General Studies Paper -3

Context

The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for June 2025 has been released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

• The PLFS gives estimates of key employment and unemployment Indicators.
• These indicators are:
• Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): It is the percentage of persons in the labour force (i.e. working or seeking or available for work) in the population.
• Worker Population Ratio (WPR): WPR is defined as the percentage of employed persons in the population.
• Unemployment Rate (UR): UR is defined as the percentage of persons unemployed among the persons in the labour force.
• Current Weekly Status (CWS): The activity status determined on the basis of a reference period of last 7 days preceding the date of survey.

Major Highlights

• Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) among persons of age 15 years and above was 54.2 % during June 2025 as compared to 54.8% during May, 2025.
• LFPR in rural areas was 56.1% and LFPR in urban areas was 50.4%.
• Worker Population Ratio (WPR) in rural areas among persons of age 15 years and above was 53.3% during June, 2025.
• WPR in urban areas among persons of the same age group was 46.8% with the overall WPR at the country level observed as 51.2%.
• The unemployment rate for females and males of all ages above 15 was 5.6%.
• While for men, the rate remained same as of May, for females, there was a decrease in UR by 0.1 percentage point.
• While the rural unemployment rate decreased by 0.2 percentage points, the urban unemployment rate increased by 0.2 percentage points between May and June.
• The marginal decline in LFPR and WPR was largely influenced by seasonal agricultural patterns, intense summer heat limiting outdoor physical work, and a shift of some unpaid helpers, particularly from higher-income rural households, towards domestic chores.

Government Initiatives to Increase Women Participation in Labour Force:

• Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY): Under PMMY, women can avail of micro-credit loans without collateral to set up small enterprises, helping women overcome barriers related to accessing capital.
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme: The scheme works to prevent gender-based discrimination and violence, focusing on changing societal attitudes towards girls.
  • It promotes education, health, and empowerment, which indirectly increases women’s participation in the labor force.
• Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017: The Act extended the maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks for women working in establishments with more than 10 employees.
• Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) by NITI Aayog: The platform offers mentorship, networking, funding, and skill development opportunities for women in business.
• Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM): The NRLM, through its SHG component, encourages women in rural areas to form collectives that can access credit, entrepreneurship training, and marketing opportunities.
• National Creche Scheme: This scheme supports working mothers, especially those in the unorganized sector, by setting up daycares in nearby locations where they can leave their children while they work.
  • Mission Shakti is a women empowerment programme launched by the Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) for the period 2021-2025.
  • It aims to strengthen interventions for women’s welfare, safety, and empowerment, making women equal partners in nation-building.
  • The Women in Science and Engineering-KIRAN (WISE KIRAN) program has supported nearly 1,962 women scientists from 2018 to 2023.

Way Ahead

• The marginal increase in urban unemployment, coupled with reduced labour force engagement, reflects ongoing structural challenges in generating quality jobs, especially in the non-agricultural and urban sectors.
• Moreover, the influence of climatic factors such as extreme heat on labour participation highlights the growing relevance of environmental factors in shaping employment trends.
• Continued monthly tracking of labour data will be essential to monitor emerging patterns and to ensure timely, targeted interventions that can address deficiencies in India’s labour market.

General Studies Paper -3

Context

Skill India Mission completed ten years.

About Skill India Mission (SIM)

• Launched on 15 July 2015, World Youth Skills Day, the Skill India Mission provides skill, re-skill, and up-skill training through an extensive network of skill development centres and institutes under various schemes.
• In February 2025, the restructured ‘Skill India Programme’ was approved for 2022-23 to 2025-26, merging Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana 4.0 (PMKVY 4.0), the Pradhan Mantri National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (PM-NAPS), and the Jan Shikshan Sansthan (JSS) Scheme into a single Central Sector Scheme.
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)– Offers short-term skill training and Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) for youth nationwide, including rural areas.
• National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS)– Promotes apprenticeship with financial support for stipends, providing both basic and on-the-job training.
• Jan Sikhshan Sansthan (JSS)– Provides vocational skills to non-literates, neo-literates, and school dropouts (up to 12th standard), focusing on women, SC/ST/OBC, and minorities in rural and low-income urban areas.

