General Studies Paper-1

Context: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) predicted  ‘above normal’ rainfall (105% of the long-period average) during the 2025 southwest monsoon season (June-September).

• The monsoon is crucial for agriculture, economy, and water resources, providing around 70% of India’s annual rainfall.
• Since 2007, the accuracy of monsoon forecasts has improved significantly, with the absolute error in rainfall reducing by 21% from 1989-2006 to 2007-2024.

History of Monsoon Forecasting

• The IMD began forecasting the monsoon in 1877, driven by the need to understand rainfall patterns after the devastating 1876-78 Great Famine.
• Henry Francis Blanford, in the late 1800s, studied the relationship between Himalayan snow cover and monsoon rainfall.
  • He made the first long-range forecast in 1886.
• Sir John Eliot took Blanford’s work forward by incorporating local weather conditions and data from the Indian Ocean and Australia, although his predictions were still limited in accuracy.
• Sir Gilbert Walker in 1904, introduced statistical models using 28 parameters, identifying the Southern Oscillation (SO) as a key influence on the Indian monsoon.
  • He divided India into three subregions for forecasting.

Scenario After Independence

• IMD continued using Walker’s model until 1987, but it became less effective due to changes in climate patterns and loss of correlation with key parameters.
• In 1988, The IMD shifted to a new regression model (Gowariker Model) using 16 variables, but issues persisted with the accuracy of regional forecasts.

New Models and Strategies

• In 2003, IMD introduced two new models based on 8 and 10 parameters.
  • The two-stage forecast strategy was also implemented, although it had mixed results.
• In 2007, IMD developed a Statistical Ensemble Forecasting System, reducing the number of parameters to improve accuracy and introduced ensemble forecasts to increase robustness.
• In 2012, the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS) was launched to combine ocean, atmospheric, and land data for better forecasts.
• In 2021, the Multi-Model Ensemble system further improved forecast accuracy by combining global climate models, including MMCFS.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: This year marks the 70th anniversary of the historic Bandung Conference held in Indonesia in 1955.

Bandung Conference

• The Bandung Conference brought together twenty-nine newly independent Asian and African countries.
• The objective of the conference was to deliberate on the common challenges faced by decolonized nations and to assert their collective voice in a world order dominated by the Cold War superpowers.
• The conference marked the emergence of the Global South as an influential grouping in international politics.
  • It aimed to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and strongly opposed colonialism, imperialism, and neocolonialism in all forms.
• The conference served as a precursor to the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).

Bandung’s Ten Principles (Dasasila Bandung)

• Respect for fundamental human rights, and for the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations,
• Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations,
• Recognition of the equality of all races and of the equality of all nations, large and small,
• Abstention from intervention or interference into the internal affairs of another country,
• Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself, singly or collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations,
• Abstention from the use of arrangement of collective defense to serve the particular interests of any of the big powers, and abstention by any country from exerting pressures on other countries,
• Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any country,
• Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as negotiation, conciliation, arbitration, or judicial settlement as well as other peaceful means of the parties’ own choice, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations,
• Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation, and
• Respect for justice and international obligations.

Conclusion

• The Bandung Conference remains a powerful symbol of unity, dignity, and self-determination for the countries of the Global South.
• In an era of shifting geopolitical dynamics, the spirit of the Bandung Conference continues to hold immense relevance for efforts toward creating a more just and multipolar world order.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The recent terrorist attack in Pahalgam poses challenges to India on multiple fronts by threatening the economic revival and normalisation efforts, and underscores long-standing lapses in intelligence and security measures.

Grassroots Governance: Strengthening Panchayats for Sustainable Growth

Context: Panchayats in India remain underutilized due to financial constraints, fragmented efforts, and limited institutional capacity.

• Strengthening panchayats is essential for achieving holistic and inclusive development across India’s diverse rural landscape.

