General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) recently celebrated its ninth anniversary, marking nearly a decade of empowering Indian farmers with comprehensive crop insurance.

About PMFBY

• Launch: 2016 by the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
• Coverage: All farmers, including sharecroppers and tenant farmers, growing notified crops in designated areas.
• Crops Covered:
• Food Crops (Cereals, Millets & Pulses)
• Oilseeds
• Annual Commercial & Horticultural Crops

Risks Covered

• Yield Losses (Standing Crops): Losses due to non-preventable risks like drought, flood, pests, and diseases.
• Prevented Sowing: Compensation when farmers cannot sow due to adverse weather conditions.
• Post-Harvest Losses: Coverage for crop losses within 14 days of harvesting due to natural calamities.
• Localized Calamities: Damage due to hailstorms, landslides, cloudbursts, etc.

Implementation & Coverage Growth (2016–2024)

• Farmer Enrollment: Over 40 crore farmer applications registered.
• Land Coverage: More than 30 crore hectares of farmland insured.
  • Affordable Premium & High Claims Settled:
  • Farmers paid over ₹29,000 crore as premiums.
  • Over ₹50 lakh crore in claims disbursed, proving it to be a pro-farmer initiative.
• Customized Insurance Plans: State-specific schemes and cluster-based models enhance efficiency.
• Inclusive Growth: More than 70% of beneficiaries are small and marginal farmers.
• Climate Risk Mitigation: Addresses challenges like erratic monsoons, droughts, floods, and unseasonal rains.

Technological Advancements

• AI & Geo tagging: Enhance accuracy in crop loss assessment by enabling precise damage verification and yield estimation.
• CCE-Agri App & YES-TECH: Mobile-based tools to record Crop Cutting Experiments (CCEs) and estimate yields.
• National Crop Insurance Portal (NCIP): Centralized platform for real-time monitoring and claims processing.
• Digital Claim Settlement: Faster payouts through mobile apps and online platforms.

Major Challenges

• Delays in Claim Settlement: Bureaucratic hurdles and disputes between insurance companies and state governments slow payouts.
• State Withdrawals & Implementation Issues: States like Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh withdrew due to financial concerns over premium subsidies.
• Low Awareness & Farmer Participation: Many farmers, especially in remote areas, remain unaware of the scheme’s benefits.
• Data & Technology Gaps: Lack of real-time weather data and delays in crop loss assessment impact claim processing.

Recent Reforms & Future Prospects

• PMFBY 2.0 – Restructured Guidelines (2020-21):
  • Voluntary Enrollment: Since 2020, participation has been made voluntary.
  • State Flexibility: States can customize insurance products to meet regional agricultural needs.
• Alignment with Climate Resilience Policies:
  • Linked with National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) to promote climate-resilient farming.
• Restructured Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS):
  • A weather index-based insurance scheme introduced alongside PMFBY.
  • Difference from PMFBY: RWBCIS calculates claims based on weather parameters rather than actual yield loss.

Way Forward

• Digitization: Expanding technology use for faster claim settlements.
• State Re-Engagement: Encouraging states that have withdrawn to rejoin.
• Private Sector Involvement: Incentivizing private insurers to offer region-specific solutions.
• Disaster Risk Reduction: Strengthening proactive risk mitigation strategies.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Union Ministry of Panchayati Raj has released the report titled ‘Status of Devolution to Panchayats in States – An Indicative Evidence-Based Ranking’ (2024).

About

• The devolution index is an approach in assessing the implementation of 73rd and 74th Amendments and is prepared by the Indian Institute of Public Administration.
• It evaluates the current state of power and resource devolution to Panchayati Raj Institutions across all States and Union Territories.
• States/UTs were ranked as per the six key dimensions of framework, functions, finances, functionaries, capacity enhancement, and accountability.

Need for the Assessment

• The mandatory constitutional provisions— such as regular Panchayat elections by state election commissions, reservations for SCs/STs and women, and the constitution of state finance commissions—have been implemented.
• The devolution of functions, finances, and functionaries to Panchayats has been inconsistent across States.
• The effective local governance cannot be achieved through these transfer mechanisms alone.
• It necessitates ‘capacity enhancement’ measures and ‘accountability’ to ensure fairness and transparency in Panchayat operations.