Major Achievements (2015–2025)

• Over 6 crore youth skilled: Across 38 sectors, including IT, manufacturing, services, construction, and agriculture.
• Women empowerment: Special initiatives increased female workforce participation in several sectors.
• Recognition: India ranked 11th in the WorldSkills Competition 2022.
• Sector-wise employment: Notable growth—manufacturing (15%), services (20%), construction (25%).

Socio-Economic Impact

• Unemployment reduced: Employability among Indian graduates has risen to 54.81% (India Skills Report 2025).
• Workforce participation increased: Employment rate rose from 36.9% to 37.9% in the same period.
• Inclusive growth: Imparted growth for rural, tribal, LWE-affected, and Northeast regions.
• Entrepreneurship boost: Youth equipped for self-employment, MSMEs, and start-ups.

Challenges

• Quality & Industry Relevance: Skill mismatch continues in several sectors.
• Low absorption by industry: Some trained candidates still face placement hurdles, especially in rural and informal sectors.
• Regional disparities: Uneven implementation and outcomes across states.
• Social biases: Vocational training sometimes seen as inferior to mainstream education.
• Infrastructure and trainer shortage: Gaps in modern equipment and skilled trainers
• Funding Delays: Funding delays and coordination issues between Central and State bodies flagged by the Sinha Committee (2022).

Way Forward

• Digital push: Greater integration of e-learning, AI-driven monitoring, and blended training models.
• Enhanced private sector and global partnerships: Focus on international standards and global value chains.
• Regular impact assessment: Focus on outcomes (job placement, entrepreneurship) beyond just training numbers.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

India needs to embrace deeper engagement with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) nations rather than retreat from existing trade agreements, as Asia reconfigures itself around trade, technology, and strategic alliances.

About India’s Ties with ASEAN

• Historical Foundations and Strategic Evolution:
  • Historical and Civilizational Links: Shared heritage through Buddhism, Hinduism, and maritime trade routes laid the foundation for India-ASEAN ties.
  • Look East to Act East: India’s 1992 Look East Policy matured into the Act East Policy in 2014, emphasizing connectivity, commerce, and cooperation.
  • Comprehensive Strategic Partnership: In 2022, India and ASEAN elevated their ties, focusing on maritime security, digital transformation, and sustainable development.
• Economic Engagement and Trade Dynamics:
  • ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA): Signed in 2009, currently under review to address trade imbalances and modernize tariff structures.
  • Trade Volume: Bilateral trade reached $122.67 billion in 2023-24, with ASEAN accounting for 11% of India’s global trade.
    • The collective GDP of ASEAN is over $3.9 trillion, making ASEAN one of the world’s largest regional economies.
    • The largest portion of this trade came from Singapore, valued at over 35 billion dollars that year.
  • Digital and Startup Collaboration: Initiatives like the ASEAN-India Startup Festival and fintech partnerships are reshaping economic ties.
• Connectivity and Infrastructure:
  • India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway and Kaladan Multimodal Transit Project: These aim to physically link India’s Northeast with Southeast Asia.
  • Digital Connectivity: India’s UPI system is being integrated with ASEAN platforms like Singapore’s PayNow, enhancing cross-border transactions.
• Security and Strategic Cooperation:
  • Counterbalance to China: Joint frameworks on supply chains, security, and climate build resilience.
  • Maritime Security: Joint naval exercises and defense dialogues support freedom of navigation and regional stability.
  • Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: India and ASEAN collaborate on intelligence sharing and cyber policy dialogues.
  • Defense Diplomacy: India’s arms exports to ASEAN nations, including BrahMos missiles to the Philippines, signal deeper strategic trust.
• Cultural Diplomacy and People-to-People Ties:
  • ASEAN-India Year of Tourism 2025: India is investing $5 million to promote cultural exchange and tourism.
  • Educational Initiatives: Scholarships at Nalanda University and agricultural institutions foster academic collaboration.
  • Shared Heritage: Events like the Ramayana Festival and ASEAN-India Music Festival celebrate civilizational bonds.

