General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Minister of Science and Technology has said that India’s Space technology is playing a major role in revolutionising governance at the “Good Governance” Conclave.

What is Space Technology?

• Space technologies designate technologies used to enable activities conducted in outer space:
  • such as Earth observation, satellite communication, satellite navigation or even robotic and human space exploration beyond Earth’s orbits.
• Governments use space technology, geospatial data, and field information for planning, monitoring, and evaluating developmental activities.

Use of Space Technology in Governance

• Disaster Management and Response: National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) provides satellite data that helps in identifying flood-affected areas, mapping damage, and planning rehabilitation.
  • The Indian National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) uses it for disaster relief operations.
• Agriculture and Rural Development: FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural output using Space, Agrometeorology, and Land-based observations) uses satellite data to predict crop yields, helping farmers make informed decisions.
  • Soil Health Management and irrigation management are optimized using remote sensing technologies.
• Efficient Land Management: Initiatives like “Swamitva Yojana” use satellite mapping for land record management.
  • This initiative simplifies land verification and promotes transparency in land ownership.
• Environmental Monitoring: Bhuvan an Indian web-based application developed by ISRO provides satellite data for various environmental and land-use applications.
  • Satellites like the Oceansat series provide data on sea surface temperatures, sea level rise, and coastal erosion.
• Security and Defense: Satellites help in remote sensing for border surveillance.
• Administrative Efficiency: Satellite data helps in the implementation of the Digital India initiative by enabling access to e-governance services.

Challenges

• High Costs: The development, maintenance, and launch of satellites are expensive.
• Technical and Infrastructure Gaps: Lack of adequate ground infrastructure, technical expertise, and trained personnel in remote areas.
• Data Interpretation and Accuracy: Space-based data requires accurate interpretation and analysis, and errors in data processing can lead to wrong decisions in governance.
• Privacy Concerns: Increased surveillance and monitoring through space technology raise privacy and security concerns among citizens.
• Environmental Impact: Increased space missions and satellite launches can contribute to space debris and environmental pollution.

Way Ahead

• Develop and upgrade ground infrastructure, data centers, and communication systems to support space-based services effectively.
• Encourage collaboration between the government and private sector to reduce costs, foster innovation, and improve the application of space technology.
• Increase the number and diversity of satellites for better coverage, particularly in remote and underserved regions of the country.
• Encourage research in space technology and its applications to address emerging governance challenges, including climate change and urban planning.
• Adopt sustainable practices for satellite launches and space missions to minimize environmental impacts and manage space debris effectively.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recent data reveals that bad loans under the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme have surged by 42% over the past four years, highlighting the financial stress in the agricultural sector.

Understanding Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme (1998)

• About: It is designed to provide short-term credit to farmers for agricultural and allied activities, based on the recommendations of the R.V. Gupta Committee.
• Features:
• Issued by commercial banks, cooperative banks, and regional rural banks.
• Covers crop production needs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.).
• Includes working capital for allied activities like dairy, poultry, and fisheries.
• Can be used for farm machinery, irrigation, and post-harvest expenses.
• A KCC loan is classified as NPA if unpaid within three years of disbursal.
• Working of KCC Scheme:

Current Trends in Agricultural NPAs

• According to data from the RBI, the outstanding NPAs in KCC accounts of scheduled commercial banks (excluding regional rural banks) increased from ₹68,547 crore at the end of March 2021 to ₹97,543 crore by December 2024.
• It underscores the growing challenges faced by farmers in repaying their loans.

Major Causes of Rising NPAs in Agriculture

• Unpredictable Weather and Climate Change: Erratic rainfall, frequent droughts, floods, and changing weather patterns directly impact crop yields, making it difficult for farmers to repay loans.
  • With limited insurance coverage, crop failures lead to defaults on agricultural credit.
• Low Farm Income and Market Volatility: Despite government support, farmers often struggle with low productivity and unremunerative prices.
  • Market price fluctuations, lack of assured MSP for all crops, and inadequate procurement mechanisms contribute to financial distress.
• Loan Waiver Schemes and Moral Hazard: State and central governments frequently announce loan waivers as a relief measure, encouraging willful defaults.
  • Farmers often anticipate future waivers, leading to poor repayment discipline.
• Inadequate Risk Management by Banks: Banks are sanctioning loans without sound risk assessment.
• Structural Weakness in Agricultural Finance: Small and marginal farmers, who form 86% of India’s farming community, have limited access to institutional credit.
  • Dependence on informal moneylenders results in debt traps and an inability to repay formal loans.
• Delay in Crop Insurance Settlements: Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) has faced delays in claim settlements, leaving farmers unable to repay loans.

