General Studies Paper -3

Context: President Droupadi Murmu emphasized the importance of inclusive development for all regions, including those affected by Maoist extremism in Chhattisgarh.

About

• She stressed the need to balance modern development with environmental protection and the inclusion of all sections of society in the development process.
• Naxalism or Left Wing Extremism (LWE) is one of the major challenges to India’s internal security.
• Naxalites seek to overthrow the State through violent means.
• Naxal affected areas in India are known as the ‘Red Corridor’.
• The States of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa and Bihar are considered severely affected.
• She emphasized the “saturation approach” to ensure that no citizen is left behind in India’s development journey.

What is Inclusive Development?

• Inclusive Development refers to a development approach that ensures all segments of society have equal access to opportunities, resources, and benefits of economic, social, and political progress.
• It focuses on reducing inequality and addressing the needs of diverse populations.
• The Indian model of inclusive growth, viewed from a development economics perspective, has three pillars: Market economics, Empowerment, and Pragmatism.
• India ranked 62nd out of 74 emerging economies in the World Economic Forums’ Inclusive Development Index (IDI), last released in 2018.
• The three key approaches for inclusive development include:
  • Good governance (progressive politics, effective management and successful engagement in the global economy;
  • Structural transformation, (economic, social and demographic), and;
  • Multi-pronged policy and programme mix (macroeconomic policies, sound institutions, public-private sector development, effective economic policy management).

Identified Segments for Inclusive Development

• Tribal and Rural Communities: Assimilation of communities in society; educating at grassroot level; electricity, network connectivity; connectivity through roads; pucca houses; introduction to new basic technologies etc.
• Physically Disabled: Providing facilities such as wheelchairs and audio-visual aids; installation of ramps and tactical paths for easy accessibility; training of individuals on interacting with differently abled; skilling specially-abled, etc.
• Streamlining Unbanked Section: Awareness should be provided related to the importance of bank accounts in rural and tribal areas, financial literacy, mobile banking etc.
• Women: Pre- and post-pregnancy care, healthcare, education, childcare, skill-development, opportunities for financial improvement etc.

Need for Inclusive Development in India

• Addressing Inequality: India has significant disparities in income, education, healthcare, and living standards, particularly between urban and rural areas, and among different social groups.
• Empowering Marginalized Communities: Large sections of society, including tribal communities, women, and the differently-abled, remain excluded from mainstream development and opportunities.
• Promoting Social Justice: Inclusive development ensures that every citizen, regardless of their background, has access to the benefits of growth, promoting fairness and reducing social tensions.
• Economic Growth: India can unlock the full potential of its population, leading to more sustainable and equitable economic growth.
• Global Competitiveness: A more inclusive society leads to a more productive, skilled, and innovative workforce, enhancing India’s global competitiveness.
• Sustainable Development: It aligns with the goal of long-term, sustainable growth, considering the needs of all sections of society, including future generations.

Constitutional Framework for Inclusive Development

• Fundamental Rights (Part III):
  • Equality Before Law (Article 14): Guarantees equality for all citizens.
  • Prohibition of Discrimination (Article 15): Ensures no discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
  • Equality of Opportunity (Article 16): Ensures equal opportunities in public employment.
  • Right to Education (Article 21A): Guarantees free education for children aged 6 to 14.
  • Protection of Minorities (Articles 29 & 30): Safeguards the cultural and educational rights of minorities.
• Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV):
  • Social Justice (Article 38): Promotes the welfare of the people, focusing on justice and reducing inequalities.
  • Promotion of Weaker Sections (Article 46): Aims to protect and promote the interests of SCs, STs, and OBCs.
  • Reservation and Affirmative Action: Articles 15(4) and 16(4) allow for affirmative action, such as reservations in education and employment for SCs, STs, and OBCs.
  • Panchayats and Local Governance (Part IX): Article 243N strengthens local self-governance, ensuring the participation of marginalized communities.
  • Legal Protection for Vulnerable Groups: Laws like the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 protect disadvantaged communities from discrimination and violence.
  • Judicial Oversight: The Supreme Court and High Courts ensure that policies align with the constitutional values of equality and justice.