Issues & Concerns

• Trade Imbalance & FTA Frictions: India’s trade deficit with ASEAN from $5 billion in 2010–11 to over $44 billion in 2024–25, despite bilateral trade crossing $130 billion.
  • India offered duty concessions on 71% of tariff lines, while ASEAN countries reciprocated with much lower percentages (e.g., Indonesia: 41%, Vietnam: 66.5%).
  • The review of the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA), announced in 2023, has seen slowprogress due to ASEAN’s reluctance to renegotiate terms.
  • India’s FTA with ASEAN, in effect since 2010, is undergoing its 10th review.
  • India fears that Chinese goods are being rerouted through ASEAN (rule of origin) to exploit FTA benefits, undermining domestic manufacturing.
• Geopolitical & Strategic Coordination Gaps:
  • Myanmar Crisis: India and ASEAN differ on how to engage with Myanmar’s military junta, complicating regional diplomacy and connectivity projects.
  • South China Sea Disputes: ASEAN’s cautious stance on China’s maritime claims contrasts with India’s support for a rules-based Indo-Pacific, creating strategic ambiguity.
  • Quad & AUKUS Sensitivities: ASEAN’s discomfort with India’s growing role in Quad and other security groupings reflects fears of being sidelined or antagonizing China.
• Connectivity & Infrastructure Bottlenecks:
  • Delayed Projects: Flagship initiatives by India have been hampered by conflict in Myanmar and bureaucratic inertia.
  • Limited Maritime & Air Links: Despite shared goals, maritime and air connectivity remains underdeveloped, affecting trade and tourism.
• Diplomatic & Institutional Challenges:
  • Fragmented Engagement: India often engages ASEAN countries bilaterally rather than through a unified regional approach, leading to coordination issues.
  • Underutilized Cultural Diplomacy: While India has deep civilizational ties with Southeast Asia, cultural outreach is sporadic and lacks strategic depth.
  • Youth & Educational Disconnect: Limited exposure to ASEAN languages, arts, and history among Indian youth weakens long-term people-to-people ties.
• Policy & Perception Gaps:
  • Protectionism vs. Integration: India’s cautious trade stance, including its exit from RCEP, has raised concerns about its reliability as a regional partner.
  • ASEAN’s Internal Divisions: ASEAN’s consensus-based model often stalls unified action, especially on contentious issues like China’s aggression or Myanmar’s coup.
  • Digital Colonialism: Global tech platforms dominate cultural narratives, sidelining indigenous voices from both India and ASEAN.

Road Ahead: Recalibrating Engagement

• Reviewing AITIGA: The ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA) is under review to address trade imbalances and modernize terms.
• Negotiate Bilateral Trade Pacts: Prioritize strategic ASEAN economies like Vietnam, Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand.
• Expand CECA & CEPA Agreements: Strengthen existing Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreements.
• Digital & Services Trade: India’s strength in IT and fintech offers new avenues for collaboration beyond goods.
• Modernize Domestic Industry: Use tariff buffers to upgrade MSMEs and boost competitiveness.

Conclusion

• India’s engagement with ASEAN is guided by mutual respect, shared values, and a vision for a peaceful, prosperous Indo-Pacific.
• Its commitment to ‘ASEAN centrality’ in the Indo-Pacific is widely acknowledged, but consistent engagement remains key.
• With the adoption of the ASEAN-India Plan of Action 2026–2030, both sides are poised to deepen cooperation in emerging technologies, climate resilience, and regional governance.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

Despite decades of legislation and activism, dowry continues to claim lives, particularly among young married women.