Implications of Rising Agricultural NPAs

• Stress on Banking System: High NPAs reduce the ability of banks to extend fresh loans, impacting overall agricultural credit growth.
  • RRBs and Cooperative Banks, which primarily cater to farmers, suffer from financial instability.
• Increased Fiscal Burden: The government often compensates banks for loan waivers, straining fiscal resources and diverting funds from productive rural investments.
• Economic and Social Distress: Indebtedness is a key reason behind farmer suicides, particularly in states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Punjab.
  • Rising NPAs lead to rural distress, impacting employment and food security.
• Credit Crunch for Genuine Farmers: Due to higher default rates, banks tighten credit norms, making it difficult for genuine, creditworthy farmers to access loans.

Measures to Address Rising Agricultural NPAs

• Strengthening Crop Insurance and Risk Mitigation: Faster claim settlements under PMFBY and expansion of insurance coverage can reduce financial distress.
  • Promoting climate-resilient farming and crop diversification can mitigate weather-related risks.
• Improving Credit Discipline: Restricting loan waivers to genuinely distressed farmers and ensuring targeted relief can prevent willful defaults.
  • Encouraging timely repayment incentives, such as interest rate discounts, can improve repayment behavior.
• Enhancing Institutional Credit Access: Expanding Kisan Credit Card (KCC) coverage to all small and marginal farmers.
  • Strengthening Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) to ensure collective bargaining for better credit access.
  • Online application through banks’ websites & Common Service Centers (CSCs).
  • Integration with PM-KISAN and Aadhar for easier verification.
• Strengthening Bank Supervision and Credit Monitoring: Implementing technology-driven loan tracking to identify early signs of distress.
  • Increasing financial literacy programs to educate farmers on loan management and risk mitigation.
• Encouraging Diversification and Value-Addition: Promoting agribusiness, food processing, and non-farm activitie
  • Strengthening supply chains and storage infrastructure to minimize post-harvest losses.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The US has withdrawn from the board of the Loss and Damage Fund.

Loss and Damage Fund (LDF)

• It was established at the 2022 UNFCCC Conference (COP27) in Egypt to provide financial support to regions suffering both economic and non-economic losses caused by climate change.
• These include extreme weather events and slow-onset processes, such as rising sea levels.
• The LDF is overseen by a Governing Board that determines how the Fund’s resources are disbursed, with the World Bank serving as the interim trustee.

Objectives

• The purpose of the Fund is to assist developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change in responding to economic and non-economic loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change, including extreme weather events and slow onset events.

Concerns

• Climate funds are often too slow to be accessible immediately after a disaster, particularly for local communities at the sub-national level.
  • It is anticipated that the LDF may face similar challenges.
• Without drastic emissions reductions, more countries will suffer from climate change’s devastating effects, making additional resources for mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage critical to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.
• The US withdrawal undermines global climate justice and must be held accountable for its role in climate damage and reparations.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• The effectiveness of the Loss and Damage Fund depends on addressing gaps left by existing climate finance institutions like the Green Climate Fund.
• However, for the fund to truly be effective, the root cause of climate change—emissions—must be tackled.
• India needs a clear legal and policy framework to streamline climate finance for adaptation and loss and damage, in line with locally led adaptation principles crucial for vulnerable communities.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, the Vice-President of India called for a national debate on the shift from ‘Democracy to Emocracy’, emphasizing that emotion-driven policies and debates threaten the foundational principles of democracy.