About the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India

Historical Evolution:

• Ancient Period: The concept of local self-governance in India dates back to ancient times, with Village Councils (Panchayats) playing a crucial role in local administration and dispute resolution. These councils were informal and operated based on local customs and traditions.
• British Era: During the early British period, the traditional Panchayat system was weakened due to the introduction of centralized revenue collection systems.
• Reforms in the later British period, such as Lord Ripon’s Resolution (1882) and the Royal Commission on Decentralization (1907-09), sought to revive local self-governance.
• Post-Independence Era: The Constitution of India emphasized the importance of village Panchayats as units of self-governance.
• The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957) recommended the establishment of a three-tier Panchayati Raj system, which was implemented in Rajasthan in 1959.
• Subsequent committees, such as the Ashok Mehta Committee (1978), further refined the structure and functions of PRIs.
• Constitutional Recognition (1992): The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act granted constitutional status to PRIs, making them a mandatory feature of governance in rural India.
• It came into effect on April 24, 1993, thus April 24th is celebrated as the National Panchayati Raj Day every year.
• It introduced a Three Tier System:
• Gram Panchayat (Village Level): The lowest tier, responsible for addressing local issues such as sanitation, water supply, and rural housing.
• Panchayat Samiti (Block Level): The intermediate tier, coordinating development programs across multiple villages.
• Zila Parishad (District Level): The apex tier, overseeing and integrating development activities at the district level.
• It mandated reservations for women, Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs), and the appointment of a State Finance Commission to recommend the financial powers of Panchayats.

Key Features of the Modern Panchayati Raj System

• Decentralized Governance: PRIs enable decision-making at the grassroots level, ensuring that local needs and priorities are addressed effectively.
• Participatory Democracy: The system promotes citizen participation through Gram Sabhas (village assemblies), where residents can voice their concerns and influence decisions.
• Inclusive Representation: Reservations for women, SCs, and STs ensure that marginalized groups have a voice in governance.
• Nearly 14 lakh women representatives have been elected to PRIs, showcasing the success of reservation policies.
• Integration with Development Goals: PRIs play a critical role in implementing government schemes and achieving SDGs at the local level.

Role of Panchayats in Grassroots Governance

• Localizing Development: Panchayats are uniquely positioned to tailor strategies to the specific socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental needs of villages.
• Unlike top-down models, a panchayat-led approach ensures that development initiatives are contextually relevant and community-driven.
• Implementing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The recently launched Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI) ranks over 216,000 panchayats on their progress in areas such as poverty alleviation, health, water sufficiency, infrastructure, and governance.
• It underscores the critical role of panchayats in achieving India’s sustainable development agenda.

Challenges Facing Panchayats in India

• Inadequate Financing: Most panchayats rely heavily on funds from higher tiers of government, with limited avenues for generating their own revenue.
• A study by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) revealed that in 2022-23, the average revenue per panchayat was ₹23 lakh, with only 1.1% coming from local taxes and fees.
• Technological and Digital Literacy Gaps: Limited technological infrastructure and low digital literacy hinder effective monitoring, evaluation, and reporting of progress.
• Without digital tools, real-time tracking of SDG progress remains a challenge.
• Fragmentation in Rural Governance: Multiple government departments operate in villages without proper coordination, leading to duplication of work and inefficient use of resources.
• The lack of convergence between different schemes and departments makes holistic development difficult to achieve.

Strengthening Panchayats for Development

• Enhancing Institutional Capacity: Targeted training programs to equip panchayat officials with technical and managerial skills.
• Promoting digital inclusion to streamline administrative processes and improve governance.
• Enhancing Financial Autonomy: PRIs should be empowered to generate revenue through property taxes, market fees, and local businesses.
• Timely devolution of funds from higher tiers of government is essential.
• Fostering Community Participation: Encouraging citizen involvement in decision-making processes to ensure local needs are addressed.
• Strengthening transparency mechanisms for better accountability.
• Better Coordination Between Departments: Establishing integrated development plans that align efforts across multiple sectors.
• Strengthening accountability measures to prevent resource wastage.

Key Initiatives and Efforts Strengthening Panchayats in India

• Infrastructure Development:
• Funds For Gram Panchayat Bhawans: To ensure dedicated office premises for panchayats with populations exceeding 3,000.
• Digital Infrastructure: To streamline governance.

Financial Empowerment:

• Own Source Revenue Training: Specialized modules have been introduced to help panchayats generate revenue through local taxes and fees.
• Samarth Portal: It facilitates revenue generation and fund management for panchayats, promoting financial independence.