About Dowry

• The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 defines dowry as ‘any property or valued security given or agreed to be given, directly or indirectly, to either partner in a marriage, to the other party’s parents, to any other person, is referred to as dowry’.
• Dowry-related violence and deaths are symptoms of deep-rooted patriarchy, and remains one of the most persistent forms of gender-based crimes in India.
• In many cases, women are subjected to mental and physical abuse, culminating in suicide or murder — often by burning, poisoning, or hanging.

Dowry Death in India: Current Statistics

• High-Burden States: According to NCRB data for 2022, 6,450 dowry deaths were registered across India;
  • Uttar Pradesh (highest), Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Haryana together contributed 80% of all dowry death cases.
• From NCW’s 2024 complaint data: 4,383 cases of dowry harassment (17% of total complaints): 292 cases of dowry deaths.
  • Over 60% of dowry murders occurred in West Bengal, Odisha, and Bihar.
• Cities with Highest Cases: Delhi alone accounted for 30% of all dowry death cases among India’s 19 major cities.
  • Other high-reporting cities include Kanpur, Bengaluru, Lucknow, and Patna.

Causes Behind Dowry Deaths

• Cultural Acceptance: Dowry is still seen as a customary obligation, especially in arranged marriages.
• Economic Exploitation: Dowry is often used to secure financial gain or status for the groom’s family.
• Gender Inequality: Women are viewed as financial burdens, leading to coercive demands and abuse.
• Districts with skewed sex ratios show higher dowry death rates (Sex ratio imbalance).
• Illiteracy and Lack of Awareness: Many women are unaware of their legal rights or fear retaliation (Lower levels correlate with increased vulnerability).
• Delayed Justice: Investigations are often slow, and convictions rare, weakening deterrence.
• Caste and kinship structures: Hypergamy and patrilocality intensify dowry pressures.

Key Concerns & Issues

• Policing and Investigations: Of the 7,000 yearly cases, only 4,500 were charge-sheeted.
  • Many cases were dropped due to reasons like ‘insufficient evidence’, ‘false complaints’, or ‘misunderstanding’.
  • By the end of 2022, 67% of pending dowry death investigations had been stalled for over six months.
• Delay in Charges and Trials: In 2022, 70% of the charge-sheets were filed after two months or more, showing procedural inefficiencies.
  • From 6,500 trials initiated annually, only around 100 led to convictions.
  • Over 90% of cases remain pending in courts.
  • Acquittals, plea bargains, and withdrawn complaints account for a large number of unresolved cases.

Key Legal Provisions

• Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Criminalizes giving or receiving dowry.
  • Section 113B of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 (replaced by the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023): Presumes dowry death if it occurs within 7 years of marriage and is preceded by harassment.
• Section 80 of the BNS (formerly IPC Section 304B): It defines dowry death and mandates punishment of 7 years to life imprisonment.
• Section 85 BNS (formerly Section 498A IPC): It deals with cruelty against married women, and penalizes cruelty by husband or relatives.

Judicial Interventions: Landmark Judgments

• Sanjay Kumar Jain v. State of Delhi (2011): Supreme Court condemned dowry deaths as a ‘curse on society’.
• State of Haryana v. Satbir Singh (2021): Expanded the scope of cruelty to include indirect evidence.
• Rajesh Sharma v. State of U.P. (2017): Introduced safeguards to prevent misuse of Section 498A.

Way Forward

• Strengthen forensic and investigative protocols;
• Establish fast-track courts for dowry-related cases;
• Promote legal literacy and community vigilance;
• Encourage economic empowerment and education for women;
• Support victim protection mechanisms and whistleblower safeguards;

General Studies Paper-3

Context

India is facing both a responsibility and a historic opportunity — to repay the debt owed to regions that fueled India’s food security, and to reimagine agriculture for a sustainable future.

