General Studies paper -2

Context: In India, the need for electoral reforms has become increasingly evident to address challenges such as voter fraud, criminalization of politics, and the influence of money power.

Key Challenges in the Current Electoral System

• Criminalization of Politics: A significant number of elected representatives face criminal charges, raising concerns about the integrity of the political system.
  • According to reports from the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR), a substantial percentage of MPs and MLAs have pending criminal cases against them.

• Influence of Money Power: Excessive election spending and the lack of transparency in political funding undermine the democratic process.
  • Reforms are needed to cap expenditures and promote accountability in campaign financing.
• Voter Fraud and Electoral Roll Issues: Allegations of duplicate voter IDs and manipulation of electoral rolls highlight the need for robust mechanisms to maintain the integrity of voter lists.
• Misuse of Technology: While Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs) have enhanced efficiency, concerns about their security and transparency persist.
  • Reforms can address these issues by improving verification processes.
• Inappropriate Campaign Practices: The use of divisive rhetoric, false claims, and appeals to caste or communal identities during campaigns undermines the spirit of democracy.
  • Stricter regulations are required to ensure ethical campaigning.
• First-Past-The-Post System (FPTP) and Representation Issues: India follows the FPTP system, where the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they do not secure an absolute majority.
  • It leads to situations where a candidate winning with just 30-40% of votes represents the entire constituency, raising concerns about true democratic representation.
• Delimitation and Representation: It raised concerns about potential shifts in political power between regions, especially among southern states.

Key Recent Electoral Reforms in India

• 52nd Amendment Act (1985): Anti-Defection Law & introduction of Tenth Schedule to the Constitution, aiming to curb political defections by disqualifying defectors from holding public office.
  • 91st Constitutional Amendment Act (2003): Aimed to curb political defections by limiting the size of ministerial councils and enforcing anti-defection laws.
• 61st Constitutional Amendment Act (1988): Lowering of Voting Age from 21 to 18, expanding democratic participation.
• 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992): Strengthened local governance by institutionalizing Panchayats, ensuring direct elections and reserved seats for marginalized communities and women.
• Introduction of EVMs: To improve the voting process’s efficiency and reduce electoral fraud, EVMs were introduced in Indian elections.
• Ceiling on Election Expenditure: Limits have been set on election expenditures to promote fair competition among candidates.
• Provision of NOTA (None of the Above): Introduced in 2013, the NOTA option allows voters to reject all candidates if they find none suitable.
• Systematic Voters’ Education and Electoral Participation (SVEEP): It is a flagship programme of the ECI to promote voter education and participation in elections.
• One Nation, One Election: It advocates simultaneous elections for the Lok Sabha and state assemblies to reduce costs and governance disruptions.
• Delimitation Exercise: Plans to redraw parliamentary constituencies based on new population data aim to ensure equal representation.

Proposed Electoral Reforms

• Decriminalization of Politics: The Supreme Court has repeatedly emphasized the need for decriminalizing politics.
  • Disqualifying candidates with serious criminal charges and fast-tracking cases against politicians can enhance the credibility of the electoral process.
• Transparency in Political Funding: Introducing measures such as state funding of elections and mandatory disclosure of donations can reduce the influence of money power.
• Proportional Representation System: Replacing or modifying the FPTP system with a proportional representation model can ensure fairer representation of diverse political ideologies.
  • It can help in reducing the monopoly of dominant parties and make elections more inclusive.
• Strengthening the Election Commission of India (ECI): EC should be given more autonomy and legal authority to act against electoral malpractices.
  • The process of appointing ECs should be transparent and independent of political influence.
• Strengthening Voter Verification: Linking Aadhaar with voter IDs, while addressing privacy concerns, can help eliminate duplicate entries and ensure accurate electoral rolls.
• Mandatory Internal Democracy in Political Parties: The Representation of the People Act should be amended to ensure democratic functioning within political parties.
  • Regular elections within parties and term limits for leadership positions should be mandated to promote fresh and dynamic leadership.
• Improving EVM and VVPAT Systems: Conducting random audits and increasing the sample size for VVPAT verification can enhance public confidence in the voting process.
• Regulating Campaign Practices: Enforcing stricter penalties for hate speech, misinformation, and unethical practices can promote fair and issue-based campaigning.
• One Nation, One Election: Concerns about its impact on federalism and regional representation persist.

Recommendations: Committees & Commissions

• Dinesh Goswami Committee (1990): On election expenses, voter IDs, and transparent political funding.
• Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998): Advocated for state funding of elections.
• Vohra Committee (1993): Criminalization of politics and the nexus among criminals, politicians, and bureaucrats in India.
  • Agencies, including the CBI, IB, RAW, had unanimously expressed their opinion that the criminal network was virtually running a parallel government.
• 244th Report of Law Commission of India: It said that in the 10 years since 2004, 18% of the candidates contesting either national or State elections had criminal cases against them (extensive criminal backgrounds).
• Ram Nath Kovind Panel: It suggested 15 amendments including insertion of a new Article 82A and Amendment of Article 327.
  • It was supported by the Election Commission in 1983 itself.
• TS Krishnamoorthy: It has suggested a ‘National Election Fund’ as an alternative for election funding.