Conclusion

• There are many Government initiatives focused on providing opportunities, resources, and social security for marginalized communities, ensuring broad-based growth and well-being.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, the Chief Justice of India (CJI) initiated an unprecedented three-member in-house inquiry into the conduct of Delhi High Court judge Justice Yashwant Varma.

About the In-House Inquiry

• Origins and Evolution:
  • The need for an in-house inquiry mechanism arose in 1995 following allegations of financial impropriety against Bombay High Court Chief Justice A.M. Bhattacharjee.
  • In-House Procedure was formulated by the Supreme Court in 1997 following a case involving allegations against Justice V. Ramaswami, a former SC judge.
  • The process was refined in 2014 after a sexual harassment complaint led to the establishment of a seven-step inquiry framework

Key Features of the In-House Inquiry

• Distinct from Impeachment: Unlike impeachment, which requires Parliamentary approval under Article 124(4) of the Constitution, the in-house inquiry is an internal mechanism aimed at addressing conduct inconsistent with judicial values.
• Formation of Inquiry Committees: Committees typically consist of senior judges from different High Courts to ensure impartiality.
  • For the current case, a three-member committee includes the Chief Justice of Punjab & Haryana High Court, Chief Justice of Himachal Pradesh High Court, and a Justice of Karnataka High Court.
• Transparency: Recent inquiries have demonstrated a commitment to transparency, with reports and evidence made publicly accessible.

Process of In-House Inquiry

• Preliminary Scrutiny: Complaints against judges are first examined by the Chief Justice of India (CJI) in the case of SC judges, or by the Chief Justice of the respective High Court for HC judges.
• Formation of a Committee: If a prima facie case is established, a three-judge committee is formed to investigate the allegations.
• Inquiry Proceedings: The committee examines the evidence, questions the accused judge, and determines whether the allegations hold merit.
• Report Submission: The committee submits its findings to the CJI, who then decides on further action.

Possible Outcomes

• If the judge is found guilty of misconduct, the report is sent to the President of India for consideration of removal via Parliamentary impeachment.
• If the misconduct is minor, the judge may be advised to resign voluntarily.
• If the allegations are baseless, the matter is dropped.

Challenges in the In-House Inquiry Process

• Lack of Transparency: The inquiry is conducted behind closed doors, and reports are not made public. It raises concerns about accountability.
• No Binding Authority: Even if misconduct is established, the judiciary cannot directly remove a judge; impeachment by Parliament is required.
• Rare Impeachment: The complex impeachment process makes it nearly impossible to remove judges, as seen in the cases of Justice Ramaswami (1991) and Justice S. N. Shukla (2022).
• Political Influence: The impeachment process can be influenced by political considerations, reducing its effectiveness.
• Delayed Justice: Investigations often take years, diminishing public faith in judicial accountability.

Notable Cases of Judicial Inquiry in India

• Justice V. Ramaswami Case (1991): The first judge to face impeachment proceedings, but Parliament failed to remove him due to political maneuvering.
• Justice Soumitra Sen Case (2011): Found guilty of financial misconduct by an in-house inquiry; the Rajya Sabha passed an impeachment motion, but he resigned before the Lok Sabha could vote.
• Justice S. N. Shukla Case (2022): Accused of favoring private medical colleges; he was found guilty by an in-house inquiry, but impeachment did not follow.

Recommendations for Reform

• Make Inquiry Reports Public: Increasing transparency will enhance public trust.
• Strengthen Judicial Oversight Bodies: The establishment of Judicial Standards and Accountability Commission will be a significant step towards ensuring transparency and accountability in the judiciary.
• Introduce Alternative Disciplinary Mechanisms: Instead of only relying on impeachment, other disciplinary actions like suspensions or fines should be considered.
• Ensure Time-Bound Proceedings: Delays in inquiries should be minimized to prevent judicial misconduct from going unpunished.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Chemicals and Fertilizers highlights several key issues and recommendations regarding India’s fertilizer sector.

