
• Risk Assessment: Parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety welcomed new, voluntary guidance on assessing the risks posed by living modified organisms (LMOs) containing engineered gene drives.

They are voluntary in nature, individual countries can tailor them to national contexts, considering ecological variables unique to their environments.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: According to a projection made by the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), Indians are likely to lose over ₹1.2 lakh crore (nearly 0.7% of the country’s GDP) over the next year due to cyber frauds.

Surges of Cyber Fraud in Banking Transactions

• In the fiscal year 2024, India witnessed a dramatic surge in cyber fraud related to banking transactions, with incidents tripling compared to the previous year.
• According to the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) annual report, the number of frauds in the card and internet category skyrocketed to 29,082, accounting for 80% of all banking frauds.
  • It represents a staggering 334% increase from the 6,699 incidents reported in fiscal year 2023.

Key Factors Behind the Surge

• Increased Digitisation: The rapid adoption of digital payment methods, including credit cards and online banking, has created more opportunities for cybercriminals.
  • As more people rely on these digital channels, the vulnerabilities within these systems have become more apparent.
• Sophisticated Cyber Attacks: Cybercriminals have become more adept at exploiting weaknesses in digital payment systems.
  • Techniques such as phishing, identity theft, and the use of malicious software have become more prevalent, allowing fraudsters to gain access to sensitive personal information.
• Behavioural Vulnerabilities: Many frauds occur due to human error, such as sharing passwords or falling for phishing scams.
  • Senior citizens, in particular, are often targeted due to their lack of familiarity with digital security practices.

Financial Impact

• The financial impact of these frauds has been significant. In fiscal year 2024, the total value of card and internet frauds reached ₹1,457 crore, the highest amount recorded in the past six years.
• It highlights the need for enhanced security measures and greater awareness among consumers.

Regulating Cyber Fraud in India

• With the rapid digitisation of services and the increasing reliance on the internet, cyber fraud has emerged as a significant threat in India.
• It involves a comprehensive legal framework designed to prevent, detect, and penalise cybercrimes.

Key Legislative Measures

• Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act): It provides legal recognition for electronic transactions and aims to facilitate e-commerce and addresses various cybercrimes, including hacking, identity theft, and cyber terrorism. Key sections relevant to cyber fraud include:
  • Section 66C: Punishment for identity theft.
  • Section 66D: Punishment for cheating by personation using computer resources.
  • Section 43: Penalty for damage to computer systems.
• Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860: It includes provisions that address cyber fraud like:
  • Section 420: Cheating and dishonestly inducing delivery of property.
  • Section 468: Forgery for the purpose of cheating.
  • Section 471: Using as genuine a forged document.
• Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021: These rules mandate intermediaries, such as social media platforms, to exercise due diligence and ensure the safety and security of users.
  • They require intermediaries to report cyber incidents to the Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In).

Regulatory Bodies and Initiatives

• Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): Established under the Ministry of Home Affairs, I4C aims to combat cybercrime in a coordinated manner.
  • It provides a platform for law enforcement agencies to collaborate and share information on cybercrime.
• Cyber Swachhta Kendra: This initiative by CERT-In focuses on creating awareness about cybersecurity and providing tools to detect and remove malicious software from devices.
• National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: It outlines strategies to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyber threats. It emphasises the need for a secure and resilient cyberspace.
• National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal: It allows citizens to report various types of cybercrimes, including financial fraud and crimes against women and children.

Challenges in Combating Cyber Fraud in India

• Rapid Technological Advancements: The fast pace of technological change makes it difficult for laws to keep up with new types of cybercrimes.
• Resource Constraints: Many organisations, especially small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), lack the resources to implement robust cybersecurity measures. It makes them easy targets for cyber criminals.
• Coordination Among Agencies: Effective cybersecurity requires coordination among various government agencies and departments, private sector entities, and international partners. However, it is often lacking, leading to fragmented efforts and inefficiencies.
• Jurisdictional Issues: Cybercrimes often transcend national borders, complicating the enforcement of laws.
• Lack of Awareness: Many individuals and businesses are unaware of the risks associated with cyber fraud and the measures to prevent it.

Measures to Combat Cyber Fraud

• Enhanced Security Protocols: Banks and financial institutions need to implement stronger security protocols to protect against cyber attacks.
  • It includes multi-factor authentication and advanced encryption techniques.
• Regulatory Oversight: The RBI and other regulatory bodies must continue to monitor and enforce compliance with cybersecurity standards.
  • Regular audits and assessments can help identify and mitigate potential risks.
• Consumer Education: Educating consumers about the risks of cyber fraud and how to protect themselves is crucial.
  • Awareness campaigns can help individuals recognize and avoid common scams.

Conclusion

• The surge in cyber fraud in fiscal year 2024 underscores the urgent need for robust cybersecurity measures in the banking sector.
• As digital transactions continue to grow, both financial institutions and consumers must remain vigilant to protect against these evolving threats.