Conclusion

• Electoral reforms are not just necessary but urgent to safeguard the democratic fabric of India.
• By addressing systemic challenges and ensuring transparency, accountability, and inclusivity, these reforms can strengthen public trust in the electoral process.
• A collaborative effort involving the Election Commission, political parties, and civil society is essential to realize the vision of a truly representative democracy.

General Studies paper -3

Context: Information Technology (IT) major Infosys is eyeing opportunities in India’s space tech sector and has put forward its name as a contender to build and launch satellites.

About

• India’s space sector has traditionally been dominated by ISRO, but recent policy changes are opening the sector to private enterprises and startups.
• The Indian space economy is projected to grow at a 48% CAGR over the next five years, reaching $50 billion.
• The privatization of the Indian space sector aims to boost innovation, attract private investment, reduce dependence on imports, and strengthen India’s position as a global space power.
• The establishment of IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre) is a landmark step, enabling private enterprises to participate in satellite launches, space-based services, and even deep-space missions.

Why is Privatization of the Indian Space Sector Necessary?

• Increasing Demand for Space-Based Services: India’s space industry is growing rapidly, with demand for satellite-based services exceeding ISRO’s capacity.
  • The private sector’s involvement is essential to meet the demand for satellite communications, remote sensing, and geospatial intelligence.
• Reducing Import Dependency: India’s import costs in space technology are 12 times higher than its exports (2022-23). Major imported items include high-strength carbon fibers, space-qualified solar cells, and electronic components.
  • Encouraging private manufacturing can help develop indigenous space-grade materials.
• Freeing ISRO to Focus on Core Missions: Privatization allows ISRO to shift focus towards interplanetary missions, space research, and national security projects.
  • Private players can take over commercial satellite launches and operational aspects of space technology.
• Enhancing Global Competitiveness: Countries like the United States, Russia, and China have successfully leveraged private enterprises to reduce costs and enhance efficiency.
  • Companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Arianespace have transformed space commercialization.
  • India’s private space firms must evolve to compete globally and contribute to the $450 billion global space economy.
• Utilizing India’s Human Capital: India produces over 1.5 million engineers annually.
  • India’s space economy is projected to grow at 48% CAGR and reach $50 billion by 2028.
• Risk Sharing: Space exploration involves high costs and risks. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) can distribute costs, reducing financial pressure on the government.

Major Reforms in the Privatization of India’s Space Sector

• Indian Space Policy 2023: Allows private firms to engage in satellite launches, R&D, and exploration.
• Establishment of IN-SPACe: Acts as a single-window agency to regulate and facilitate private sector participation.
  • Grants private players access to ISRO’s launch facilities, R&D centers, and satellite data.
• Creation of NewSpace India Limited (NSIL): Handles the commercial operations of ISRO, such as satellite launches and transponder leasing.
  • Focuses on monetizing ISRO’s technologies through partnerships with private companies.
• FDI Policy Reforms:74% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) allowed in satellite manufacturing and operations.
• 49% FDI allowed in launch vehicles, spaceports, and associated systems.
• Supporting Space Startups: Over 200 space startups are working in India, developing launch vehicles, satellite services, and space applications.
  • Vikram-S Rocket: India’s first private rocket, launched by Skyroot Aerospace.
  • Agnikul Cosmos: Developed the world’s first 3D-printed rocket engine.
  • OneWeb India: First company approved by IN-SPACe for satellite broadband services.
• Encouraging Global Collaborations: Indian companies can partner with international space agencies and corporations for knowledge sharing.
  • Example: ISRO’s collaboration with NASA and JAXA for joint lunar and Mars missions.
  • Atal Tinkering Lab (ATL) Space Challenge: Encourages school students in space innovation.

Challenges and Concerns in Private Sector Participation

• Regulatory and Legal Gaps: No dedicated space law to govern private sector operations.
  • Multiplicity of regulations (ISRO, DoS, NSIL, Antrix, IN-SPACe) causes bureaucratic hurdles.
• National Security Risks: Sensitive technology transfer risks due to increased private participation.
  • Strict cybersecurity policies are needed to protect satellite data.
    • Intellectual Property (IP) Issues: Lack of clear IP laws for space technologies may discourage private R&D.
  • Private firms fear technology leakage or misuse of ISRO’s research.
• Funding and Investment Constraints: Space projects require high capital investments and long incubation periods.
  • Private investors prefer short-term gains in sectors like 5G and fintech.
• Dependence on Government Infrastructure: Private firms rely on ISRO’s launch facilities, labs, and ground stations.
  • High costs of developing private infrastructure hinder independent growth.
• Market Saturation & Competition: Too many players entering the sector could cause instability.
  • Smaller startups may struggle to compete with large corporations.
• Environmental and Space Debris Issues: Increase in satellite launches could worsen space debris problems.
• Sustainable space policies are needed to manage deorbiting and recycling of satellites.

Way Ahead

• Enactment of a Space Activities Act: Define private sector roles, liability frameworks, and investment policies.
• Development of Indigenous Capabilities: Invest in domestic manufacturing of propulsion systems, AI-driven satellite tech, and 3D-printed components.
• Building Private Launch Infrastructure: Encourage private launchpads and testing centers to reduce dependency on ISRO.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Tamil Nadu’s mangrove forest cover has nearly doubled from 4,500 ha in 2021 to 9,039 ha in 2024, due to new plantations and preservation of existing mangroves.