About the Green Revolution

• The term ‘Green Revolution’ was coined by William S. Gaud, then Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), in 1968.
• It turned a famine-prone nation into a food-secure one, ushering in self-sufficiency in grain production and empowering millions of farmers.
• In India, the Green Revolution benefited Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh with its focus on high-yielding rice and wheat varieties, irrigation expansion, and intensive chemical input.

India’s Agricultural Gains

• India’s Green Revolution was catalyzed by International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and IRRI germplasm. Varieties like Kalyan Sona and Sonalika (1967–68) came from CIMMYT breeding lines.
• Later, Indian institutions like the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) developed indigenous varieties pushing yields to 7 tonnes/hectare.
• In rice, IARI and regional institutes released iconic varieties like Swarna (1982), Samba Mahsuri (1986), and Pusa Basmati 1121 (2003).
• In 2024–25, India exported 6.1 million tonnes of basmati rice worth $5.94 billion, over 90% from IARI-developed varieties.

Green Revolution: Legacy & and Its Costs

• Continued Reliance on Global Research: As of 2024–25, 6 of the top 10 wheat varieties sown over 20 million hectares in India were directly derived from CIMMYT material.
• HD 2967 remains the only recent major indigenous variety.
• While northern states thrived, others — especially eastern and central India — remained underdeveloped. The excessive focus on procurement, subsidies, and irrigation for a narrow set of crops led to:
• Soil nutrient depletion and water table collapse.
• Stifled crop diversification and ecological imbalance.
• Farmer dependency on input-intensive monocultures.

Policy Levers to Address the Imbalance

• Decentralized Procurement: Expanding procurement beyond wheat and rice to include pulses, millets, and oilseeds from underserved regions like central India and the Northeast.
• Agroecological Transition: Supporting states to adopt regenerative agricultural practices and reduce chemical dependency.
• Water-Smart Farming: Incentivizing crops suited to local climates and water availability, rather than forcing uniform choices.
• Income Diversification: Promoting agro-processing, farm cooperatives, and access to rural credit to give farmers alternative revenue streams.
• Regional Equity: Diversifying procurement policies to include pulses, oilseeds, and millets from underrepresented regions.

India’s Opportunity and Responsibility

• Despite its gains, India contributed just $0.8 million to CIMMYT and $18.3 million to IRRI in 2024. According to Rajendra Singh Paroda, former DG of ICAR, India should fund strategic and collaborative research in:
  • Heat and drought tolerance;
  • Nitrogen use efficiency;
  • Gene editing;
• Artificial intelligence in breeding
• Recent initiatives like the International Year of Millets, ‘Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India’ and the push for regenerative farming offer encouraging signals — but scale and sincerity are key.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

The Election Commission’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar has reignited debate over the eligibility of migrant workers as ‘ordinarily resident’ for voter registration.

Who is ‘ordinarily resident’?

• The term “ordinarily resident” is defined and interpreted through the Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RP Act), under Section 19 and Section 20.
• Section 19 of the RP Act requires that a person is ‘ordinarily resident’ in a constituency for inclusion in its electoral roll.
• Section 20 provides the meaning of the term ‘ordinarily resident’.
  • It specifies that mere ownership or possession of a house does not make one ordinarily resident.
  • However a person temporarily absent from their place of residence will still be considered ordinarily resident there.
  • Specific categories of individuals (e.g., armed forces, government officials posted outside India, constitutional office holders) are deemed to be ordinarily resident in their home constituency despite being physically away.
• Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 (RER) framed under the RP Act, governs the procedures for inclusion, exclusion, and corrections in electoral rolls.
  • The rules are executed by Electoral Registration Officers and supervise the application of the term “ordinarily resident.”
• The Gauhati High Court in the Manmohan Singh case (1999), indicated that the term ‘ordinarily resident’ shall mean a habitual resident of that place.
  • It must be permanent in character and not temporary or casual. It must be a place where the person has the intention to dwell permanently.