Major Findings

• Karnataka tops the overall Devolution Index (DI) ranking of the Panchayat Raj system among States, while Kerala and Tamil Nadu are in the second and third spot.
• Devolution has increased from 39.9% to 43.9% between the period 2013-14 to 2021-22.
• With the launch of the Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan (RGSA), the capacity enhancement component of the Index during this period has increased from 44% to 54.6%.
• During this period, the component of the Index pertaining to functionaries has seen a substantial jump of more than 10% (from 39.6% to 50.9%).
• In the framework criterion, Kerala ranks first followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Haryana.
• In the functional criterion, Tamil Nadu tops the list followed by Karnataka, Odisha, and Rajasthan.
• In the finances criterion, Karnataka has secured the top place followed by Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan.
• In the functionaries criterion, Gujarat ranks first followed by Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• In the capacity building criterion, Telangana has secured the first spot followed by Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.

Challenges Identified in Report

• Legal and Institutional Gaps: Some states have not conducted regular panchayat elections.
  • Limited Role in Policy Implementation: Panchayats have a nominal role in major centrally sponsored schemes (MGNREGA, PMAY, NHM, etc.).
  • Some states perform significantly better due to strong governance structures and legal provisions, while others Disparities Among States: struggle due to poor implementation and political unwillingness.
• Low Public Participation: Gram Sabhas, which are essential for participatory governance, are often poorly attended and lack effectiveness.

Recommendations and Suggestions

• Strengthening the Legal Framework: Ensure regular and timely elections for panchayats.
  • Empower State Election Commissions (SECs) to function independently without state government interference.
• Financial Empowerment: Establish a Consolidated Fund for Local Government to provide direct and assured funding to panchayats.
  • Implement recommendations of the 16th Finance Commission to ensure panchayats receive an adequate share of GST revenues.
• Enhancing Functional Autonomy: Decentralize key service delivery functions to ensure panchayats play a leading role in rural development.
• Promoting Accountability & Transparency: Strengthen Gram Sabha participation by making them more accessible and effective.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar emphasized the need for a “coordinated flotilla” to promote stability and cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

His remarks highlight the growing geopolitical competition and security challenges in the region, necessitating multilateral maritime collaboration.

About the Indian Ocean

• Geographic Overview:
  • Third Largest Ocean: Spans 9,600 km from the Bay of Bengal to Antarctica and 7,800 km from South Africa to Western Australia.
    • Coastline: 70,000 km, including major economies like India, Australia, and African nations.
  • Population & Coastal Influence: Home to 35% of the world’s population and 40% of the global coastline.
• Historical & Civilizational Significance:
  • Named after India, reflecting its historical and cultural influence on maritime trade.
  • Served as a key trade route since the first millennium, connecting India with Arab lands, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
  • The Silk Route & Spice Trade flourished via the Indian Ocean, linking Europe, Asia, and Africa.
• Strategic Importance:
  • A critical global trade route, facilitating 70% of the world’s container traffic.
  • 80% of India’s external trade and 90% of its energy imports pass through the Indian Ocean.
  • Key oil supply routes from West Asia to India, China, Japan, and Europe traverse the region.
• Control of Maritime Chokepoints: India’s central position in IOR provides strategic leverage over:
• Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman) – Vital for oil shipments.
• Bab el-Mandeb (Yemen-Djibouti) – Entry to the Red Sea & Suez Canal.
• Strait of Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia) – Key trade passage for East Asia.

Challenges in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)

• Maritime Security Threats: Frequent pirate attacks & trafficking, particularly near Somalia and the Gulf of Aden.
• Economic & Environmental Issues: Overfishing and deep-sea mining threaten marine ecosystems.
• Climate Change & Rising Sea Levels: Small island nations face coastal erosion and submersion risks.
• Humanitarian Crises & Disasters: Natural disasters like cyclones, tsunamis, and oil spills require coordinated disaster response.
• Geopolitical Rivalries: Growing influence of the U.S., China, UK, and France fuels power struggles in the region.

India’s Policy Shift in the Indian Ocean

Strengthening Regional Ties:

• India is actively engaging with IOR nations through:
  • Indian Ocean Conference (IOC) – A key diplomatic platform initiated by India.
  • Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) – Multilateral cooperation on economic and maritime security.
  • Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) – Enhancing naval interoperability and intelligence sharing.
  • Colombo Security Conclave – Focuses on maritime security & counterterrorism with Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Mauritius.

SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region):

• Launched in 2015 under PM Modi, this initiative aims to:
• Strengthen India’s leadership in IOR.
• Ensure free and open sea lanes for secure global trade.
• Promote sustainable maritime development.

Enhancing Blue-Water Capabilities:

• Naval Expansion: India is modernizing its navy by inducting indigenous aircraft carriers and advanced submarines.
• Maritime Surveillance: Deployment of P-8I Poseidon aircraft, and satellite-based tracking systems.
• Quad Cooperation: India, U.S., Japan, and Australia collaborate on maritime security, anti-submarine warfare, and intelligence sharing.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Union Budget 2025-26 aims to foster rural prosperity and resilience by increasing women’s workforce participation and supporting their entrepreneurial growth.