Mangroves

• Mangroves are salt-tolerant plants found in tropical and subtropical intertidal regions, providing refuge for coastal biodiversity and acting as bio-shields against extreme climatic events.
• They are adapted to thrive in coastal regions with brackish water and wet, loose soil.
• They have tangled prop roots that help them survive tides and capture sediments while slowing water flow.

Importance

• Climate Change Mitigation: Mangroves stabilize coastlines, reduce erosion, encourage biodiversity, and protect coastal communities from sea-level rise and natural disasters.
• Carbon Sinks: Mangroves store carbon at up to four times the rate of terrestrial forests, making them vital for achieving net zero emissions .
• Ecosystem and Habitat Support: Mangroves support interconnected terrestrial, freshwater, and marine habitats, including species like Royal Bengal Tigers and river dolphins.
  • They capture sediments, create fertile lands, and help marine life thrive by making water clearer.
• Disaster Risk Reduction: Mangroves act as the first line of defense against tropical storms, cyclones, and hurricanes, slowing down winds and minimizing land impact.
• Socio-economic Importance: Mangroves provide critical jobs and protein for millions of small-scale fishers worldwide
  • They are also important for sustainable timber and fuelwood collection.

Threats

• The mangrove ecosystem faces pressures from population growth, land demand, and the need for resources like timber, fodder, fuel-wood, and fisheries.
• Aquaculture and fisheries obstructing tidal flow are significant threats to mangrove ecosystems.
• Agricultural and industrial activities in Coastal Regulation Zone areas have led to mangrove destruction.

Steps

• MISHTI Initiative: The government’s MISHTI initiative, aiming for large-scale mangrove plantation,is implemented through the MGNREGS, CAMPA Fund, and other sources.
  • The MISHTI initiative aligns with India’s Nationally Determined Contributions to create an additional 2.5-3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent carbon sink by 2030.
• Mangrove Alliance for Climate : India joined the Mangrove Alliance for Climate at the 27th Conference of the Parties in Egypt to address climate change.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• Mangroves play a crucial role in global conservation efforts by storing significant amounts of carbon, helping mitigate climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Mangroves are key guardians of coasts and essential for the environment and communities, making their conservation a necessary priority.
• There is a need to promote sustainable livelihoods such as eco-tourism and carbon credit programs, as well as district-specific planning for the preservation and expansion of mangrove ecosystems.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The revision of India’s model Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) text, as announced in the Union Budget 2025, aims to make the treaty more investor-friendly while aligning it with current global economic realities.

About the Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)

• BIT, also known as International Investment Agreements (IIAs), is a legal framework, under the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), designed to protect foreign investments.
• It is a reciprocal agreement between two countries to promote and protect foreign private investments in each other’s territories.
• It establishes minimum guarantees between the two countries regarding the treatment of foreign investments, such as:
  • National Treatment: Treating foreign investors at par with domestic companies;
  • Fair & Equitable Treatment: In accordance with international law; and,
  • Protection From Expropriation: Limiting each country’s ability to take over foreign investments in its territory.
• BIT typically includes mechanisms like investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) and state-to-state dispute settlement (SSDS) to address conflicts.

BIT & India

• India introduced its first Model Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) in 1993, but after facing multiple investor-state disputes, it revised its Model BIT text in 2015.
  • India signed its first BIT in 1994 with the UK and recently signed BITs with UAE and Uzbekistan in 2024.
  • India is currently negotiating BITs with the UK, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the European Union.
• Provisions of Model BIT, 2015: The Standing Committee on External Affairs noted that there is still scope for fine-tuning some of its provisions, like investor-state dispute settlement mechanism.

Why is a New Revision Needed?

• Narrow Definition of Investment: Model BIT (2015) limited the definition of investment to enterprises with substantial business operations in India, excluding indirect investments and portfolio investments.
• Overly Protectionist & Discouraging FDI: Several foreign investors view India’s BIT framework as unfavorable, prompting a rethink to balance investor protection with national interests.
• Geopolitical Shifts & Trade Agreements: With India negotiating trade agreements with the EU, UK, and Canada, a more balanced BIT is essential for fostering economic cooperation.
• Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) Concerns: Model BIT (2015) made it difficult for investors to seek international arbitration, which is a major deterrent for foreign businesses.

India’s Approach in Current Scenario

• Chief Economic Adviser V. Anantha Nageswaran announced that India’s new model Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) will be updated to align with the evolving global investment environment, while safeguarding India’s sovereign rights and regulatory space.
• Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman also highlighted that the BIT model will be revamped to encourage sustained foreign investment and make it more investor-friendly.

Expected Changes in the Revised Model BIT

• More Balanced Investor Protections: India may introduce a limited MFN clause and expand the scope of investment protections while maintaining regulatory autonomy.
  • It aims to attract more investors while preventing treaty shopping.
• Redefining Exhaustion of Local Remedies Clause: The rigid five-year requirement to exhaust local remedies may be relaxed to make international arbitration more accessible.
  • A ‘fork-in-the-road’ mechanism could be introduced, allowing investors to choose either domestic courts or arbitration.
  • Stronger Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: India is likely to reconsider its approach to ISDS.
  • A reformed arbitration mechanism — possibly with a standing appellate body or mediation framework — may be introduced to make dispute resolution more predictable.
• Incentives for Sustainable & Digital Investments: The revised BIT may introduce clauses favoring sustainable investments, digital trade, and green energy projects, in line with India’s climate goals.
• Sector-Specific Provisions: India may introduce sector-specific regulations, particularly for industries like pharmaceuticals, technology, and infrastructure, ensuring national security while attracting high-value investments.