Understanding Emocracy: From Rational Debate to Emotional Influence

• Traditionally, democracy is built upon logical reasoning, debate, and informed citizenry.
• In an ideal democratic setup, policies are formulated and debated based on evidence, expert insights, and rational decision-making.
• However, in an emocracy (fusion of ‘emotion’ and ‘democracy’), decision-making is increasingly dictated by public emotions, viral narratives, and psychological persuasion tactics.
• It is visible worldwide—from the rise of leaders like Donald Trump in the U.S. to Brexit in the U.K. and the nationalist surge in several European nations.

Drivers of the Shift from Democracy to Emocracy

• Digital Revolution and Social Media Influence: Social Media Platforms amplify sensationalism over substance, allowing emotionally charged narratives to go viral.
  • In contrast to traditional media, where journalistic ethics ensured some degree of fact-checking, social media allows unchecked misinformation to spread rapidly.
• Role of Political Messaging and Propaganda: Political parties across the spectrum have adopted emotionally charged rhetoric to mobilize voters.
  • Whether it’s invoking nationalism, religious sentiments, or historical grievances, political campaigns are now designed to elicit strong emotional responses rather than engage in logical debates.
• Identity Politics and Group-Based Mobilization: Political leaders have realized that appealing to group identities—religion, caste, region, and ethnicity—can secure mass support.
  • It led to a governance model where policies are often framed to appease emotional constituencies rather than being based on broader economic and developmental priorities.
• Affirmative Action vs. Appeasement: Provisions for marginalized communities, as outlined in Articles 14, 15, and 16 of the Constitution, are justifiable and necessary for social equity.

Threats to Good Governance from Emotionally Driven Policies

• Populism and Fiscal Prudence: Populist leaders appeal to mass emotions rather than policy-based governance.
  • For example: Farm Loan Waivers: Several Indian states, including Punjab and Maharashtra, have announced large-scale farm loan waivers in response to farmers’ protests. Data from RBI (2023) shows that less than 30% of small farmers actually benefit from such waivers, while they create long-term financial burdens on state budgets.
• Legal and Constitutional Conflicts: Emotionally driven policies often bypass due process, leading to poorly drafted laws with constitutional or legal loopholes.
  • Example: Demonetization (2016): Announced as a move to curb black money, demonetization created short-term economic distress without effectively reducing illicit wealth.
    • NSSO Data (2018):5 million jobs were lost in the informal sector due to cash shortages. The Supreme Court of India (2023) upheld demonetization’s legality but acknowledged its flawed implementation.
  • Economic Disruptions and Resource Misallocation: Policies based on emotions often ignore economic feasibility, leading to wasteful expenditure.
    • Disrupts market confidence and investment climate.
    • Example: Free Electricity and Water Schemes: Many governments announce free utilities as an emotional appeal to voters.
      • CAG Report (2021): Free electricity schemes in Delhi and Punjab have led to rising power sector debts, affecting infrastructure investments.
    • Social Polarization and Policy Paralysis: Policies framed under emotional pressure often lead to divisive politics. Lack of consensus among stakeholders results in implementation failures.
      • Example: Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) (2019): Passed amidst heated political debates, the CAA led to nationwide protests due to concerns over religious discrimination which further delayed the NRC process.
    • Reactionary vs. Long-Term Policy Making: Crisis-driven policies often lack long-term vision. Immediate measures overshadow structural reforms.
      • Example: COVID-19 Lockdown (2020): The nationwide lockdown was implemented abruptly, leaving millions of migrant workers stranded.
        • CMIE Data (2021): 75 million people lost jobs due to lack of planning for economic disruptions.
        • Countries like Germany and South Korea adopted phased lockdowns with social security support, minimizing economic shocks.

Why Emotionally Driven Policies Are Still Important?