Technological Integration:

• eGramSwaraj: A digital governance initiative available in 22 languages, enabling transparent fund management and real-time monitoring.
• SVAMITVA Scheme: Drone surveys have been conducted in 3.17 lakh villages, issuing over 2.19 crore property cards to empower rural property owners.

Capacity Building:

• Training for Women Representatives and Development of Panchayat Leaders: Specialized modules have been developed to strengthen the political voice of women in panchayats.

Environmental and Social Initiatives:

• Localized Climate Data: Over 2.5 lakh panchayats now receive weather forecasting data to support climate-resilient planning.
• Community Engagement Campaigns like ‘Healthy Panchayat’ and ‘Siti Bajo aur School Aao’ to address health and education challenges.

Conclusion

• Strong panchayats are the cornerstone of grassroots governance and sustainable development in India.
• Addressing challenges such as inadequate financing, technological gaps, and fragmented efforts is crucial to unlocking their full potential.
• By enhancing institutional capacity, improving financial autonomy, and fostering community participation, panchayats can drive inclusive and holistic development, ensuring that no village is left behind.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Minister of State for Ayush said that India has now emerged as one of the most sought-after destinations for treatment and medical tourism.

About

• Medical tourism refers to the practice of traveling to another country or region for medical treatment, procedures, or health-related services.
• The medical tourism industry in India is valued at approximately $9 billion, the country attracts patients from across the globe for advanced treatments in cardiology, orthopedics, oncology, and organ transplants.
• Medical tourism in India increased by around 33% year-on-year in 2023 nearly 6.6 lakh.
• Popular destinations for medical tourism in India include cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad, which are home to premier healthcare facilities.

Factors Responsible for the Growth of Medical Tourism in India

• Cost-Effective Treatment: India offers medical procedures at a fraction of the cost compared to countries like the US or Europe.
• High-Quality Healthcare: India has a well-established healthcare infrastructure with internationally accredited hospitals and skilled medical professionals.
• Availability of Advanced Medical Technology: Indian hospitals are equipped with state-of-the-art medical technology and cutting-edge treatments, particularly in fields like cardiology, oncology, and orthopedics.
• Shorter Wait Times: Medical tourists can access timely treatment, often avoiding long wait times common in some Western healthcare systems.
• Government Support and Policies: The Indian government has implemented policies that encourage medical tourism, including medical visa facilitation and promoting the sector internationally.

Significance for India

• Economic Growth: It boosts the economy by generating revenue from international patients, contributing to the healthcare sector and related industries (e.g., hospitality, transportation).
• Improved Healthcare Infrastructure: To cater to medical tourists, hospitals invest in state-of-the-art facilities, which also benefits local patients by improving overall healthcare quality.
• Promotion of India’s Global Image: It enhances India’s reputation as a global healthcare destination, attracting more foreign investment and partnerships in the medical field.
• Technological Advancements: The demand for advanced treatments and international standards of care drives innovation and the adoption of new medical technologies in Indian healthcare.
• Skill Development: It fosters the development of a highly skilled workforce, as healthcare professionals gain exposure to international standards and diverse patient needs.
• Diplomatic Ties: As patients from different nations seek treatment in India, they are exposed to rich cultural heritage and hospitality.
• This exchange of experiences can foster greater understanding and goodwill between nations, paving the way for strengthened diplomatic ties.

Challenges

• Strong competition from Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore.
• Most of the medical care is not covered by insurance and it makes medical value travel (MVT) less attractive.
• The MVT facilitators are not well organized and accredited. Many unprofessional agents exploit the medical value traveller.
• Lack of Regulations: There are no comprehensive regulations to govern the MVT sector, which leaves the sector unorganised and lacks monitoring of the quality of services.
• Promotion of MVT: Individual Hospitals are carrying out their publicity but there is no effective campaign to establish India as a brand for medical value travel.
• Accreditation: Although, India maintains a robust accreditation system through National Accreditation Board for Hospitals and Healthcare Providers (NABH). However, there is not much awareness about NABH in foreign countries and international patients still attach much greater value to Joint Commission International (JCI) accreditation.

Way Ahead

• With a fast paced modern lifestyle, there is greater demand for wellness and alternate cures.
• India has invested heavily in AYUSH and is in a unique position to attract medical value travellers for a cure through AYUSH and also for enhancing wellness.
• There is a need for greater support from the Government towards regulation, facilitation and marketing of India as a Medical Value Travel destination.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The recent terrorist attack in Pahalgam poses challenges to India on multiple fronts by threatening the economic revival and normalisation efforts, and underscores long-standing lapses in intelligence and security measures.