Challenges Associated with the BITs

• Unequal Distribution of Rights and Obligations: BITs often create an unequal distribution of rights and obligations between developed countries, which are the source of most foreign direct investment, and developing countries, which are mainly recipients.
• Risk of Litigation: BITs lead to an increased risk of litigation. Some developing countries have been sentenced by international arbitral tribunals to pay millions of dollars as a result of alleged violations to these treaties.
• Ambiguous Legal Standards: Most of these awards are based on expansive interpretations of ambiguous legal standards and concepts such as ‘fair and equitable treatment’ and ‘indirect expropriation’.
• Limitations in Addressing Issues: BITs can’t address every problem that companies face abroad.
  • For example, American companies in China face challenges in protecting and enforcing their intellectual property rights (IPR).
• Loss of Policy Space: BITs can lead to a loss of policy space for the host country, limiting its ability to regulate in the public interest.
• Treaty Shopping: Investors might take advantage of the most favourable nation clause in BITs to sue a host country under a treaty to which it is not a party.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• A well-crafted Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) can play a transformative role in India’s economic growth by boosting investor confidence, attracting foreign investments, and aligning with global standards.
• By providing a stable and predictable business environment, a revised BIT can reassure foreign investors, encouraging them to invest in India.
• Increased foreign investments, in turn, drive economic development, create jobs, and enhance India’s global trade standing.
• Moreover, updating the BIT ensures that India’s investment policies remain competitive and in line with international best practices.
• BITs should capture India’s national interest, particularly regarding regulatory powers, and that BITs should be negotiated independently rather than as part of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs).

General Studies Paper-3

Context: NASA reported that global sea levels rose faster than expected in 2024, reaching 0.59 cm per year, surpassing the anticipated 0.43 cm.

Global Mean Sea Level

• Global mean sea level provides an integrative measure of the state of the climate system, encompassing both the ocean and cryosphere (ice covered portions of Earth).
• It is the average height of the entire ocean surface.
• It is a key indicator of climate change, reflecting changes in both the ocean and ice-covered regions.

Causes of Global Mean Sea Level changes

• Ice Melt: Warming causes ice sheets and glaciers to melt, adding freshwater to the ocean.
• Thermal Expansion: As oceans absorb heat, water expands, raising sea levels.
• In 2024, thermal expansion contributed to two-thirds of the rise, a shift from previous years when melting ice was the dominant factor.
• It was also the warmest year on record, with Earth’s oceans at their highest levels in three decades. Since 1993, global sea levels have risen by 10 cm, with the rate of rise more than doubling.
• Land Water Storage: Changes in water storage on land, such as groundwater pumping or dam building, can alter the amount of water in the ocean.
• Climate change is the primary driver of global sea level rise.

Effects of Global Sea Level Rise

• Threatens infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and buildings, leading to increased repair costs.
  • Causes more frequent and severe coastal flooding, exacerbating erosion and saltwater intrusion into freshwater supplies.
  • Endangers coastal ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, coral reefs) and displaces people in low-lying areas, causing social and economic challenges.
• Economic and Social Impacts: Rising seas lead to higher costs for coastal protection (e.g., sea walls) and infrastructure repairs.
  • Displacement of communities and loss of livelihoods (tourism, fishing, agriculture) due to coastal flooding and erosion.
  • Disrupts economic activities and places strain on social services, especially in vulnerable regions.

 Countries Most Affected by Rising Sea Levels:

• High-Risk Countries: Bangladesh, China, India, and the Netherlands are highly vulnerable.
• Pacific Island Nations: Kiribati, Tuvalu, and the Marshall Islands face extreme risks due to high exposure to storms and sea-level sensitivity.

What can be done to counter sea level rise?

• Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The most important action is to slow global warming by cutting emissions, the primary cause of climate change and sea level rise.
• Mitigation and Adaptation: Build infrastructure like sea walls and storm surge barriers to protect against flooding and erosion.
  • Improve drainage systems and construct flood-resistant buildings.
  • Restore natural barriers like mangroves, wetlands, and coral reefs to absorb wave energy and reduce storm surge impacts.
• Disaster Risk Reduction: Strengthen disaster risk reduction plans and enhance early warning systems, supported by the UN, to address sea level-related incidents.
  • In some cases, relocate communities from vulnerable coastal areas as part of adaptation strategies.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The ongoing trade war between the United States and China has caused significant global economic turbulence, influencing everything from tariffs on goods to the financial markets and international relations.

What is a Trade War?

• A trade war occurs when nations impose tariffs or trade barriers against each other in retaliation for perceived economic harm or unfair trade practices.
• It disrupts global supply chains, increases production costs, and impacts economic growth worldwide.