• This comes at a crucial time when self-employment among rural women is rising, as reflected in the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2023-24.

Rising Women’s Workforce Participation and Self-Employment Trends

• Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) Data
• The female workforce participation rate has increased to 40.3% in 2023-24 from 22% in 2017-18.
• The rise is primarily due to a 15.9% growth in self-employment, particularly in rural areas.
• Self-Employment: A Double-Edged Sword
• While self-employment provides income opportunities, it is precarious and informal, lacking social security and job benefits.
• Key challenges include:
  • Lack of skill training
  • Limited mobility due to societal norms
  • Barriers in accessing formal credit
  • Heavy domestic and caregiving responsibilities

Contribution of Self-Employment to Economic Growth

• International Labour Organization (ILO) Study (2019) Findings
• Small enterprises and self-employment contribute to two-thirds of total employment globally.
• In India, self-employment among women is mostly concentrated in agriculture, but there is a growing presence in manufacturing, services, and construction, necessitating targeted policy interventions.
• World Bank Study (2024) on Rural Women Entrepreneurs
• Women-owned enterprises in rural India provide employment to 22-27 million people.
• Access to formal credit remains a significant challenge, highlighting the need for tailored financial inclusion strategies.

Budget 2025-26: Key Initiatives for Women Entrepreneurs and Workforce Participation

• Financial Inclusion Measures
• ₹41 lakh crore sanctioned under Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) in 2023-24 for women entrepreneurs.
• New scheme to support 5 lakh first-time entrepreneurs (women, SCs, and STs) with term loans up to ₹2 crore over five years.
• Increase in budgetary allocation for women’s welfare.
• Gender allocation in the total budget rose, showing greater commitment to women’s economic empowerment.
• Strengthening Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and Rural Livelihoods
• National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) has integrated rural women into SHGs.
• SHGs play a crucial role in microfinance, skill development, and entrepreneurship promotion.
• Skill Development and Capacity Building
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) to provide job-oriented training to rural women.
• Emphasis on sectoral employment, particularly in:
  • Manufacturing
  • Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs)
  • Services and construction industries

Sectoral Opportunities for Women’s Employment Growth

• Boost to Manufacturing and MSMEs
• MSMEs employ a significant number of women, and budgetary support for MSMEs is expected to:
  • Enhance women’s employment
  • Promote women-led start-ups
  • Provide easier access to credit and technology adoption
• The budget includes a special package covering financing, regulatory changes, and technology support for MSMEs.
• Support for Women in Labor-Intensive Sectors
• Focus on high-employment sectors like textiles, food processing, and rural industries.
• Policy measures to reduce informal employment and improve job security and social security coverage.

Addressing Barriers to Women’s Workforce Participation

• Overcoming Social and Economic Challenges
• Barriers include:
  • Unpaid care work and domestic responsibilities
  • Mobility constraints
  • Lack of digital and financial literacy
• Government Interventions:
  • Encouragement of working women hubs (MSMEs collaborating to provide hostels, crèches, and senior care facilities).
  • Promotion of gender-sensitive workplace policies in industries employing large numbers of women.
• Encouraging Financial Inclusion and Credit Access
• Formalizing credit access through women-led banks and financial cooperatives.
• Strengthening digital banking services for women entrepreneurs in rural areas.

Way Forward

• Expanding Social Security and Legislative Protections
• Extending social security benefits (pensions, maternity benefits, insurance) to self-employed women.
• Strengthening enforcement of equal pay and workplace safety laws.
• Strengthening Digital and Financial Literacy Programs
• Expanding digital literacy to ensure greater participation in online markets and e-commerce platforms.
• Bridging the gender gap in technology adoption through targeted training programs.
• Enhancing Rural Infrastructure for Women Workers
• Development of rural business hubs with access to:
  • Coworking spaces
  • Childcare and elderly care facilities
  • Transportation support for working women
• Long-Term Vision: Towards Sustainable Rural Employment
• Strengthening public-private partnerships (PPPs) for skill training and employment.
• Integrating women-led businesses into global supply chains.
• Encouraging eco-friendly entrepreneurship in agriculture, handicrafts, and textiles.

Conclusion

• The Union Budget 2025-26 lays a strong foundation for rural women’s economic empowerment by increasing their participation in self-employment and entrepreneurship.
• With a multi-pronged approach involving financial inclusion, skill development, and social security, India can harness the full potential of its female workforce.