About Terrorism

• It is broadly defined as the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political, ideological, or religious objectives.
• It is a global challenge that undermines peace, security, and human rights.
• According to the United Nations, there is no universally agreed definition of terrorism, but it is generally understood as acts intended to cause death or serious harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or international organization to act or refrain from acting.
• In the context of India, terrorism often includes cross-border activities, insurgencies, and radicalized attacks.
• The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967, defines a terrorist act as one that threatens the unity, integrity, security, or sovereignty of India or causes terror among people by using violence or disrupting essential services.

Types of Terrorism in India

• Cross-Border Terrorism: Groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) continue to operate from Pakistan, targeting civilians and security forces in J&K.
  • It includes Mumbai Attacks (2008), Pathankot Airbase attack (2016), and Pulwama bombing (2019).
• Insurgency in the Northeast and Left-Wing Extremism: States like Manipur, Assam, and Nagaland face insurgency due to ethnic grievances and separatist demands.
  • The Maoist (Naxalite) threat in the ‘Red Corridor’ across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha remains a long-standing internal security issue.
• Cyber Terrorism and Financing: Terrorists increasingly exploit digital platforms for propaganda, recruitment, and fundraising using cryptocurrency and the darknet.
• Urban Radicalization & Lone-Wolf Attacks : The rise of lone-wolf attacks and online radicalization has added new dimensions to India’s security challenges.
• Groups like The Resistance Front (TRF) use hybrid terrorism tactics, employing radicalized locals for targeted attacks.

Challenges in Counterterrorism Efforts

• Intelligence & Security Gaps: Despite advancements in surveillance, lapses in intelligence-sharing have led to major attacks, including the Pahalgam incident.
  • Strengthening human intelligence networks and cyber surveillance is crucial.
• Security and Intelligence Challenge: The attack also highlights long-standing inadequacies in intelligence and security mechanisms in J&K, despite recurring militant strikes in the past year.
• Geographical Expansion: Militant activities, once confined to the Kashmir Valley, have expanded to Jammu, with over 30 attacks between 2021 and 2024, many of which caused civilian casualties.
• Homegrown Extremism: Radicalization through social media and religious propaganda continues to fuel domestic terrorism.
  • Groups like the Indian Mujahideen (IM) and certain ISIS-inspired modules have emerged in recent years.
• Geopolitical Tensions: India’s strategic proximity to the United States has led to increased hostility from adversaries.
  • The extradition of Tahawwur Rana, accused in the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, has further strained relations with Pakistan.
• Public Sentiment & Communal Harmony: Terrorist attacks often fuel communal tensions, making it imperative for the government to prevent misinformation and social unrest.

Counter-Terrorism Efforts

• Legal Framework:
  • Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) empowers agencies to label individuals as terrorists.
  • National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act created a central counter-terror agency with pan-India jurisdiction.
• Institutional Mechanisms:
  • NIA, Intelligence Bureau (IB), and Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) are pivotal in intelligence collection and enforcement.
  • Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) ensures inter-agency coordination.
• Technological Integration:
  • Deployment of facial recognition, drone surveillance, and AI-enabled threat analytics enhances border and urban surveillance.
• International Cooperation:
  • India collaborates with the U.S., Israel, and other nations on intelligence sharing and counter-radicalization efforts. It is also part of global anti-terror frameworks such as:
  • Financial Action Task Force (FATF)
  • United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee
• De-Radicalization Initiatives: State police and intelligence wings, particularly in Kerala and Maharashtra, run community outreach and deradicalization programs targeting vulnerable youth.