Background

• The US-China trade war began in 2018 when the US, under President Donald Trump, accused China of unfair trade practices.
• The US imposed tariffs on Chinese goods, leading to countermeasures from China. This escalation affected trade worth over $450 billion.
• India also got caught in the US-China trade war, facing tariffs on steel and aluminum exports and losing its Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) status in 2019.
• In February 2025, President Trump reintroduced a 10% tariff on all Chinese imports, prompting China to retaliate with its own set of tariffs.
• Trump’s reciprocal tariff policy is set to take effect from April 2.
• Trump’s policy aims to balance trade by imposing tariffs on countries that impose high tariffs on US goods.
• The policy is designed to reduce the US trade deficit and generate tariff revenue.

Global impact of Trade War

• Stock Market Volatility: Trade wars create uncertainty, leading to fluctuating stock prices. Investors react sharply to tariff announcements, impacting market stability worldwide.
• Supply Chain Disruptions: Tariffs increase production costs, forcing companies to rethink supply chains. Businesses look for alternative suppliers, leading to relocation of manufacturing hubs.
• Currency Fluctuations: As investors seek safer assets, emerging market currencies often depreciate, increasing import costs and inflationary pressures in developing economies.
• Commodity Price Swings: Trade wars can disrupt global demand for raw materials like oil, metals, and agricultural products, leading to price instability.
• Shifts in Trade Alliances: Countries seek new trading partners to mitigate tariff impacts. Regional trade agreements and economic blocs often gain prominence during such periods.

Negative Impact on India

• Electronics and Gadgets: Indian manufacturers depend on Chinese components for smartphones, laptops, and appliances. Disruptions in supply chains may lead to higher prices and shortages.
• Pharmaceuticals: Around 70% of India’s raw materials (APIs) for medicines come from China. Any delay or price hike in these imports will raise the cost of essential medicines.
• Automobile Industry: India’s auto sector relies on Chinese spare parts. Trade disruptions could slow production, increase costs, and extend delivery timelines.
• Stock Market and Currency: During the last trade war, foreign investors withdrew ₹33,000 crore from Indian markets, and the rupee depreciated by 9.5%, making imports costlier.

Positive Impact on India

• Rise in Exports: Indian exporters gained from the trade diversion as US buyers looked for alternatives to Chinese goods. Sectors like textiles, chemicals, and electronics saw increased demand.
• Boost to Indian IT Sector: US companies, reducing reliance on Chinese tech, outsourced more work to Indian firms, benefiting the IT industry.
• Agricultural Exports: India took advantage of China reducing US agricultural imports in 2018 by increasing soybean and other crop exports.

Way Ahead

• Geopolitical Strategy: India must navigate the US-China trade tensions carefully while securing its own economic interests through diplomacy and trade partnerships.
• Diversifying Supply Chains: Reducing reliance on China by strengthening domestic manufacturing under initiatives like ‘Make in India’ and boosting alternative supplier networks.
• Strengthening Trade Agreements: India should negotiate favorable trade deals with the US, ASEAN, and EU to capitalize on shifting trade dynamics.

Concluding Remarks

• Trade wars might seem like distant problems involving big governments, but their effects trickle down to everyday life.
• The global economy is more connected than ever. When two giants like the U.S. and China clash, the rest of the world, especially countries like India, feels the impact.
• While some sectors might find opportunities, overall uncertainty tends to slow down growth and affect livelihoods.
• The US is India’s largest trading partner, so India must accommodate US interests to maintain a good relationship.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recent advancements in technology are empowering women farmers and giving them a stronger voice on farms.

Key Contributions of Women in Agriculture

• Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economy, employing nearly 54.6% of the total workforce (Census2011), with women making up about 75% of the full-time farm labor force.
  • The workforce participation rate for rural females is significantly higher at 41.8% against urban women participation rate of 35.31% (MoSPI, 2017).
• Women comprise a substantial portion of the agricultural workforce, especially in rural areas, where 80% of women rely on agriculture for livelihood (ICAR Data).
  • The work of rural women in India is responsible for 60-80% of the country’s food production.

Role of Digital Technologies in Women’s Agricultural Work

• Enhanced Decision-Making Through Digital Tools: Mobile-based agricultural advisory services (such as Digital Green, Precision Agriculture for Development) provide real-time weather updates, market prices, and farming techniques.
• Increased Productivity and Reduced Labor Burden: Irrigation technologies (drip irrigation, solar-powered pumps) provide women with greater autonomy over water management, especially in drought-prone areas.
  • Climate-resilient farming techniques, including drought-resistant seeds and vertical farming, allow women to maintain productivity despite changing climate conditions.
• Mobile-Based Solutions for Market Access:
  • eNAM (National Agriculture Market): It allows women to connect with buyers directly.
  • Kisan Suvidha and AgriMarket App help in price discovery and weather forecasts.
  • Pusa Krishi offers expert agricultural advice to improve yields.
• Digital Financial Services for Women Farmers: These enable women to receive payments securely, avail of loans, and participate in decision-making.
  • Aadhaar-enabled Payment Systems (AePS)
  • Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) for subsidies
  • Access to Finance and Credit: Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana and the Self Help Group (SHG) – Bank Linkage platforms like the Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) have played a crucial role in improving women’s access to finance.
• AI, IoT, and Smart Farming Technologies:
• AI-powered crop disease detection apps that provide real-time alerts.
• IoT-based smart irrigation systems that optimize water use and reduce labor burden.
• Precision Agriculture technologies, such as GPS-guided equipment and drones, have significantly enhanced the efficiency and productivity of farming operations.
• Online Training & Capacity Building: Government programs such as the Digital India Initiative and National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) have introduced digital literacy programs targeted at rural women. Online platforms like:
  • Digital Green: Uses participatory videos to train women farmers.
  • YouTube Agricultural Channels: Provide free farming lessons.
  • Organizations like the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation and various government agencies provide training on the use of modern agricultural tools and techniques.
• Gender-Inclusive Agri-Tech Startups: Startups like Kalgudi, CropIn, and DeHaat provide AI-driven farm advisory, weather alerts, and soil analysis, empowering women farmers.