These interventions align with the government’s vision of Viksit Bharat (Developed India) and contribute to sustainable, inclusive growth.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India, along with Singapore and Oman, is hosting the 8th Indian Ocean Conference (IOC) in Muscat, where foreign ministers from 30 nations are discussing regional security and economic cooperation.

What is the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)?

• The third-largest ocean in the world, covering 70.56 million sq km and connecting Asia, Africa, and Australia.
• A natural trade corridor historically influenced by Indian civilization and maritime networks.

Nations Surrounding IOR:

• 26 coastal nations, including India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Oman, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa, and Somalia.
• Landlocked countries like Nepal and Bhutan also depend on IOR trade routes.

Importance of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR):

• Global Trade Hub: Facilitates 70% of global container traffic and 90% of India’s energy imports, making it a key economic corridor.
• Maritime Security: Critical sea lanes like the Strait of Malacca, Hormuz, and Bab el Mandeb ensure uninterrupted global trade.
• Resource-Rich Waters: Contains vast fisheries, oil, gas, and mineral deposits, crucial for regional economies.
• Strategic Significance: Hosts naval bases of major powers (US, UK, China, France), influencing global security dynamics.

India’s Role in Managing the Indian Ocean Region:

• SAGAR Initiative (2015): Launched by PM Modi to promote Security and Growth for All in the Region, ensuring maritime stability.
• Naval Capabilities & Regional Security: Indian Navy conducts joint exercises (MILAN, Malabar, Varuna) to strengthen regional defense cooperation.
• Economic & Trade Leadership: India develops ports via Sagarmala and promotes the Blue Economy for sustainable ocean resource utilization.
• Disaster Relief & Humanitarian Assistance: Plays a leading role in HADR operations, assisting countries during natural disasters and emergencies.
• Diplomatic & Strategic Alliances: Strengthens regional partnerships through IORA, BIMSTEC, and QUAD for collective maritime governance.

Challenges in the Indian Ocean Region:

• China’s Expanding Influence: String of Pearls strategy and growing naval presence challenge regional stability and India’s interests.
• Piracy & Maritime Crimes: Somali piracy, illegal fishing, and arms smuggling disrupt trade and security operations.
• Climate Change & Rising Sea Levels: Small Island nations face existential threats due to coastal erosion and submergence risks.
• Undersea Surveillance & Cyber Threats: Chinese control over subsea cables poses risks to data security and regional communications.
• Maritime Terrorism & Trafficking: Drug smuggling, human trafficking, and sea-based terrorism remain persistent security threats.

Way Ahead:

• Strengthening Maritime Infrastructure: Invest in port modernization, naval expansion, and undersea surveillance systems.
• Enhancing Regional Cooperation: Deepen partnerships with IORA, QUAD, and bilateral maritime security agreements.
• Boosting Blue Economy & Sustainable Development: Promote fisheries, ocean industries, and clean energy solutions for long-term sustainability.
• Countering External Influence: Protect regional communication networks and prevent foreign dominance in key maritime sectors.
• Disaster Preparedness & Climate Action: Develop early warning systems, climate resilience plans, and disaster relief infrastructure.

Conclusion:

The Indian Ocean Region is a vital geopolitical and economic hub, influencing global trade, security, and regional stability. India’s proactive leadership through SAGAR and IORA is crucial in maintaining peace and prosperity. Strengthening maritime security, infrastructure, and regional alliances will ensure India’s prominence in the global maritime order.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: An analysis reveals that only three states—Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha—have made notable progress in recognizing Community Forest Resource (CFR) rights under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006. The majority of forest-dwelling communities across India continue to face significant hurdles in securing these rights.

Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006: A Landmark Legislation

Background:

Before the enactment of the FRA, 2006, Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) lacked legal recognition over their ancestral forest lands.

• Colonial forest laws and post-independence conservation policies often labeled them as encroachers.
• The FRA was introduced to correct these historical injustices and provide a framework for recognizing forest land and resource rights.

Key Provisions

• Recognition of Rights: Grants STs and OTFDs the right to hold, live, and use forest land for habitation and livelihood.
• Community Forest Resources (CFR): Recognizes community rights over customary common forest lands for management and conservation.
• Critical Wildlife Habitats: Identifies and protects ecologically sensitive areas while ensuring wildlife conservation.
• Sustainable Use & Conservation: Emphasizes responsible use of forest resources while preserving biodiversity.

Community Forest Resource (CFR) Rights: A Special Category

• Under Section 3(1)(i) of the FRA, 2006, CFR rights empower Gram Sabhas (village councils) to legally manage their traditional forests. These rights ensure community-led conservation and sustainable use of forest resources.