• Social Justice and Correcting Historical Wrongs: Some policies need to be emotionally driven to address past injustices and ensure equity.
  • Policies aimed at marginalized groups are often motivated by ethical and emotional considerations.
  • Example: Reservation for SCs, STs, and OBCs.
  • Despite criticism, affirmative action policies have played a key role in social mobility.
  • NITI Aayog Report (2023): The literacy rate among SCs and STs has improved significantly due to reservation policies in education.
• Quick Decision-Making During Crises: Emotional responses are often necessary in times of disaster or war to ensure rapid government intervention.
  • Bureaucratic delays can worsen humanitarian crises if policies are overly rationalized without urgency.
• For example: 80 million people benefited from Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY) in the pandemic period.
• Strengthening National Unity & Identity: Some emotionally driven policies are designed to foster national unity and reinforce common identity.
  • Policies promoting patriotism, culture, and heritage may not always be economically or legally necessary but serve long-term social cohesion.
  • Example: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: While critics argued it focused more on symbolism than structural sanitation reforms, it significantly improved rural sanitation awareness.
  • UNICEF Study (2021): Open defecation reduced by 60% in rural India due to behavioral changes.

Way Forward

• Strengthening Data-Driven Governance: Policies should be framed by economic, scientific, and social research rather than sentiment.
  • Example: Kerala’s Nava Keralam Mission focuses on health and education reforms based on real-time data analysis.
• Regulating Social Media Narratives: While free speech must be protected, platforms must adopt stricter regulations to prevent misinformation and hate speech.
• Reviving Rational Public Debates: Institutions like universities, think tanks, and civil society groups should take the lead in restoring logic-based discussions in public forums.
• Institutional Reforms: Fiscal policies should undergo rigorous scrutiny by parliamentary committees to assess long-term impact.
  • Example: The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act helps prevent reckless public spending.
  • 2nd ARC Recommendation: Institutionalize Impact Assessment Committees before rolling out major policies to avoid reactionary decision-making.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: A 500-kg metal object, believed to be space debris, crashed in Kenya, highlighting concerns about accountability and regulatory gaps in space governance.

About Space Debris

• It includes non-functional satellites, abandoned rocket stages, and smaller fragments from previous space missions.
• The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN-COPUOS) defines space debris as all man-made objects, including fragments and elements thereof, in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere, that are non-functional.
• According to NASA, millions of pieces of debris orbit the Earth, ranging from tiny paint flecks to large satellite remnants.

Factors Causing Space Debris

Examples

• 2022: Chinese Long March 5B rocket fell into the Indian Ocean, sparking concerns about uncontrolled re-entry.
• 2023: Parts of a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket were discovered on a sheep farm in Australia.
• February 2024: Debris from a Russian satellite disintegrated over the United States, alarming residents.

Threats from Space Debris

International Laws on Space Debris Responsibility

• United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA):
  • Outer Space Treaty (1967): It does not specifically address space debris, it emphasizes that nations are responsible for activities conducted in outer space, including by private entities under their jurisdiction.
• Article VI of the treaty emphasizes that states bear responsibility for their space objects.
  • Liability Convention (1972): It introduces the concept of ‘absolute liability’ for damage caused by space objects on Earth.
• Under this framework, launching states are automatically responsible for any harm caused by their debris, without the need to prove negligence.

India’s Initiatives in Space Debris Management

• ISRO adheres to internationally accepted space debris mitigation guidelines recommended by the UN-COPUOS and the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC).
• ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM): To focus on spaceflight safety and debris mitigation.
• Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA): For Space Situational Awareness (SSA) capacity building.
• Debris-Free Space Missions (DFSM) Initiative (2024) by ISRO: It aims to achieve debris-free space missions by all Indian space actors, both governmental and non-governmental, by 2030. The initiative focuses on:
  • Avoiding Debris Generation;
  • Collision Avoidance;
  • Post-Mission Disposal;

Challenges in Holding Countries Accountable

• Difficulty in Tracing Ownership: Identifying the exact origin of debris is challenging, especially for small fragments.
• Bureaucratic and Political Hurdles: Diplomatic processes for compensation can be slow and politically sensitive.
• No Penalties for Uncontrolled Re-entry: While the Liability Convention requires countries to pay for damages, it does not penalize them for allowing uncontrolled re-entries to happen.