Challenges in Adoption of Digital Technologies

• Limited land ownership: Only about 12.8% of the operational holdings were owned by women, which reflects the gender disparity in ownership of landholdings in agriculture.
  • Moreover, there is a concentration of operational holdings (25.7%) by women in the marginal and small holdings categories.
• Gender wage gap: Women agricultural workers earn 20-30% less than their male counterparts.
• Limited Digital Literacy: Many rural women lack the skills to operate digital platforms.
• Gendered Socio-Cultural Barriers: Societal norms restrict women’s mobility and independent decision-making.
• Financial Constraints: Smartphones and internet access remain costly for some women.
• Lack of Localized Content: Many digital tools are in English or Hindi, limiting regional language accessibility.

Initiatives Supporting Digital Agriculture for Women in India

• Digital Agriculture Mission (2021-2025): It promotes digital technologies like AI, IoT, blockchain, and remote sensing in farming.
  • Women farmers can access precision agriculture tools, digital advisories, and financial services through this initiative.
• National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGPA): It focuses on the digital transformation of agriculture by integrating ICT-based solutions.
  • Special provisions are made for women farmers, including mobile-based advisories and digital market access.
• Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): A sub-component of the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), MKSP aims to empower women in agriculture.
  • Digital tools are used to train women in climate-resilient practices and sustainable farming.
• Kisan Suvidha App: A mobile app providing weather updates, market prices, and expert guidance.
  • It enables women farmers to make informed decisions in agriculture.
• PM KISAN & Direct Benefit Transfers: Ensures financial support directly to farmers’ bank accounts, including women farmers.
  • Encourages financial independence and access to credit for women in agriculture.
• AGRI STACK: A digital database that helps create farmer-centric digital services.
  • Women farmers can access customized support for inputs, finance, and markets.

Conclusion

• The integration of technology in agriculture is transforming the landscape for women farmers, giving them greater control over their farming operations and enhancing their decision-making power.
• By providing access to digital tools, precision agriculture, financial services, mechanization, and training, these technologies are paving the way for a more inclusive and equitable agricultural sector.
• As women continue to embrace these innovations, they are poised to play an even more significant role in shaping the future of farming.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: As India aims to become a developed nation by 2047, it is crucial to adopt a more flexible approach to fiscal deficit targets to ensure long-term investments without compromising fiscal prudence.

Understanding the Fiscal Deficit Target

• A fiscal deficit occurs when a government’s total expenditure exceeds its total revenue, excluding borrowings.
• In India, the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, 2003 initially set a fixed target for the fiscal deficit to ensure fiscal discipline.
• However, evolving macroeconomic conditions and economic shocks have led policymakers to consider a more flexible approach—termed the Flexible Deficit Target.
• It allows for adjusting fiscal deficit goals based on economic cycles, external shocks, and investment priorities.

Key Components of Flexibility

• Counter-Cyclicality: Allowing higher deficits during economic downturns and consolidation during high-growth periods.
• Expenditure Prioritization: Focusing on essential spending such as infrastructure and welfare while cutting non-urgent outlays.
• Revenue Considerations: Adapting targets based on tax collection efficiency, disinvestment proceeds, and other fiscal inflows.
• Escape Clauses: Built-in mechanisms to deviate from deficit targets during crises (e.g., pandemic, global shocks).

Evolution of Flexible Deficit Targeting in India

• FRBM Act and Amendments:
• FRBM Act, 2003: Mandated reducing the fiscal deficit to 3% of GDP.
• FRBM Review Committee (2017, N.K. Singh Panel): Recommended a more flexible approach, with a 2.5% – 3% target and an escape clause allowing deviation of 0.5% in exceptional circumstances.
• COVID-19 Impact (2020-21): The government increased the fiscal deficit target to 9.5% of GDP, demonstrating the necessity of flexibility in fiscal management.
• Union Budget 2021-22 & Beyond: The government set a medium-term goal of reducing the deficit to 4.5% of GDP by FY2025-26, instead of enforcing an immediate return to pre-pandemic levels.
  • Allowed for higher spending on infrastructure and social welfare to boost economic recovery.
  • The government emphasized pragmatic fiscal management over strict adherence to targets.
    • Capex boost to sustain economic growth.
    • Gradual deficit reduction instead of aggressive fiscal tightening.
    • A willingness to recalibrate targets based on economic needs.
    • It signals a de facto shift towards flexible deficit targeting.

Why India Needs a Flexible Deficit Target?