Recent Government Initiatives

• NATGRID: A centralized database for real-time intelligence sharing.
• Safe City Projects: Urban surveillance under Smart Cities Mission.
• Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC)

Way Forward: Strengthening India’s Counterterrorism Strategy 

• Enhanced Security Infrastructure: Deploying advanced surveillance technologies, including AI-driven threat detection.
  • Expanding special forces operations in high-risk areas.
• International Cooperation: Strengthening counterterrorism partnerships with Saudi Arabia, the US, and European nations.
  • Joint intelligence-sharing initiatives to track global terror networks.
• Restoring Normalcy: Immediate steps should focus on boosting security, encouraging tourism, and addressing public concerns.
  • Confidence-building measures can help counter the fear instilled by the attack.
• Community Engagement & De-Radicalization: Implementing rehabilitation programs for radicalized individuals.
  • Encouraging interfaith dialogues to counter extremist narratives.

Conclusion

• The Pahalgam attack represents not just an assault on innocent lives but on the very fabric of J&K’s resurgence.
• While the government must address the immediate security lapse, it must also take long-term measures to strengthen peace, stability, and economic growth in the region.
• A calculated and decisive response is essential to restore confidence and ensure that terrorism does not derail the progress made in J&K.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India has achieved a record of over 145 million tonnes of cargo movement on inland waterways in 2024-25.

About

• The number of National Waterways increased from 5 to 111, with the operational length growing from 2,716 km (2014–15) to 4,894 km (2023–24).
• Massive infrastructure development includes Multi-Modal Terminals (MMTs), Inter-Modal Terminals (IMTs), community jetties, floating terminals, and green tech like Hybrid Electric and Hydrogen Vessels.
• Future Prospects: India aims to increase IWT modal share from 2% to 5%, and raise traffic to 200+ MMT by 2030 and 500+ MMT by 2047 under Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision.

Inland Waterways

• Inland waterways refer to navigable rivers, canals, backwaters, and creeks used for transportation of goods and passengers within a country.
• India has ~14,500 km of navigable waterways, but their usage is limited. 111 waterways have been declared National Waterways (NWs) under the National Waterways Act, 2016.
• Importance of Inland Waterways
  • Economic Benefits: Lower transportation costs compared to road and rail.
  • Fuel Efficiency: Uses 30% less fuel than road transport and 50% less than rail.
  • Environmental Sustainability: Reduces carbon emissions and congestion on roads.
  • Connectivity: Supports hinterland trade and rural economies.
  • Tourism & Passenger Transport: Plays a role in ferry services and river cruises.

Criteria for Declaring a National Waterway

• The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) declares the National Waterway.
• National Transport Policy Committee (1980) recommended the following criteria for National Waterway:
• Navigable by mechanically propelled vessels of reasonable size.
• Channel width of ~45 m and depth of ~1.5 m.
• Continuous stretch of at least 50 km.
• Should serve multiple states, or connect major ports/hinterlands, or be strategically important, or serve underserved areas.

Challenges in Inland Waterway Development

• Seasonal water level variations affect navigation.
• Lack of infrastructure (terminals, dredging, and navigation aids).
• Slow adoption by industries due to underdeveloped routes.
• Competition from road and rail transport.

Policy Measures to Boost Inland Waterways

• Jalvahak – Cargo Promotion Scheme: It was launched in 2024 and has two key components:
• Financial Incentive: Cargo owners get a 35% reimbursement on actual operating costs for shifting cargo from road/rail to IWT, encouraging use of waterways.
• Scheduled Services: Regular cargo services have been introduced to boost reliability and predictability.
• Extension of Tonnage Tax to Inland Vessels: It was announced in 2025 during the budget, the tonnage tax regime has been extended to inland vessels registered under the Indian Vessels Act, 2021.
  • Benefit: Provides a stable and predictable tax regime based on vessel tonnage rather than profits, thereby lowering the tax burden and encouraging broader adoption of inland shipping.
• Regulatory Framework for Private Investment: The National Waterways (Construction of Jetties/Terminals) Regulations, 2025 have been notified, enabling private investment in inland waterways infrastructure.
• Port Integration: To ensure seamless multimodal logistics, the Multi-Modal Terminals at Varanasi, Sahibganj, and Haldia, as well as the Intermodal Terminal at Kalughat, are being transferred to Shyama Prasad Mookerjee Port, Kolkata for operation and management.
  • This integration is expected to streamline cargo movement between ports and inland waterways.
• Digitisation and Centralised Database: A centralised portal is being developed for the registration of inland vessels and crew, similar to the ‘Vahan’ and ‘Sarathi’ systems used for road transport. This initiative will:
  • Simplify registration processes.
  • Provide real-time data on vessel and crew availability.
  • Enhance transparency and planning in the sector.
• Cargo Aggregation Infrastructure: To resolve issues related to sparse industrial presence along waterways, cargo aggregation hubs are under development:
  • Freight Village at Varanasi.
  • Integrated Cluster-cum-Logistics Park at Sahibganj.
• Engagement with Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs): More than 140 PSUs have been engaged to explore shifting a portion of their cargo to IWT.