Mitigation and Future Solutions

• International Cooperation: Strengthening international cooperation like the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and developing standardized procedures for debris removal can enhance accountability and enforcement.
• Mandatory End-of-Life Plans: Space missions should include clear deorbiting strategies to minimize debris risks.
• Technological Innovations: Investing in technologies for active debris removal, such as the ADRAS-J mission by Astroscale, can help mitigate the risks posed by space junk.
• Liability Insurance: Countries and private companies could be required to have insurance policies covering potential damage from space debris.
• National Regulations: Implementing and enforcing national regulations that align with international treaties can ensure that countries take responsibility for their space activities.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Iran declined to resume negotiations on its nuclear programme with the United States.

About

• Trump’s administration has levied sanctions against Iran – including on the country’s oil network – as part of his “maximum pressure” strategy.
• Trump wrote to Iran, urging negotiations on the nuclear deal or risk military action.
• Iran’s Foreign Minister stated they would only negotiate with other JCPOA members (Europe, Russia, China), not the U.S.

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) 2015

• Participants:
  • Iran
  • P5+1: Five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, UK, U.S.) plus Germany.
  • EU: Participated in negotiations.

Iran’s Commitments:

• Nuclear Restrictions: Iran agreed not to produce highly enriched uranium or plutonium for nuclear weapons and to ensure its nuclear facilities (Fordow, Natanz, Arak) focus on civilian purposes.
• Centrifuge Limits: Iran limited the number, type, and level of its centrifuges, and reduced its stockpile of enriched uranium.
  • Uranium enriched to 5% is for nuclear power; 20% for research or medical use; 90% for weapons.
• Monitoring and Verification: Iran agreed to allow the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) unfettered access to nuclear facilities, including undeclared sites.
  • A Joint Commission monitors the deal’s implementation and resolves disputes, including granting IAEA access to suspicious sites.

What Other Signatories Agreed To:

• Sanctions Relief: The EU, UN, and U.S. agreed to lift nuclear-related sanctions on Iran, but U.S. sanctions on ballistic missiles, terrorism support, and human rights remained.
  • The U.S. lifted sanctions on oil exports but kept restrictions on financial transactions.
  • UN arms and missile bans on Iran were lifted after five years, provided the IAEA confirmed Iran’s nuclear activities remained civilian.
• Violation of the Deal: If any signatory suspects Iran is violating the deal, the UN Security Council can vote on whether to continue sanctions relief.
  • This “snapback” mechanism remains in effect for ten years, after which the UN sanctions are set to be permanently removed.
• Trump’s Withdrawal: In 2018, President Trump withdrew the U.S. from the deal, leading Iran to resume nuclear activities.
• Iran’s Nuclear Activity: In 2023, Iran enriched uranium to near weapons-grade levels, raising international concerns.
  • Key provisions of the JCPOA began to expire by late 2023.

Goals of the JCPOA:

• Delay Iran’s Nuclear Weapon Development: The goal was to delay Iran’s ability to make a nuclear weapon by at least one year, compared to a few months without the agreement.
• Prevent Regional Crisis: Fears that Iran’s nuclear program could lead to preemptive military action by Israel or a nuclear arms race within the region.

Challenges in Negotiation

• Mistrust between the U.S. and Iran: Past betrayals hinder diplomatic progress.
• Diverging Interests: U.S. wants a broader deal; Iran seeks JCPOA restoration.
• Domestic Political Constraints: Hardliners in both nations resist compromise.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The government is actively shaping an AI ecosystem where computing power, GPUs, and research opportunities are accessible at an affordable cost.

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

• It is a wide-ranging branch of computer science concerned with building smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence.
• Artificial intelligence allows machines to model, or even improve upon, the capabilities of the human mind.