Key Recommendations of the Committee:

• Funding Concerns: The committee is concerned about the Ministry of Finance’s reduction in the Department of Fertilizers’ budget allocation for 2025-26, specifically impacting the Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) and Urea Subsidy Schemes.
  • It urges the Union Fertilizers Ministry to seek additional funds at the revised estimate stage to prevent negative effects on farmer subsidy schemes.
• Nano Fertilizer Promotion: Committee emphasizes the need to expand production capacity for nano urea and nano diammonium phosphate (DAP).
  • It calls for a strategy to popularize these nano fertilizers among farmers, citing their potential to improve crop yields and reduce conventional fertilizer usage.
• Raw Material Security: The committee highlights the lack of mining lease agreements for raw material extraction, exploration, refining, or production.
  • It recommends that the Centre enter into such agreements to strengthen domestic supply and achieve self-sufficiency in fertilizers.
• Fund Utilization: It points out underutilization of funds across various fertilizer categories during 2024-25.
  • It recommends that the Centre ensures full utilization of allocations in a planned and continuous manner.
• Urea Subsidy Scheme: Given urea’s importance in food-grain production, the committee stresses the need for the Urea Subsidy Scheme to continue.

Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Policy

• Objective: Launched in 2010, the NBS Policy aims to:
  • Provide subsidized fertilizers to farmers
  • Promote balanced use of nutrients, ensuring soil health
  • Reduce fiscal burden by making subsidy nutrient-specific
• Validity: The policy has been approved for implementation until the financial year 2025-26.
• Legal Framework: It operates under the Fertilizer (Control) Order (FCO), 1985, which is issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955.
  • The FCO sets standards for fertilizer use, specifications, licensing, and trading regulations.
• Scope and Eligibility: The NBS policy covers 25 grades of Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) fertilizers, including common ones like Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), Muriate of Potash (MOP), Mono Ammonium Phosphate (MAP), and Triple Super Phosphate (TSP).
  • The government sets a fixed subsidy rate (in Rupees per kilogram) for each primary nutrient in these fertilizers: Nitrogen (N), Phosphate (P), Potash (K), and Sulphur (S).
• Subsidy Determination: An Inter-Ministerial Committee (IMC) plays a critical role in recommending the per-nutrient subsidy rates for N, P, K, and S.
  • These recommendations are made before the start of each financial year and are then considered by the Department of Fertilizers for final approval.
• Key implications: The NBS policy allows for the price of fertilizers to fluctuate according to the cost of the raw materials used to produce the fertilizers. Thus the subsidy amount changes, but the farmer still receives a subsidized fertilizer.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Meghalaya government is pushing for a TB-free State by re-skilling TB survivors and bringing them back into control programmes as ‘TB champions’.

TB Champions

• A TB Champion is a person who has been affected by TB and successfully completed the treatment.
• As survivors, they can provide valuable support to those with TB and their families.
• NTEP has designed a standard sensitization and training curriculum for empowering TB survivors as TB Champions.
  • TB survivors themselves can access the self-learning modules available online.
  • Districts can coordinate with NTEP partners or local NGOs to conduct the training.

What is Tuberculosis?

• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that most often affects the lungs and is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• It spreads through the air when infected people cough, sneeze or spit.
• Symptoms: prolonged cough (sometimes with blood), chest pain, weakness, fatigue, weight loss, fever, night sweats.
• While TB usually affects the lungs, it also affects the kidneys, brain, spine and skin.
• Treatment: It is preventable and curable with antibiotics.
• TB Vaccine: The Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine remains the only licensed vaccine against TB; it provides moderate protection against severe forms of TB (TB meningitis) in infants and young children.

TB in India

• TB as a global health challenge: India has the highest TB burden in the world, contributing to 26% of the global burden and 29% of global TB-related deaths.
• India is followed by Indonesia (10%), China (6.8%), the Philippines (6.8%), and Pakistan (6.3%).
• Multidrug-Resistant TB: India represents 27% of the world’s multi-drug-resistant TB cases, underscoring the need for specialized treatment approaches.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) has recognised India’s progress, with a 17.7% decline in TB incidence from 2015 to 2023, a rate more than double the global decline of 8.3%.
• India’s goal is to eliminate tuberculosis (TB) by 2025, five years ahead of the global target of 2030.