Way Ahead

• The Indian government is investing heavily in inland waterways through projects like Jal Marg Vikas (JMVP).
• Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are being encouraged.
• Integration of IWT with multimodal logistics hubs for seamless transport is being carried out.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in partnership with the International Coral Reef Initiative, confirmed that the world is witnessing its fourth global bleaching event.

About

• The bleaching-level heat stress has impacted 83.7% of the planet’s coral reef area and mass coral bleaching has been recorded in at least 83 countries and territories.
  • The ongoing global coral bleaching event is the biggest to date.
• Previous Bleaching:
  • The 1st and 2nd global coral bleaching events occurred in 1998 and 2010, respectively.
  • The 3rd global coral bleaching event, which occurred from 2014-2017, when 68.2% of the world’s reef area experienced bleaching-level heat stress.
• Future Projections: Climate models predict that by 2040-2050, nearly every coral reef worldwide will face annual bleaching events.
• Great Barrier Reef Status: Currently undergoing a sixth mass bleaching event.
  • Second consecutive bleaching episode after 2016-17.
  • Caused by prolonged marine heatwaves, especially in Far Northern and Northern regions.
• Bleaching History in Australia: Mass coral bleaching events recorded in 1998, 2002, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2022, and 2024.

What are Corals?

• Corals are invertebrates that belong to a large group of animals called Cnidaria.
  • Corals are formed by multiple small, soft organisms known as polyps.
  • They secrete a rocky chalk-like (calcium carbonate) exoskeleton around themselves for protection.
  • Coral reefs are therefore created by millions of tiny polyps forming large carbonate structures.
• Appearance: Corals range in colour from red to purple and even blue, but are most commonly shades of brown and green.
  • Coral are bright and colorful because of microscopic algae called zooxanthellae.
• There are three types of coral reefs – fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls.
  • Fringing reefs form along shorelines, barrier reefs form in open water and atolls are circular reefs that have formed around sunken volcanoes.

Coral Bleaching

• Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel the colourful algae living in their tissues.
• Without these helpful algae, the corals become pale and are vulnerable to starvation and disease.
• A bleached coral is not dead, but ocean temperatures need to cool off for any hope of recovery.
• At least 14% of the world’s remaining corals were estimated to have died in the previous two global bleaching events.

What triggers Coral Bleaching?

• The leading cause of coral bleaching is climate change.
  • A warming planet means a warming ocean, and a change in water temperature—as little as 2 degrees Fahrenheit—can cause coral to drive out algae.
• Coral also bleaches for other reasons, like extremely low tides, pollution, or too much sunlight.

Concerns

• Coral bleaching matters because once these corals die, reefs rarely come back.
• With few corals surviving, they struggle to reproduce, and entire reef ecosystems, on which people and wildlife depend, deteriorate.
• This would have dire implications for ocean health, subsistence fisheries and tourism.

Impact of Coral Bleaching

• Wildlife: Thousands of marine animals depend on coral reefs for survival.
  • Coral reefs provide shelter, spawning grounds, and protection from predators.
  • They also support organisms at the base of ocean food chains.
  • As reef ecosystems collapse, already at-risk species may face extinction.
• Humans: Coral reefs are natural barriers that absorb the force of waves and storm surges, keeping coastal communities safe.
  • Every year, reefs provide about $2.7 trillion in goods and services, according to a 2020 estimate by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network.
  • Bleached coral also compounds the overfishing crisis by removing links in the food web and depriving some fish of a place to spawn and develop.
  • Reef tourism brings in billions of dollars each year and supports thousands of jobs.

Can corals recover from bleaching?

• Corals can recover if conditions improve, but recovery can take years or even a decade, depending on the extent of the damage.
• Corals can recover only if temperatures drop and conditions return to normal.
• When this happens, the algae returns and the corals gradually regain their health.