• Economic Shocks & Global Uncertainty: Events like COVID-19, geopolitical tensions, and oil price volatility demand fiscal space for counter-cyclical measures.
  • A rigid deficit target could limit government intervention during crises.
• Investment-Driven Growth Strategy: The government’s capital expenditure (CapEx) push requires sustained spending on infrastructure, which may exceed fixed deficit limits.
  • Flexible targets allow the government to borrow strategically rather than enforcing arbitrary spending cuts.
• Counter-Cyclical Fiscal Policy: During economic slowdowns, the government should increase spending to boost demand.
  • In periods of high growth, deficit targets can be tightened to maintain fiscal discipline.
• Infrastructure and Social Sector Needs: Developing economies like India require continuous investment in infrastructure, health, and education.
  • A rigid deficit target could force spending cuts in these critical areas.
• Private Sector Confidence: A balanced approach — where fiscal discipline is maintained without excessive rigidity — can boost investor confidence.
  • The key is ensuring that fiscal expansion is targeted and productive.

Challenges of Flexible Deficit Targeting

• Risk of Fiscal Indiscipline: A lack of strict targets may lead to uncontrolled borrowing, increasing debt-to-GDP ratios and risking credit rating downgrades.
  • Markets and credit rating agencies prefer clear deficit targets for policy predictability.
• Market Perception & Investor Confidence: International investors prefer fiscal predictability. Frequent adjustments to deficit targets could create policy uncertainty, affecting bond markets and FDI flows.
• Inflationary Pressure: Increased government borrowing may fuel inflation, especially when supply-side constraints exist.
• Higher Interest Costs: Persistent high deficits lead to increased government debt and interest payments, limiting funds for development projects.
• Welfare Programme Constraints: States with extensive welfare models, like Kerala and Tamil Nadu, struggle to expand services like healthcare and education.

International Best Practices

• USA: Adopts countercyclical fiscal policies, allowing higher deficits during recessions and aiming for gradual consolidation during growth phases.
• Germany: Traditionally follows strict fiscal discipline but relaxed its ‘debt brake’ during COVID-19.
• Japan: Prioritizes economic growth and employment stability, despite a 200% debt-to-GDP ratio.
• Australia: It uses public-private partnerships (PPP) to finance infrastructure, reducing its reliance on public debt.

Way Forward: Balancing Flexibility with Responsibility

• Strengthening Fiscal Rules: Introducing a clear range-based deficit target (e.g., 2.5% – 4% of GDP) rather than a strict fixed number.
• Institutional Oversight: Setting up an independent Fiscal Council to ensure responsible deficit deviations.
• Gradual Deficit Reduction: Committing to a credible glide path toward fiscal consolidation without abrupt spending cuts.

Conclusion

• India’s shift towards a Flexible Deficit Target reflects the need for adaptive economic policies in an unpredictable world.
• While flexibility helps manage crises and promote growth, it must be implemented prudently to maintain long-term fiscal sustainability.
• A balanced approach—allowing temporary deviations while maintaining a clear medium-term fiscal roadmap—is key to ensuring both economic stability and development.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to the World Air Quality Report 2024, thirteen of the world’s top 20 most polluted cities are in India, with Byrnihat on the Assam-Meghalaya border being the most polluted.

Key Findings of the report

• India is the fifth most polluted country in the world, with an average Air Quality Index (AQI) of 50.6 μg/m3 – 10 times higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) annual PM2.5 guideline value of 5 μg/m3.

• In 2023, India was the third most polluted country.

• Delhi continues to be the most polluted Capital city in the world with an average PM 2.5 concentration of 91.8 μg/m3.
• Out of the 138 countries and regions, 126 (91.3%) exceeded the WHO annual PM2.5 guideline value of 5 μg/m3.
  • Only 17% of global cities met WHO air pollution guidelines.
• 5 concentrations decreased in every country in Southeast Asia, though trans-boundary haze and lingering El Niño conditions remain major factors.

Steps Taken by Government of India to combat Air Pollution

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP is a comprehensive initiative with the goal of reducing air pollution in identified cities and regions across India.
  • The program focuses on improving air quality monitoring, implementing stricter emission standards, and promoting public awareness.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards: The government implemented BS-VI emission standards for vehicles nationwide in 2020.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): The PMUY scheme aims to provide clean cooking fuel to households by promoting the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as an alternative to traditional biomass-based cooking methods.
• FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme: The FAME scheme promotes the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce air pollution caused by vehicular emissions.
• Green Initiatives for Sustainable Habitat (GRIHA): GRIHA is an initiative to promote sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in the construction and operation of buildings.
• Waste Management Programs including the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, aim to address solid waste issues and promote cleaner disposal methods.
• Commission for Air Quality Management: The Commission has been set up for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas for better coordination, research, identification, and resolution of problems surrounding the air quality index.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): It is a set of emergency measures that kick in to prevent further deterioration of air quality once it reaches a certain threshold in the Delhi-NCR region.

Promotion of Public Transportation: Encouraging the use of public transportation, such as buses and metro systems, helps reduce the number of individual vehicles on the road, consequently lowering vehicular emissions.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Prime Minister paid a state visit to Mauritius, his second since 2015.

• He was the Chief Guest at Mauritius’ National Day Celebrations on March 12.