Challenges Faced by India in Eliminating TB

• Drug-resistant TB cases: India has a significant burden of drug-resistant TB, including multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB).
  • This type of TB is much harder to treat and requires more expensive, specialised drugs and a longer duration of treatment.
• Diagnostics and Case Detection: The accurate and timely diagnosis of TB remains a challenge.
  • Some areas lack access to modern diagnostic tools, leading to reliance on older methods with limitations.
• Poor primary health-care and infrastructure: In many parts of India, especially in rural and remote areas, there is limited access to healthcare facilities.
  • This can result in delayed diagnosis and treatment, allowing TB to spread within communities.
• Stigma and Awareness: Stigma associated with TB lead to delays in seeking healthcare, and lack of awareness about the disease contribute to its persistence.
• Private Sector Engagement: A significant portion of healthcare services in India is provided by the private sector.
  • Coordinating efforts between the public and private sectors and ensuring standardized treatment protocols are crucial for effective TB control.
• Treatment Adherence: TB treatment requires a prolonged course of antibiotics, and ensuring patient adherence to the full course is challenging.
• Vulnerable Populations: Certain populations, such as migrant workers, urban slum dwellers, and those living in crowded conditions, are at higher risk of TB.

Steps Taken by Government of India to Eliminate TB

• Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program (RNTCP): The RNTCP, launched in 1997, was the flagship program to control TB in India.
  • The program has been continuously revised and strengthened over the years.
• National Tuberculosis Elimination Program (NTEP): The Government of India has developed a National Strategic Plan (2017-25) for Ending TB in the country by 2025.
• Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (PMTBMBA): Launched in 2022 for community support to TB patients with the objective to provide nutritional, diagnostic and vocational support.
• Universal Drug Susceptibility Testing (DST): The government has scaled up efforts to provide universal access to drug susceptibility testing, helping to identify drug-resistant strains of TB early and tailor treatment accordingly.
  • Earlier, the patients were started on first line treatment and were tested for drug resistance only if the therapy did not work.
• Ni-kshay portal: An online Ni-kshay portal has been set up to track the notified TB cases.
• New Drugs: Newer drugs such as Bedaquiline and Delamanid for the treatment of drug-resistant TB have been included in the government’s basket of drugs provided free TB patients.
• R&D for Treatment: Researchers have been studying shorter three- and four-month courses of anti-tubercular drugs, instead of the existing six-month therapy.
• Vaccine Development: Trials are underway to test the effectiveness of a vaccine called Immuvac, which was initially developed to prevent leprosy, in preventing TB.
  • Researchers are also testing VPM1002, which is a recombinant form of the BCG vaccine modified to express the TB antigens better.

General Studies Paper-3

Context:  The Government has decided not to extend the PLI Scheme beyond the existing 14 sectors.

• Despite initial success in some areas, the scheme underperformed in others and saw delays in incentive payouts.
• Out of the $23 billion allocated, only $1.73 billion (8%) has been disbursed as of October 2024.
• $151.93 billion worth of goods have been produced under the scheme—just 37% of the original target. Firms like Foxconn, Reliance, and Adani faced delays, unmet targets, or non-compliance.
• Hence, the government has declined requests to extend production deadlines or add new sectors to the scheme.

About the PLI Scheme

• Lauch: In 2020 under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry with an outlay of ₹97 lakh crore.
• Sectors Included: It covers 14 sectors (Mobile, Pharma, Auto, ACC Battery, Telecom, White Goods, Solar, etc.)
• Objectives: It offers incentives to eligible firms on incremental sales for five years as part of the Make in India initiative.
• It aims to reduce India’s dependence on foreign countries like China and increase employment in labor-intensive sectors.

Raise manufacturing’s share in GDP to 25% by 2025

• Incentive Mechanism: 4–6% on incremental sales over a base year.
• Applicable to both domestic and foreign companies registered in India.

Benefits of PLI Scheme

• Electronics Success: India produced $49 billion worth of mobiles in FY 2023–24; Apple now manufactures high-end models in India.
• Pharmaceutical Growth: Exports nearly doubled to $27.85 billion from a decade ago.
• Boosted FDI inflow, helped develop core industries, and supported India’s ‘China Plus One’ strategy.
• Encouraged production in strategic sectors (e.g., semiconductors, solar modules).

Issues and Concerns

• Low Disbursement: Only 8% of incentives disbursed despite meeting targets.
• Delays in Subsidies: They are not released on time, eventually affecting cash flow.
• Unmet Targets: Many firms failed to initiate or scale up production.
• Red Tapism: Bureaucratic hurdles and rigid compliance conditions.
• No GDP Boost: Manufacturing share fell from 15.4% to 14.3% (2020–2024).