India’s AI Sector

• India as AI Hub: India ranks second in public generative AI projects on GitHub and houses 16% of the world’s AI talent.
• AI Industry Growth: India’s AI industry is projected to reach USD 28.8 billion by 2025, growing at a CAGR of 45%.
• India Ranks 1st in Global AI Skill Penetration: According to the Stanford AI Index 2024, India ranks first globally in AI skill penetration with a score of 2.8, ahead of the US (2.2) and Germany (1.9).
• AI Talent Demand: India is among the top five fastest-growing AI talent hubs, alongside Singapore, Finland, Ireland, and Canada, with a projected demand for one million AI professionals by 2026.
• Generative AI Ecosystem: Indian GenAI startup funding reached USD 51 million in Q2 FY2025, marking a six-fold increase.
• AI Adoption Across Industries: 80% of Indian companies prioritize AI, with plans to increase tech investments, including over USD 25 million towards AI initiatives in 2025.
• Workplace AI Adoption: 70% of Indian employees use AI at work in 2024, up from 50% the previous year.
• AI Startup Ecosystem: India hosts over 520 tech incubators, making it the third-largest startup ecosystem globally.

Challenges

• Talent Shortage: Despite a growing demand, there is a gap in the availability of skilled AI professionals.
• Data Privacy and Security: Concerns over data protection and regulatory challenges related to AI data usage.
• Infrastructure Gaps: Inadequate infrastructure in certain regions limits the scalability and deployment of AI solutions.
• High Costs: The cost of AI technology adoption can be prohibitive for small and medium-sized businesses.
• Ethical Concerns: Lack of clear frameworks for addressing the ethical implications of AI, including biases in algorithms.
• Limited Research and Development Funding: Insufficient investment in AI R&D compared to global leaders like the US and China.
• Regulatory Uncertainty: Absence of comprehensive AI-specific policies and guidelines creates ambiguity for businesses and developers.
• Access to Quality Data: Limited access to high-quality, diverse datasets needed for training AI models in various sectors.

Government Initiatives

• IndiaAI Mission (2024): It has a budget of ₹10,300 crore over five years.
  • A key goal is the creation of a high-end common computing facility with 18,693 GPUs.
• India’s AI Models & Language Technologies: The government is facilitating the development of India’s own foundational models, including Large Language Models (LLMs) and problem-specific AI solutions tailored to Indian needs.
• BharatGen: The world’s first government-funded multimodal LLM initiative, BharatGen was launched in 2024.
• Sarvam-1 AI Model: A large language model optimised for Indian languages, Sarvam-1 has 2 billion parameters and supports ten major Indian languages.
• Hanooman’s Everest 1.0: A multilingual AI system developed by SML, Everest 1.0 supports 35 Indian languages, with plans to expand to 90.
• AI Centers of Excellence: Establishing dedicated AI hubs and innovation centers across the country to support AI startups and research.
• India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): Combines public funding with private sector innovation to drive digital transformation.
  • Aadhaar, UPI, and Digi Locker serve as the foundation of India’s DPI.
  • Intelligent solutions are being integrated into financial and governance platforms to enhance DPI.

Conclusion

• India’s rapid AI advancements are driven by strong government initiatives, positioning it as a global AI powerhouse.
• As AI adoption accelerates across industries, India’s proactive approach is not only strengthening its digital economy but also paving the way for self-reliance in critical technologies.
• With a clear vision for the future, India is set to become a leader in AI innovation, shaping the global AI landscape in the years to come.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, India has launched the Cities Coalition for Circularity (C-3), a multi-nation alliance aimed at fostering city-to-city collaboration, knowledge-sharing, and private sector partnerships during the 12th Regional 3R and Circular Economy Forum in Asia and the Pacific, held in Jaipur.

Background

• The Regional 3R and Circular Economy Forum in Asia and the Pacific forum was launched in 2009 with the objective of regional cooperation for sustainable waste management and circular economy initiatives in the rapidly urbanizing and industrializing Asia-Pacific.
• Hanoi 3R Declaration (2013-2023) outlined 33 voluntary goals for shifting towards a more resource efficient and circular economy.
• It has been actively negotiating for a ‘Global Plastic Treaty’.

Cities Coalition for Circularity (C3)

• About: It is a multi-nation alliance designed to help urban centers adopt circular economy principles by integrating sustainable practices into urban planning, waste management, and resource utilization.
• Objectives: Focuses on reducing waste generation through segregation, composting, and upcycling, enhancing resource efficiency by promoting reuse and shared materials, and encouraging sustainable infrastructure.