Key Features of CFR Rights:

• Ownership & Governance: Gram Sabhas are recognized as the governing body for community forests.
• Sustainable Use: Allows communities to harvest non-timber forest produce (NTFP) like honey, bamboo, and medicinal plants.
• Forest Conservation: Enables communities to protect forests from deforestation, mining, and external threats.
• Customary Rights: Recognizes traditional knowledge in forest conservation.
• Protection from Eviction: Communities cannot be displaced without their explicit consent.

Challenges Hindering CFR Implementation

Displacement Due to Conservation & Development Projects:

• A study titled ‘Democratising Forest Governance: Challenges Old and New’ found that over 1,00,000 forest dwellers have been displaced due to protected areas created by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
• More than 3,00,000 hectares of forest land have been diverted for mining and infrastructure projects.

Slow & Limited Recognition of CFR Rights:

• Maharashtra (36%), Chhattisgarh (24%), and Odisha (10%) have made progress, but most states lag.
• States like Jharkhand, Gujarat, and Karnataka have recognized less than 2% of potential CFR areas.

Conflicting Legal Frameworks:

• Overlapping laws—Indian Forest Act, 1927, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980—create ambiguities in FRA implementation.
• These conflicts often delay CFR recognition.

Weak Institutional & Financial Support:

• Many Gram Sabhas lack resources, technical expertise, and funds for effective forest management.
• Lack of government investment in community-led conservation efforts weakens CFR governance.

Lack of Awareness & Political Will:

• Forest dwellers often remain unaware of their rights under the FRA.
• Administrative delays & bureaucratic hurdles further slow down claim processing.

Successful CFR Implementations in India

Mendha-Lekha, Maharashtra (2009):

• First village in India to receive CFR rights over 1,800 hectares of forest.
• Gram Sabha-led bamboo harvesting & conservation improved local livelihoods.

Niyamgiri, Odisha (2013):

• The Dongria Kondh tribe exercised CFR rights to stop bauxite mining in the Niyamgiri hills.
• The Supreme Court upheld their rights, marking a historic victory for tribal self-governance.

CFR Rights & India’s Climate Goals

• FRA’s Role in Carbon Sequestration: India has committed to sequestering 2.5 gigatonnes of CO₂ equivalent through forest conservation.
• CFR rights contribute to global climate initiatives, such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+).

Way Forward: Strengthening CFR Implementation

• Expedite Claim Processing: States should streamline bureaucratic procedures to recognize CFR claims faster.
• Capacity Building for Gram Sabhas: Training & technical support should be provided for sustainable forest management.
• Strengthen Legal Protections: Ensure stronger safeguards against land encroachment & corporate exploitation.
• Increase Awareness & Community Participation: Awareness campaigns should educate forest dwellers about their rights under the FRA.
• Financial & Institutional Support: Governments must invest in community-led conservation programs.

Conclusion

• The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006, particularly Community Forest Resource (CFR) Rights, is a crucial step toward decentralized forest governance in India. Recognizing the role of tribal and forest-dwelling communities can enhance environmental conservation, social justice, and economic security.
• However, bureaucratic inefficiencies, legal conflicts, and lack of awareness continue to hinder its implementation. Strengthening institutional support and ensuring timely recognition of CFR rights is essential for protecting both forest ecosystems and the rights of forest-dependent communities.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India and France share a robust strategic partnership based on mutual respect, shared values, and cooperation on global challenges, reaffirmed during PM Modi’s recent visit to France.

India-France Relationship

Historical Background:

• Diplomatic ties between India and France date back to 1947 when France recognized India’s independence.
• The relationship transformed significantly, culminating in the establishment of a strategic partnership in 1998.
• France was among the first Western nations to support India after its nuclear tests, recognizing it as a responsible nuclear power.

Trade and Economic Partnership:

• France is India’s 11th largest trading partner in the European Union, with bilateral trade exceeding $12 billion in 2023.
• French companies like Airbus, Dassault, Renault, and Michelin have significant operations in India, while Indian IT firms like TCS, Infosys, and Wipro maintain a strong presence in France.
• At the 14th India-France CEOs Forum, PM Modi emphasized increasing investments in digital technology, green energy, and artificial intelligence.

Defense Cooperation:

• Defense Industrial Roadmap: Aimed at co-designing and co-developing military hardware.
• Advanced Artillery & Technology Transfer: Collaboration on advanced weaponry, joint military exercises (e.g., Varuna), and defense technology sharing.
• France-India Defence Startup Excellence (FRIND-X): Initiative under HORIZON 2047 and the India-France Defence Industrial Roadmap.
• Rafale Fighter Jets: India procured 36 Rafale jets under a 2016 deal, with a recent agreement for Rafale-M jets to operate from India’s aircraft carriers, set for delivery by 2029.
• Scorpène-Class Submarines: France assisted India in building Scorpène-class submarines and plans integration of Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) under Project 75, along with a possible Integrated Combat System (ICS) in future P75-AS submarines.