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Public Accounts Committee (PAC), led by K.C. Venugopal, criticized the Tourism Ministry for poor execution of the Swadesh Darshan scheme.

About

• The panel was reviewing a report of the Comptroller and Auditor General on the scheme.
• Despite the Ministry of Tourism’s claims of completion for most of the sanctioned projects, the panel found substantial discrepancies.

Swadesh Darshan

• The Ministry of Tourism launched its  flagship scheme of  ‘Swadesh Darshan’ in 2014-15.
• The Ministry has now revamped it as Swadesh Darshan 2.0 with the objective to develop sustainable and responsible destinations following a tourist & destination centric approach.
• Theme-Based Tourist Circuits: It identifies various thematic circuits based on specific themes such as:
• Spiritual circuits (e.g., Char Dham Yatra, Buddhist circuit)
• Cultural circuits (e.g., North East Circuit, Tribal Circuit)
• Heritage circuits
• Wildlife circuits
• Coastal circuits
• Funding: The Ministry of Tourism allocates funds to various states and Union Territories for the development of these circuits.

Key issues raised

• Lapses in Planning: No feasibility studies conducted before project launch.
• Financial Mismanagement: Budget overruns due to poor planning; approvals granted without Detailed Project Reports (DPRs).
• Weak Monitoring: No formal mechanism for project evaluation or approval; several projects delayed or incomplete.
• Tourism Ministry’s Claim vs. Reality: The Ministry of Tourism claimed that 75 out of 76 projects were completed, but the committee found that several projects, including the Kanwaria route in Bihar, Tribal circuit in Telangana, and Sree Narayana Guru Ashram in Kerala, remained incomplete or non-functional.

Way Ahead

• The committee has instructed the Ministry of Tourism to conduct physical inspections of all the projects and provide a comprehensive report within three weeks.
• The committee also asked for details on how the scheme impacted employment generation and how it affected tourist footfall, as these were key indicators of the scheme’s success.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The demand for skilled public health professionals faces numerous challenges, ranging from a lack of standardization in training to limited job opportunities for graduates.

About the Public Health Education in India

• Evolution: Dates back to the colonial era when the focus was primarily on epidemic control.
• 1932: Establishment of institutions like the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (AIIHPH), shift toward systematic public health training.
• Post-independence Era: Institutions such as the National Institute of Health and Family Welfare (NIHFW) and various medical universities expanded their curriculum to include public health as a specialized field.
• Current Framework:
• Undergraduate Programs:
  • Bachelor of Public Health (BPH): A foundational course that provides knowledge on epidemiology, health policies, and community health.
  • MBBS with Community Medicine Specialization: A component of the medical curriculum that introduces students to public health concepts.
• Postgraduate and Doctoral Programs:
  • Master of Public Health (MPH): A specialized program available at institutions like AIIMS, TISS, and IIPH, covering epidemiology, health systems, and policy-making.
  • MD in Community Medicine: Focuses on research, preventive medicine, and health administration.
  • D. in Public Health: Offered by universities to promote in-depth research on healthcare challenges in India.
• Short-Term and Online Courses: To cater to working professionals, various organizations, including the Indian Institutes of Public Health (IIPH) and IGNOU, offer diploma and certificate courses in health management, epidemiology, and nutrition.
• India has seen a 60% increase in institutions offering public health education over the past decade.

Key Institutions Providing Public Health Education

• All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (AIIHPH), Kolkata
• Public Health Foundation of India (PHFI) and Indian Institutes of Public Health (IIPH)
• Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai
• AIIMS (All India Institute of Medical Sciences), New Delhi
• National Institute of Epidemiology (NIE), Chennai