Importance of C3 for Urban Sustainability

• Mitigating Climate Change: By reducing waste and optimizing resource use, C3 helps cut greenhouse gas emissions.
• Economic Benefits: Transitioning to a circular economy can create new business opportunities in recycling, remanufacturing, and waste management sectors.
• Resilient Cities: A circular economy model ensures that cities become less dependent on finite resources, making them more resilient to supply chain disruptions and economic downturns.
• Job Creation: It generates employment in sectors like renewable energy, sustainable construction, and eco-friendly product manufacturing.
• Improved Quality of Life: Cleaner environments, better waste management, and greener urban spaces lead to improved public health and enhanced overall well-being for citizens.

Global and Indian Context

• Several cities across the globe, such as Amsterdam, Copenhagen, and Tokyo, have already implemented circular economy policies under the C3 framework.
• In India, circularity is gaining traction through initiatives like:
• Swachh Bharat Mission: Encouraging waste segregation and recycling.
• Smart Cities Mission: Promoting sustainable urban development.
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Holding companies accountable for the lifecycle of their products.
• GOBAR-Dhan Scheme: Currently covers 67.8% of the total number of districts in India.

Challenges in Implementing Circularity in Cities

• Lack of Awareness and Technical Expertise.
• High Initial Investment Costs.
• Resistance to Change from Businesses and Consumers.
• Insufficient Policy Support and Enforcement Mechanisms.

Way Forward

• Develop and enforce policies that mandate circular economy practices.
• Invest in research and innovation for sustainable materials and processes.
• Promote awareness campaigns to educate communities on circular living.
• Strengthen public-private partnerships to scale up circular economy projects.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The degradation and loss of wetlands have reached alarming levels due to urbanization, agricultural expansion, and industrial activities. Mainstreaming wetland conservation into policy and development agendas is an urgent necessity.

About the Wetlands

• Wetlands, often referred to as the ‘kidneys of the Earth’, play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance including biodiversity conservation, water purification, and climate regulation.
• These ecosystems include marshes, swamps, lakes, floodplains, mangroves, and coastal lagoons, which support a wide variety of flora and fauna.
• These wetlands comprise approximately 4.8% of the total geographical area of India, and it is estimated that at least 6% of India’s population relies directly on wetlands for their livelihood.

Why Wetlands Need Mainstreaming in Conservation Policies?

• Biodiversity Hotspots: Wetlands support diverse flora and fauna, including migratory birds, fish, and amphibians. Their loss threatens species dependent on these ecosystems.
  • Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan, for instance, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its bird population.
• Flood Control and Climate Regulation: Mangrove forests and floodplain wetlands absorb excess floodwater and reduce the impact of natural disasters like cyclones and tsunamis.
  • Acting as carbon sinks, wetlands help mitigate climate change by storing carbon and controlling temperatures.
• Water Purification and Groundwater Recharge: Wetlands act as natural water filters, trapping pollutants and sediments. They help replenish groundwater reserves.
• Livelihoods and Economy: Millions of people, especially fishing communities, depend on wetlands for their livelihoods.
  • Chilika Lake in Odisha, for example, supports over 150,000 fisherfolk.
• Cultural and Aesthetic Value: Many wetlands are part of cultural heritage and serve as important sites for local communities.

Challenges in Wetland Conservation in India

• Urbanization and Encroachments: Unplanned urban expansion leads to encroachment, altering natural hydrology.
  • Example: Bhoj Wetland, Madhya Pradesh, faces significant encroachment due to Bhopal’s rapid growth (Ramsar Site Report, 2023).
• Pollution from Industrial effluents: Discharge of untreated sewage and industrial waste degrades water quality and aquatic biodiversity.
  • Example: Yamuna floodplain wetlands, Delhi, suffer from heavy industrial pollution and untreated sewage.
• Climate Change Impact: Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns alter wetland hydrology.
  • Example: Wular Lake, J&K, faces fluctuating water levels due to glacial melt and occurrence of cloudbursts in Himalayan states.
• Unregulated Tourism and Overexploitation: Excessive human activity leads to habitat destruction.
  • Example: In recent years, the firefly habitats in Maharashtra have experienced significant degradation due to unregulated tourism.
• Invasive Species Proliferation: Non-native species, such as water hyacinth, choke wetlands, harming biodiversity and local livelihoods.
  • Example: Vembanad Lake, Kerala, is overrun by water hyacinth, disrupting aquatic ecosystems
• Lack of Awareness and Policy Implementation: Despite conservation laws, enforcement remains weak.
  • Example: East Kolkata Wetlands, despite Ramsar Site status, suffer from poor enforcement, leading to degradation.