Space Collaboration:

• ISRO and CNES collaborate on satellite launches and joint research, enhancing space technology applications.

Strategic & Geopolitical Cooperation:

• Shared vision for a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific; strengthened naval collaboration to counter China’s influence.
• France supports India’s bid for a permanent UN Security Council (UNSC) seat and its membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
• India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC): A MoU signed at the G20 Summit to facilitate European market access, technological collaboration, and counter China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

Energy & Climate Cooperation:

• International Solar Alliance (ISA): Co-founded by India and France in 2015 to promote solar energy worldwide.
• Collaboration on nuclear energy projects including nuclear reactors at Jaitapur, Maharashtra.
• Agreements for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) and Advanced Modular Reactors (AMRs).
• France supports India’s renewable energy ambitions by investing in hydrogen energy and sustainable urban development.
• India-France Indo-Pacific Triangular Development Cooperation: Supports climate and SDG-focused projects in third countries in the Indo-Pacific.

Counterterrorism & Financial Security:

• Joint efforts against terrorism through designations of UN-sanctioned individuals and organizations.
• Commitment to Financial Action Task Force (FATF) standards and participation in No Money for Terror (NMFT) initiatives.

Health Infrastructure:

• Cooperation in digital health, antimicrobial resistance, and exchange of health professionals under the Indo-French Life Sciences Sister Innovation Hub.
• Centre for Cellular and Molecular Platforms (C-CAMP) collaboration for biotech innovation.

Cultural & Educational Exchanges:

• France remains a popular destination for Indian students, with over 10,000 currently studying there.
• Opening of the Consulate General of India in Marseille to strengthen cultural and business ties.
• Young Professionals Scheme (YPS) under the India-France Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement (MMPA).

Concerns in India-France Relations

• Trade & Economic Frictions:
• Lack of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA): France supports an ambitious EU-India trade deal, but differences over tariffs, labor laws, and environmental clauses have delayed progress.
• Agricultural & Dairy Disputes: France sees India’s protectionist policies as a hurdle, particularly regarding dairy and wine market access. India seeks fewer restrictions on IT services and skilled labor mobility.
• Digital Taxation & Data Protection: France’s digital tax policies affect Indian IT firms, while India’s data localization rules raise concerns for French businesses.
• Technology Transfer Issues:
  • Barriers to Technology Transfer: India’s Make in India and Aatmanirbhar Bharat push for technology transfer, while France remains cautious, particularly in military technology.
  • Delays in Project Implementation: Indo-French defense projects, especially naval collaborations, have faced delays, raising concerns over cost escalations.
• Geopolitical Challenges:
  • Russia-Ukraine War: India’s neutral stance contrasts with France’s pro-Western approach, impacting defense trade and energy security.
  • Multilateral Cooperation Issues: Divergences on UNSC reforms, climate change policy, and energy transitions require negotiation.
  • Rise of Protectionism & Visa Issues: Stricter work and study visa rules affect business mobility.
  • China Factor & Indo-Pacific Strategy: France balances ties with China, sometimes conflicting with India’s deepening QUAD and AUKUS engagements.

Conclusion & Way Forward

• While India and France share a strong, time-tested relationship, geopolitical divergences, defense technology issues, and trade frictions require diplomatic foresight and pragmatic solutions.
• Strengthening defense collaboration, economic cooperation, and multilateral coordination is crucial.
• Both nations are well-positioned to play a key role in regional and global stability.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: China’s plan to construct the world’s largest hydropower dam on the Brahmaputra River, known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, has raised significant concerns among downstream countries, particularly India and Bangladesh.

Implications of China’s Mega-Dam Project

Environmental and Ecological Concerns:

• Altered Water Flow and Sediment Reduction: River Brahmaputra carries vast amounts of sediment that fertilize downstream agricultural lands.
  • Chinese dams trap these sediments, reducing soil fertility and affecting farming communities in India and Bangladesh.
• Increased Risk of Flash Floods: Sudden releases of water from Chinese reservoirs could lead to devastating floods in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • There have been instances in the past where unannounced water discharges led to loss of lives and property.
• Biodiversity Loss and Habitat Destruction: River ecosystems, including aquatic species such as the Gangetic dolphin, are under threat due to fluctuating water levels and disrupted breeding cycles.
• Glacial Melt and Climate Change Effects: The Tibetan Plateau, often referred to as the “Third Pole”, is home to the largest volume of ice outside the Arctic and Antarctic. It plays a critical role in the Earth’s cryosphere and influences global climate patterns.
• Seismic Risks: The dam’s location in a seismically active and ecologically fragile Himalayan region raises concerns about potential earthquakes and environmental degradation.
  • Such a massive infrastructure project could increase the risk of landslides and other geological disasters.