Key Challenges With Public Health Education in India

• Lack of Awareness and Recognition: Public health is often overshadowed by clinical medicine, leading to fewer enrollments in MPH programs.
• Limited awareness about career opportunities in public health discourages students from pursuing this field.
• Shortage of Faculty and Infrastructure: Many institutions struggle with inadequate faculty trained in public health.
• Infrastructure in public health training centers, especially in rural areas, remains underdeveloped.
• Gaps in Curriculum and Practical Training: The curriculum often lacks integration with real-world challenges, resulting in graduates with theoretical knowledge but limited practical exposure.
• Limited fieldwork and internship opportunities affect hands-on learning.
• Regional Disparities: Most renowned public health institutions are concentrated in urban areas, leaving rural and remote regions underserved.
• Accessibility and affordability of quality education remain a concern for students from marginalized communities.
• Lack of Standardization: Public health education in India lacks a standardized curriculum, leading to inconsistencies in the quality of training across institutions. It affects the preparedness of graduates to address real-world health challenges.
• Lack of Health Professionals: According to a report by the National Health Systems Resource Centre (NHSRC), India needs over 1.5 million trained public health professionals to address the growing healthcare needs, especially post-pandemic.
• WHO estimates that India has only one public health professional for every 10,000 people, highlighting the need for more trained professionals.

Efforts Related To Public Health Education in India

• Allocations (Union Budget 2024-25):
• Increased Allocation for Health: ₹23 lakh crore for the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH&FW).
• Focus on Public Health Education that includes the establishment of new medical colleges and the upgradation of existing institutions to address the shortage of healthcare professionals.
• Digital Health Initiatives including telemedicine and digital health records, to improve accessibility and efficiency.
• Continued Support For National Health Mission (NHM)
• Literacy and Digital Health Education:
• National Digital Health Mission (NDHM) aims to digitize health records and improve public awareness about diseases and treatments.
• Mobile-based apps like Arogya Setu, eSanjeevani, and MyGov Health have helped disseminate health information.
• Internet penetration in rural India has increased to 38%, improving digital health education access.
• Public Awareness Programs and Campaigns like Mission Indradhanush, National Tobacco Control Program (NTCP).
• Mental Health Awareness under the National Mental Health Program (NMHP).

Opportunities and Future Prospects

• Government Initiatives and Policy Support: The National Health Policy (2017) emphasizes the need for public health training and research.
• Ayushman Bharat and the National Health Mission (NHM) have created demand for trained public health professionals.
• Growth of Online and Distance Learning: Platforms like SWAYAM and initiatives by IGNOU provide affordable online public health courses, making education more accessible.
• Expansion of Research and International Collaborations: Collaborations with global public health institutions such as WHO, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health are improving research quality in India.
• Emerging Career Opportunities: Public health graduates are increasingly being recruited by government health departments, NGOs, international organizations (WHO, UNICEF), and private healthcare firms.

Way Forward

• Standardization of Curriculum: Establishing a central regulatory body, such as a Public Health Education Council, can ensure uniform training standards and faculty qualifications across institutions.
• Expansion of Institutions: Setting up public health schools in underserved regions can improve access to education and address regional disparities.
• Integration of Practical Training: Incorporating mandatory internships and fieldwork in government health programs can enhance the practical skills of students.
• Creation of Public Health Jobs: Introducing State Public Health Cadres and increasing recruitment in government health systems can provide dedicated employment opportunities for graduates.
• Encouraging Private Sector Participation: Incentivizing private hospitals and industries to hire public health professionals can expand job opportunities and foster collaboration between sectors.
• Increased Funding: Allocating more resources to public health education and research can strengthen the sector and support the development of a skilled workforce.

Conclusion

• The challenges facing public health education in India are significant but not insurmountable.
• By addressing issues such as standardization, funding, and job creation, the country can build a strong public health workforce capable of meeting its healthcare needs.
• A collaborative approach involving the government, academia, and the private sector is essential to achieve this goal and ensure a healthier future for all.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: NASA reported that global sea levels rose faster than expected in 2024, reaching 0.59 cm per year, surpassing the anticipated 0.43 cm.

Global Mean Sea Level

• Global mean sea level provides an integrative measure of the state of the climate system, encompassing both the ocean and cryosphere (ice covered portions of Earth).
• It is the average height of the entire ocean surface.
• It is a key indicator of climate change, reflecting changes in both the ocean and ice-covered regions.

Causes of Global Mean Sea Level changes

• Ice Melt: Warming causes ice sheets and glaciers to melt, adding freshwater to the ocean.
• Thermal Expansion: As oceans absorb heat, water expands, raising sea levels.
• In 2024, thermal expansion contributed to two-thirds of the rise, a shift from previous years when melting ice was the dominant factor.
• It was also the warmest year on record, with Earth’s oceans at their highest levels in three decades. Since 1993, global sea levels have risen by 10 cm, with the rate of rise more than doubling.
• Land Water Storage: Changes in water storage on land, such as groundwater pumping or dam building, can alter the amount of water in the ocean.
• Climate change is the primary driver of global sea level rise.