Key Highlights of the Visit

• MOUs Signed: Includes training civil servants, small and medium enterprises, blue economy development, combating financial crimes, and local currency settlement for trade.
• Indian Rupee Credit Line: A 487.6 crore INR line of credit for replacing water pipelines in Mauritius, a first-ever INR-based credit line.
• White-Shipping Agreement: Technical agreement for maritime security and information exchange.
• Award Conferred: PM Modi received the Grand Commander of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean, marking him as the first Indian recipient.
• Vision for the Global South: PM introduced Vision MAHASAGAR (Mutual And Holistic Advancement for Security And Growth Across Regions), building on the previous Vision SAGAR.

About Mauritius

• Location: Mauritius is a strategically located island nation in the western Indian Ocean, close to India.
• Population: Nearly 70% of the population (1.2 million) is of Indian origin, strengthening ties with India.
• Colonial History: Mauritius was initially a French colony before becoming a British possession.
• National Day: Mauritius celebrates National Day on March 12, in honor of the date of Mahatma Gandhi’s Dandi March.

India- Mauritius Bilateral Relations

• Diplomatic Relations: India and Mauritius established diplomatic relations in 1948 and have become key trading partners in the Asian continent.
• Commercial Relations: For the FY 2022-2023, Indian exports to Mauritius was USD 462.69 mn, Mauritian exports to India was USD 91.50 mn and Total trade was USD 554.19 mn.
• Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement: Signed in 1982 to help non-resident investors avoid double taxes.
• CECPA Agreement: India and Mauritius signed the Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) in 2021, India’s first trade agreement with an African country.
• FDI Source: Mauritius is the second-largest source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into India for FY 2023-24, after Singapore.
• Defence Relations: India is Mauritius’ preferred defence partner for acquiring platforms, capacity building, joint patrolling, hydrological services, etc.
• First Agreement: Transfer of a Dornier aircraft and an Advanced Light Helicopter (Dhruv) to Mauritius on lease.
• Second Agreement: A $100 million Line of Credit (LoC) for Mauritius to procure defence equipment.
• Space Cooperation: India and Mauritius are exploring space research opportunities and signed an MoU in November 2023 for developing a joint satellite.
• Indian Migration: French Rule (1700s): Indians from Puducherry were brought to Mauritius as artisans and masons.
  • British Rule (1834 – early 1900s): About half a million Indian indentured workers arrived in Mauritius.
    • The majority of these workers settled in Mauritius, influencing its culture and demographics.
    • Development Partnership: India has been contributing to projects like the Metro Express, new hospitals, and infrastructure in Agaléga Island.
    • Humanitarian Assistance: India assisted Mauritius during Cyclone Chido in 2023, showcasing India’s role as a “First Responder.”
    • SAGAR: The term SAGAR – – ‘Security and Growth for All in the Region’ was coined by the PM in 2015 during his visit with a focus on the blue economy.

Significance of Mauritius for India

• Strategic Location: Mauritius is strategically located in the Indian Ocean, crucial for India’s maritime security and trade routes.
• Agaléga island: It is located 1,100 km north of Mauritius, has strategic importance due to its proximity to the Indian southern coast.
  • In 2024, India and Mauritius jointly inaugurated the air strip and jetty projects on the island, strengthening their bilateral cooperation.
    • Countering China’s Influence: Strengthening ties with Mauritius is crucial for India to counter China’s growing presence in the Indian Ocean region.
    • Geopolitical Competition: The Indian Ocean region is a hotspot for geopolitical rivalry, with countries like Europe, the Gulf, Russia, Iran, and Turkey expanding their influence.
    • Cultural and Historical Ties: With nearly 70% of its population of Indian origin, Mauritius shares deep cultural, historical, and familial ties with India.
    • Blue Economy: Mauritius is key to India’s interests in the Indian Ocean’s blue economy, especially for maritime resources, fisheries, and offshore energy exploration.
    • Indian Ocean Cooperation: Mauritius plays a key role in regional organizations like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), contributing to regional stability and economic cooperation.

Areas of Concern

• Tax Treaty Misuse: The Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) between India and Mauritius had been a point of concern due to its potential misuse for illicit activities like money laundering and round-tripping of funds.
• Security Concerns: Mauritius is a key maritime entity in the Indo-Pacific, making security issues critical.
  • India and Mauritius have a strong defence partnership, but evolving regional dynamics pose challenges to maintaining and enhancing this relationship.
• Economic Challenges: Despite being major economic partners, there are concerns regarding trade imbalances and the need to diversify the trade basket.
  • Both countries may need to explore new avenues for trade cooperation and address any barriers that hinder the flow of goods and services.
    • Presence of China: In recent years, several external powers, including China, have made increasing inroads in Africa and through the Indian Ocean.
  • In 2021, China’s Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Mauritius came into effect.
  • This agreement will help China expand the Belt and Road strategy in Africa.
  • China’s increasing presence in the region will pose concerns for India.

Way Ahead

• The relationship between India and Mauritius is multifaceted and has grown stronger over the years.
• Both nations can work towards expanding defense and security collaboration, including joint training, counterterrorism efforts, and maritime security.
• This multi-faceted approach can further solidify the longstanding relationship between India and Mauritius, contributing to mutual growth and regional stability.