Geopolitical Ramifications:

• India’s Vulnerability: India, which relies on the Brahmaputra for agriculture and drinking water, fears that China could use its control over the river as a strategic weapon, either by restricting water flow or causing artificial floods.
• Legal and Diplomatic Challenges: International laws governing transboundary rivers, such as the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997), emphasize equitable and reasonable utilization of shared water resources.
  • However, China is not a signatory to this convention, allowing it to exercise unchecked control over these rivers.
  • China and India have the Expert Level Mechanism (ELM) since 2006 for hydrological data sharing, but lack a comprehensive treaty.
• Conflict with Southeast Asian Nations: Countries like Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand, which depend on the Mekong River, have raised similar concerns over reduced water availability due to China’s upstream damming.
• Economic and Social Impact: Large dam projects often lead to forced relocation of local communities.
  • Altered river flows can disrupt irrigation patterns and reduce fish stocks, threatening food security in India and Bangladesh.

India’s Response and Possible Strategies

• Developing Its Own Water Infrastructure: India has been ramping up dam and hydropower projects in Arunachal Pradesh, like the proposed Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP) to ensure water security and energy generation.
• Strengthening Diplomacy: India has been engaging with Bangladesh and other regional stakeholders to form a united front on transboundary water management.
• Enhancing Satellite Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: Improved satellite surveillance of Chinese dam activities and better flood prediction models can help mitigate risks.
• Exploring Legal Avenues: India could push for regional agreements on water-sharing and seek international arbitration in cases of water disputes.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Supreme Court permitted High Courts to appoint retired judges on an ad-hoc basis to address the mounting backlog of cases.

About

• The Supreme Court first endorsed the appointment of ad-hoc judges in its 2021 ruling in Lok Prahari v. Union of India.
  • These judges were authorised to hear only criminal appeals as part of a bench led by a sitting judge.
• Backlog: As of January 2025, High Courts were burdened with a staggering backlog of 62 lakh cases.
• In 2021, the SC noted there have only been three recorded instances of ad hoc judges being appointed under Article 224A, calling it a “dormant provision”.

Related Constitutional Provisions

• Article 224A of the Indian Constitution allows the Chief Justice of a High Court to request retired HC judges to perform the duties of a judge again, with the permission of the President of India.
  • Such appointees are entitled to allowances as determined by the President’s order and have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges of a Judge of that High Court.
• Lok Prahari v Union of India (2021): SC held that ad hoc judges can only be appointed when recommendations have not been made for less than 20% of the vacancies, after considering both the number of active judges and pending proposals for judge appointments.

Reasons for the Backlog of Cases in Indian Judiciary

• Insufficient Judges: India has one of the lowest judge-to-population ratios globally.
• Increased Litigation: The growing number of litigants and cases, coupled with the increasing population and socio-economic complexities, contributes to the rise in the number of cases.
• Delays in the Justice System: There are delays due to procedural inefficiencies, adjournments, and delays in filing of evidence, which further prolong case resolutions.
• Lack of Infrastructure: Many courts, especially in rural areas, are under-equipped and under-staffed, making it difficult to handle the growing number of cases efficiently.
• Bureaucratic and Administrative Challenges: The judicial process can sometimes be slowed down by inefficiencies in the system, including paperwork, administrative delays, and a lack of modernization in court processes.

How does it impact?

• Delay in Justice: The backlog results in long delays in cases, and justice is often delayed for years.
• Increased No. of Undertrials: The number of undertrials (accused awaiting trial) in prisons has increased, prisons are running at an over-capacity of 114%.
• Increased Costs: The delay in cases causes financial strain on the litigants and the government. It can also result in the erosion of public confidence in the judicial system.
• Overburdened Judges: Judges are often overburdened with cases, leading to burnout and further delays.

Efforts to Address the Issue

• Judicial Reforms: It includes increasing the number of judges, modernizing court infrastructure, and implementing e-courts and technology to speed up hearings.
• Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR): ADR mechanisms like arbitration, mediation, and conciliation are being promoted to resolve disputes outside of the traditional court system.
• E-Courts and Technology: The E-Courts Project has been an important initiative to digitize court proceedings and allow online hearings. This helps in streamlining case management and reducing physical backlogs.
• Fast Track Courts: Special courts or fast-track courts have been set up to handle specific types of cases like corruption, crimes against women, and long-pending cases to expedite the process.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The global economic landscape has been significantly reshaped by trade wars initiated during the US President Donald Trump and the broader trend of trade weaponization. These measures have had far-reaching effects on various sectors of the global economy.