Effects of Global Sea Level Rise

• Threatens infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and buildings, leading to increased repair costs.
• Causes more frequent and severe coastal flooding, exacerbating erosion and saltwater intrusion into freshwater supplies.
• Endangers coastal ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, coral reefs) and displaces people in low-lying areas, causing social and economic challenges.
• Economic and Social Impacts: Rising seas lead to higher costs for coastal protection (e.g., sea walls) and infrastructure repairs.
• Displacement of communities and loss of livelihoods (tourism, fishing, agriculture) due to coastal flooding and erosion.
• Disrupts economic activities and places strain on social services, especially in vulnerable regions.

Countries Most Affected by Rising Sea Levels:

• High-Risk Countries: Bangladesh, China, India, and the Netherlands are highly vulnerable.
• Pacific Island Nations: Kiribati, Tuvalu, and the Marshall Islands face extreme risks due to high exposure to storms and sea-level sensitivity.

What can be done to counter sea level rise?

• Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The most important action is to slow global warming by cutting emissions, the primary cause of climate change and sea level rise.
• Mitigation and Adaptation: Build infrastructure like sea walls and storm surge barriers to protect against flooding and erosion.
• Improve drainage systems and construct flood-resistant buildings.
• Restore natural barriers like mangroves, wetlands, and coral reefs to absorb wave energy and reduce storm surge impacts.
• Disaster Risk Reduction: Strengthen disaster risk reduction plans and enhance early warning systems, supported by the UN, to address sea level-related incidents.
• In some cases, relocate communities from vulnerable coastal areas as part of adaptation strategies.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The ongoing trade war between the United States and China has caused significant global economic turbulence, influencing everything from tariffs on goods to the financial markets and international relations.

What is a Trade War?

• A trade war occurs when nations impose tariffs or trade barriers against each other in retaliation for perceived economic harm or unfair trade practices.
• It disrupts global supply chains, increases production costs, and impacts economic growth worldwide.

Background

• The US-China trade war began in 2018 when the US, under President Donald Trump, accused China of unfair trade practices.
• The US imposed tariffs on Chinese goods, leading to countermeasures from China. This escalation affected trade worth over $450 billion.
• India also got caught in the US-China trade war, facing tariffs on steel and aluminum exports and losing its Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) status in 2019.
• In February 2025, President Trump reintroduced a 10% tariff on all Chinese imports, prompting China to retaliate with its own set of tariffs.
• Trump’s reciprocal tariff policy is set to take effect from April 2.
• Trump’s policy aims to balance trade by imposing tariffs on countries that impose high tariffs on US goods.
• The policy is designed to reduce the US trade deficit and generate tariff revenue.

Global impact of Trade War

• Stock Market Volatility: Trade wars create uncertainty, leading to fluctuating stock prices. Investors react sharply to tariff announcements, impacting market stability worldwide.
• Supply Chain Disruptions: Tariffs increase production costs, forcing companies to rethink supply chains. Businesses look for alternative suppliers, leading to relocation of manufacturing hubs.
• Currency Fluctuations: As investors seek safer assets, emerging market currencies often depreciate, increasing import costs and inflationary pressures in developing economies.
• Commodity Price Swings: Trade wars can disrupt global demand for raw materials like oil, metals, and agricultural products, leading to price instability.
• Shifts in Trade Alliances: Countries seek new trading partners to mitigate tariff impacts. Regional trade agreements and economic blocs often gain prominence during such periods.

Negative Impact on India

• Electronics and Gadgets: Indian manufacturers depend on Chinese components for smartphones, laptops, and appliances. Disruptions in supply chains may lead to higher prices and shortages.
• Pharmaceuticals: Around 70% of India’s raw materials (APIs) for medicines come from China. Any delay or price hike in these imports will raise the cost of essential medicines.
• Automobile Industry: India’s auto sector relies on Chinese spare parts. Trade disruptions could slow production, increase costs, and extend delivery timelines.
• Stock Market and Currency: During the last trade war, foreign investors withdrew ₹33,000 crore from Indian markets, and the rupee depreciated by 9.5%, making imports costlier.