Way Ahead

• Strengthening Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
• Implementing coral restoration techniques, such as coral gardening and breeding resilient coral species, to enhance recovery after bleaching events.
• Advocating for global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to limit temperature increases and ocean acidification.
• Increasing investment in research to better understand coral resilience, bleaching triggers, and recovery processes, alongside developing advanced monitoring technologies.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Pahalgam terror attack has escalated tensions between India and Pakistan, leading to a series of retaliatory measures by both countries.

Key Measures By India & Pakistan

India’s Measures

• Suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty
• Closure of the Attari-Wagah Border
• Cancellation of SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme (SVES Visas)
• Expulsion of Pakistani Military Advisors
• Reduction of Diplomatic Personnel

Pakistan’s Retaliatory Measures

• Airspace Closure
• Trade Suspension
• Diplomatic Retaliation like reducing the strength of India’s High Commission and suspension of Simla Agreement and all bilateral agreements with India.
• Visa Restrictions except for Sikh pilgrims visiting the Kartarpur Corridor.
• Labeling the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty as an ‘act of war’.

Pakistan’s Airspace Closure for India

• Airspace refers to the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country, where it regulates the movement of aircraft.
• Its closure is governed by both domestic regulations and international frameworks.

Domestic Regulations

• Each country has exclusive rights over the airspace above its territory, as defined by its civil aviation authority.
• In India, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) oversees airspace management and closures during emergencies.
• Domestic laws allow governments to issue Notice to Airmen (NOTAMs) to inform airlines of restrictions.

International Regulations

• Chicago Convention (1944): It establishes rules for airspace sovereignty and international flight operations, under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
  • Article 1 recognizes the complete and exclusive sovereignty of nations over their airspace.

Impacts of Airspace Closure

• Flight Rerouting and Increased Costs: Indian carriers have been forced to reroute flights to Europe, North America, and the Middle East.
  • Longer flight paths over the Arabian Sea and Central Asia are increasing fuel consumption and operational costs.
  • Ticket prices for international flights may rise by 8–12%, affecting passengers.
• Economic Implications: The move mirrors Pakistan’s 2019 airspace closure, following the Indian Air Force’s air strikes in Balakot in retaliation for the Pulwama terror attack, which lasted five months and cost Indian airlines over ₹700 crore.

Simla agreement

• The Simla Agreement was a bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan, signed by former prime minister Indira Gandhi and then Pakistani president Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on July 2, 1972.
• It was aimed to resolve conflicts and foster peaceful relations after the 1971 India-Pakistan war.

1. The war was triggered when India intervened in East Pakistan’s (now Bangladesh) fight for independence.

Major Provisions

• Both countries pledged to resolve all disputes, including the Kashmir issue, bilaterally without third-party involvement, marking a shift from previous international mediation.
• They agreed to respect each other’s territorial integrity, political independence, and non-interference in internal affairs.
• The 1971 ceasefire line in Jammu and Kashmir was re-designated as the Line of Control (LoC), with both sides committing not to alter it unilaterally.
• The agreement called for the restoration of diplomatic, economic, and cultural relations, including the resumption of communication, travel, and trade links.
• India agreed to release over 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war as part of the agreement, one of the largest releases in history.
• India returned over 13,000 km² of territory seized during the war, but retained strategic areas in the Chorbat Valley.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to the April 2025 edition of the IMF’s World Economic Outlook, India will remain the fastest growing major economy over the next two years.

World Economic Outlook Report

• The World Economic Outlook (WEO) is the International Monetary Fund’s key report on global economic trends and policy challenges.
• Published twice a year it provides projections for the near and medium term, covering advanced, emerging, and developing economies.

Key highlights

• India’s Growth outlook: India is projected to remain the fastest-growing large economy and is expected to grow by 6.2 percent in 2025 and 6.3 percent in 2026.
• Global Growth outlook: The global economic growth will be much lower, at 2.8 percent in 2025 and 3.0 percent in 2026.
• Emerging Asia: The region is also expected to grow strongly, led by India, but faces downward revisions due to global trade disruptions.