What is a Trade War?

A trade war occurs when nations impose tariffs or trade barriers against each other in retaliation for perceived economic harm or unfair trade practices.

Key Example:

• S.-China Trade War (2018-Present): The U.S. imposed heavy tariffs on Chinese goods, citing intellectual property theft, unfair subsidies, and currency manipulation. In response, China levied counter-tariffs, leading to disruptions in global supply chains.

What is Trade Weaponization?

Trade weaponization refers to the strategic use of trade policies as geopolitical tools rather than purely economic measures. It includes economic sanctions, export controls, supply chain restrictions, and currency manipulation to exert pressure on rival nations.

Examples:

• S. sanctions on Huawei to curb China’s technological advancements.
• Russia’s gas supply cuts to Europe amid geopolitical tensions.
• China’s rare earth export controls to maintain dominance in technology manufacturing.
• Recent U.S. tariffs: A 25% tariff on all imports from Canada and Mexico and a 10% levy on Chinese goods.

Major Trade Wars and Trade Weaponization in Global Politics

• US-China Trade War:
  • The U.S. imposed tariffs on $550 billion worth of Chinese goods.
  • China retaliated with countermeasures, disrupting electronics, automobiles, and agriculture sectors.
• US Sanctions on Russia (2022-Present):
  • Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the U.S. and the EU imposed sanctions restricting oil, gas, and banking transactions.
• China’s Economic Coercion Tactics:
  • Australia: Bans on Australian coal, barley, and wine after it called for a COVID-19 origins investigation.
  • Taiwan: Banned Taiwanese food imports amid rising political tensions.
  • Lithuania: Blocked Lithuanian exports after it deepened ties with Taiwan.

Impacts of Trade War & Trade Weaponization

• Economic Disruptions:
  • Increased production costs, inflation, and energy price surges.
  • Disruptions to global supply chains and trade flows.
  • Shift of manufacturing away from China (e.g., Apple and Samsung moving production to India and Vietnam).
• Weaponization of Commodities:
  • Energy: Oil and gas as leverage in geopolitical conflicts.
  • Food: Grain exports being restricted as economic pressure.
  • Technology: AI and semiconductor supply chains becoming battlegrounds.
• Shifts in Global Alliances:
  • Friendshoring: Countries shifting trade towards geopolitical allies.
  • New Trade Alliances: India’s active participation in QUAD and IPEF.
  • Mineral Security Partnership (MSP): Diversifying and stabilizing critical mineral supply chains.
• Technology Wars:
  • The U.S.-China chip war over semiconductor dominance.
  • Rise of alternative payment systems (e.g., Russia’s Mir, India’s rupee-ruble trade).

Strategies and India’s Role in the Trade War Era

• India’s Response to the US-China Trade War:
  • ‘China Plus One’ Strategy: Global firms shifting production to India.
  • Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Attracting manufacturers in electronics, pharmaceuticals, and semiconductors.
• India-Russia Trade Relations Amid Sanctions:
  • Oil Imports: Increased imports of discounted Russian oil.
  • Alternative Payment Systems: Exploring RuPay and rupee-ruble trade to bypass SWIFT sanctions.
• India’s Strategy Against Chinese Trade Dominance:
  • Ban on Chinese Apps (2020): Over 200 apps, including TikTok, banned citing national security concerns.
  • Higher Import Duties: Raised tariffs on electronics, solar panels, and chemicals.
  • Strengthening Domestic Manufacturing: ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiatives to reduce reliance on Chinese goods.
  • Trade Diversification: Strengthening ties with ASEAN, Africa, and Latin America.
  • Tariff Adjustments: Raising tariffs on Chinese goods while negotiating Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with Australia, UAE, and the EU.

India’s Path Forward

• Strengthening Trade Partnerships: Expanding ties with the EU, ASEAN, and Africa.
• Investing in Critical Sectors: Developing semiconductor, renewable energy, and AI industries.
• Enhancing Supply Chain Resilience: Boosting indigenous manufacturing.
• WTO Reform: Addressing challenges posed by unilateral trade actions.

Future Outlook

• The era of free trade is gradually shifting toward economic nationalism and strategic decoupling. The rise of regional trade agreements (RCEP, IPEF, QUAD Economic Framework) and an increased focus on supply chain resilience indicate a movement toward de-globalization.