Positive Impact on India

• Rise in Exports: Indian exporters gained from the trade diversion as US buyers looked for alternatives to Chinese goods. Sectors like textiles, chemicals, and electronics saw increased demand.
• Boost to Indian IT Sector: US companies, reducing reliance on Chinese tech, outsourced more work to Indian firms, benefiting the IT industry.
• Agricultural Exports: India took advantage of China reducing US agricultural imports in 2018 by increasing soybean and other crop exports.

Way Ahead

• Geopolitical Strategy: India must navigate the US-China trade tensions carefully while securing its own economic interests through diplomacy and trade partnerships.
• Diversifying Supply Chains: Reducing reliance on China by strengthening domestic manufacturing under initiatives like ‘Make in India’ and boosting alternative supplier networks.
• Strengthening Trade Agreements: India should negotiate favorable trade deals with the US, ASEAN, and EU to capitalize on shifting trade dynamics.

Concluding Remarks

• Trade wars might seem like distant problems involving big governments, but their effects trickle down to everyday life.
• The global economy is more connected than ever. When two giants like the U.S. and China clash, the rest of the world, especially countries like India, feels the impact.
• While some sectors might find opportunities, overall uncertainty tends to slow down growth and affect livelihoods.
• The US is India’s largest trading partner, so India must accommodate US interests to maintain a good relationship.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Rajeshwari Deshpande’s study, ‘Shaping of the Woman Constituency in Indian Elections: Evidence from the NES Data’ analyses political participation of women in India.

Major Highlights of the Study

• Voting Behavior & Agency: Women’s voting patterns and choices are often overlooked, with political parties treating them as a homogeneous group and not considering factors like caste, class, and religion.
• Welfare Programs: Political parties often frame women as passive beneficiaries of welfare programs like Ujjwala and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, reinforcing a dependent image.
• Voting vs Political Power: Despite increased turnout, women’s political participation remains limited beyond voting.
• Women lag behind men in other forms of political participation like rallies, campaigns, and policy advocacy, facing social and structural barriers.
• Male Migration Impact: In states with large-scale male migration, women’s voter turnout has increased, especially in socially and economically ‘backward’ areas.
• State-Specific Voting Patterns: In states with strong regional parties (e.g., Tamil Nadu, Kerala), women’s preferences align more with regional movements rather than national gender-based trends.

Women’s Political Participation in India

• Unlike many countries where the gender gap in political participation began narrowing in the 1990s, India saw this shift only in the 2010s.
• In the 2019 general elections, female voter turnout slightly exceeded male voter turnout, with women making up 49.5% of the electorate.
• In the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, women had a slightly higher voting percentage (65.8%) compared to men (65.6%).
• Women, especially in rural areas, are becoming more politically conscious, active, and involved in village-level decision-making.

Global Goals

• Women’s equal participation and leadership in politics are crucial for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030.
• SDG 5 focuses on gender equality and women’s empowerment.
• Balanced political participation and power-sharing between women and men in decision-making is a key target set in the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.

Factor’s Influencing Women’s Political Participation

• Socio-Cultural Norms: Traditional gender roles and cultural expectations often limit women’s public and political involvement.
• Education and Literacy: Higher literacy rates and education levels empower women to participate more actively in politics.
• Economic Independence: Women’s workforce participation and economic independence can boost their political agency.`
• Caste, Class, and Religion: Women’s political choices are shaped by their caste, class, and religious identities, influencing their voting behavior and party affiliations.
• Political Party Strategies: The outreach and engagement of political parties with women through targeted policies or welfare schemes impact their participation.
• Social Movements: Women’s involvement in social movements and activism can strengthen their engagement in formal politics.
• Regional and State-Specific Factors: Regional political contexts, including the strength of local parties and issues specific to states, can shape women’s political behavior.

Conclusion

• The decentralization of governance which is taking place for the last two decades has increased the importance of measuring participation of women in decision making.
• Proper gender budgeting has already been worked out for inclusive growth of women.
• With more responsive data on women participation, better gender budget initiatives aim to move the country towards a gender equal society.