Reasons for slowdown in world economy

• Tariff War 2.0: Since early 2025, new tariffs by the US on imports, coupled with retaliatory measures, have triggered a fresh wave of trade tensions.
• Slowing Consumer Confidence: As new tariffs increase costs and lower disposable incomes, consumer spending has weakened, especially in the US and Europe.
• Inflation: While headline inflation has cooled from its peak, core inflation remains sticky, particularly in services.
• Diminished Policy Space: High public debt and rising interest rates have limited the ability of governments to respond with countercyclical policies.
• Aging populations in countries like Japan, Germany, and China are reducing the available workforce, constraining long-term growth.

Reasons for India’s Resilience

• Domestic Demand: India’s growth remains largely driven by robust domestic consumption and investment, particularly in infrastructure and services.
• This has weakened global investor sentiment, triggered financial market volatility, and elevated policy uncertainty to unprecedented levels
• Structural Strengths:
  • A young population and expanding digital economy.
  • A growing middle class with increasing consumption power.
  • Government-led capex push and PLI schemes that bolster industrial activity.

Way Ahead

• Structural reforms: Durable structural reforms across several areas, including labor markets, education, regulation and competition, and financial sector policies, can jointly lift productivity and potential growth and support job creation.
• Technological Integration: Technological progress, related to digitalization and AI, can enhance productivity and potential growth.
• Fiscal Prudence: Maintaining fiscal sustainability amid high global debt and rising interest rates is critical.

General Studies Paper-2

Context; Recently, the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS), chaired by Prime Minister of India, held the Indus Waters Treaty (1960) with Pakistan ‘in abeyance with immediate effect’ in the aftermath of the terror strike in Pahalgam.

About the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT)

• It was signed in 1960 by India’s Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistan’s President Ayub Khan to regulate water-sharing between the two countries.
• It was brokered by the World Bank.

According to IWT:

• India controls the Eastern Rivers (Beas, Ravi, Sutlej).
• Pakistan controls the Western Rivers (Indus, Chenab, Jhelum).
• Under the IWT, India received rights over 20% of the system’s water, while Pakistan received 80%.
• India is allowed limited use of western rivers for non-consumptive purposes like hydropower, but cannot block or significantly alter flows.

Implications for Pakistan of IWT Suspension

• Water Security Threat: Pakistan is highly dependent on the Indus River system for agriculture, drinking water, and hydropower.
  • Suspension would leave Pakistan vulnerable to upstream control by India, especially over the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), potentially disrupting water availability.
• Agricultural Impact: Punjab and Sindh, the key agricultural regions, rely heavily on Indus waters.
  • A reduction or delay in water flows could devastate crop cycles, threatening food security and livelihoods.
• Energy Crisis: A significant portion of Pakistan’s power comes from hydroelectric dams on the Indus.
  • Disruption in water flow could reduce energy generation, worsening the power crisis, especially in summer.
• Geopolitical Fallout: Suspension would escalate tensions with India, possibly leading to military posturing, cross-border skirmishes, or further diplomatic isolation.
• International Repercussions: Pakistan could appeal to the UN, World Bank, or ICJ, framing India as violating a binding treaty.
  • Suspension may invite international pressure on India to reinstate the treaty, possibly straining India’s global relations.
• Domestic Unrest: Water shortages and crop failures could fuel domestic discontent, protests, and political instability.
• Dependence on China or Other Allies: Pakistan may look for alternative water management partnerships or increase strategic alignment with China.

Feasibility of Suspension of the IWT by India

• Strategic Leverage: India’s move signals a strong diplomatic stance, reinforcing its position against terrorism.
  • It could serve as a negotiation tool to pressure Pakistan into policy changes.
• Treaty Framework and International Law: IWT lacks an exit clause, meaning neither India nor Pakistan can legally abrogate it unilaterally. The Treaty has no end date, and any modification requires the consent of both parties.
  • However, under Article 62 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a fundamental change in circumstances can justify withdrawal.
  • The United Nations and World Bank could push for negotiations to prevent regional instability.
• India’s Water Management Challenges: Diverting water from the Western Rivers requires major infrastructure projects, including dams and reservoirs.
  • Environmental concerns, such as river ecosystem disruptions, must be addressed.
• Pressure on Pakistan’s Internal Stability: Water scarcity could exacerbate inter-provincial disputes within Pakistan, particularly between Punjab and Sindh.
  • Political instability may lead to increased militant activity along the border.