Initiatives for Wetland Conservation

• Legal Protection: Wetlands are protected under various national laws, including the Indian Forest Act (1927), the Forest (Conservation) Act (1980), and the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972).
• Wetlands of India Portal by MoEFCC: It provides comprehensive information on India’s wetlands. It includes capacity-building materials, data repositories, and dashboards for each state and union territory.
• National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA): A central scheme for the protection of wetlands and lakes.
• National Wetland Decadal Change Atlas By Space Applications Centre (SAC): It highlights the changes in wetlands across the country over the past decade.
• Integration with Namami Gange: Ministry of Jal Shakti highlighted the integration of wetland conservation with the Namami Gange program.
  • National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has pioneered initiatives that serve as models for wetland conservation nationwide.
• Amrit Dharohar Scheme (Union Budget 2023-24): It is aimed at optimizing wetland utilization over the next three years. Its goals include enhancing biodiversity, increasing carbon stock, boosting eco-tourism, and generating income for local communities, in line with the government’s sustainable development vision.
• National Wildlife Action Plan (2017-2031): It emphasizes the conservation of inland aquatic ecosystems, including wetlands. It advocates for a national wetlands mission to preserve these habitats, recognizing their importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services.
• Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017: Framework to regulate activities around wetlands.

Key Strategies for Wetland Conservation in India

• Integrating Wetland Conservation into Urban Planning: Smart city projects and infrastructure developments must consider wetland preservation.
  • Example: The Amrit Sarovar Mission aims to rejuvenate water bodies within urban areas, integrating them into sustainable city planning.
• Strengthening Legal Protection: Enhancing enforcement of environmental laws and penalizing encroachment.
  • Example: The Supreme Court’s intervention in the Deepor Beel Wetland, Assam, led to restrictions on dumping solid waste in the Ramsar site.
• Restoration & Scientific Research: Using advanced technology for wetland restoration and biodiversity conservation.
  • Example: The Namami Gange Programme employs scientific approaches to rejuvenate wetlands along the Ganges.
• Community Participation: Local involvement in conservation efforts ensures sustainable management.
  • Example: The Chilika Development Authority (CDA) involves local fishers in wetland governance, leading to successful conservation outcomes.
• Strengthening Policy Enforcement: Strict implementation of environmental laws is needed to prevent wetland degradation.
  • Example: The National Green Tribunal (NGT)’s orders on Mansagar Lake, Jaipur, prevented construction activities harming the ecosystem.
• Funding & Incentives for Wetland Conservation: Providing financial support for conservation projects through CSR initiatives.
  • Example: Amazon-ARGA MoU (2025) supports women entrepreneurs in wetland-based sustainable livelihoods.
• Eco-Tourism and Sustainable Livelihoods: Promoting wetlands as eco-tourism sites can generate revenue while ensuring protection.
  • Example: The Loktak Lake Floating Homestays Project in Manipur integrates conservation with sustainable tourism.
• Scientific Monitoring and Research: Advanced technology should be used to assess wetland health and formulate data-driven policies.
  • Example: ISRO’s National Wetland Inventory and Assessment (2022) provides crucial satellite-based insights into wetland conditions.

Conclusion

• Wetlands are indispensable to India’s ecological and economic security. While India has taken commendable steps toward conservation, there is an urgent need to integrate wetland management into mainstream policymaking.
• By combining legal, scientific, and community-driven approaches, India can safeguard these vital ecosystems for future generations.