Challenges for Migrant Workers

• India has a large migrant workforce, especially from poorer regions like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (2020-21) estimates that around 11% of Indians migrate for employment, which amounts to over 15 crore people. Key Issues are;
  • Temporary Nature of Migration: Most labourers migrate for short-term work and live in makeshift homes or worksite camps without permanent addresses.
  • Voter Identity and Registration Gaps: Many migrants fail to register as voters in their place of work due to lack of documentation and mobility.
  • Reluctance to Shift Voter Registration: Migrants have stronger social and economic ties with their home villages or towns. They choose to vote where their families live and their properties exist.
• Disenfranchisement Risk: Removal from rolls in the original constituency, combined with no registration at the new workplace, may leave many completely disenfranchised.

Way Ahead

• Amendments in RP Act and RER: Introduce special provisions for migrant workers, akin to those for service voters and NRIs.
• Allow dual documentation to maintain residence proof in the original place even while temporarily living elsewhere.
• Use of Technology: Use Aadhaar-linked electoral rolls to ensure;
  • One person, one vote (preventing multiple registrations),
  • Seamless transfer of voting rights across locations.
• Alternative Voting Mechanisms: Explore options like Postal ballots for migrants, Mobile polling stations at major work clusters, and Remote voting technologies piloted by the ECI.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

On 2025 World Population Day (July 11), the Population Foundation of India emphasized that India’s real challenge lies not in population size, but in justice, gender equity, and investing in human potential.

Key Takeaways

• Shift the focus to reproductive rights, gender equality, and inclusive growth.
• Empower youth, especially young women, to make informed choices about their lives and families.
• View the demographic journey as an opportunity, not a threat—invest in education, healthcare, and skills.

India’s Demographic Dividend

• Demographic Dividend: It refers to the economic growth potential that results from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population (15 to 64 years old) is larger than the non-working-age population (14 or younger and 65 or older).
  • The change in age structure is typically brought on by a decline in fertility and mortality rates.
• India’s Demographic Dividend: India, with its large and young population, is currently experiencing a demographic dividend.
  • India is expected to add another 183 million people to the working-age group between 2020 and 2050.
  • The dividend would peak around 2041 (when the working age population would be 59% of India’s population) and is expected to last until 2055.

Data on India’s Ageing Population

• As per the India Ageing Report 2023, the share of population over the age of 60 years is projected to increase from 10.5% in 2022 to 20.8% in 2050.
• By the end of the century, the elderly will constitute over 36% of the total population of the country.
• 80+Years Population: The population of people aged 80+ years will grow at a rate of around 279% between 2022 and 2050, with a predominance of widowed and highly dependent very old women.

Challenges India Face

• Unemployment: For the demographic dividend to work, the country must provide productive employment to the 7-8 million youths that join the labourforce every year.
  • In 2022, the unemployment rate among graduates was around 29%, while for those who cannot read and write, it was just 3.4%.
• Education and Skill Gap: Over two-fifths of the country’s youths are educated below the secondary level and just 4% have access to vocational training.
• Gender Inequality: Women’s participation in the workforce remains relatively low, limiting the overall potential of the economy.
• Jobless Growth: Economic growth hasn’t created proportional employment opportunities.
  • Over 80% of India’s workforce is in the informal sector, lacking security and benefits.
  • Emerging technologies are reducing demand for low-skilled labour.
• Mental Health Neglect: Youth face rising issues of depression, anxiety, and stress without adequate support systems.
• Regional Imbalances: Southern states are ageing faster, while northern states have younger populations but weaker infrastructure.
  • Youth from lagging regions migrate to urban centres, causing stress on city infrastructure and leading to underemployment.

Measures

• Skill Development: Programs like the Skill India Mission aim to provide training and certification to millions of youth, enhancing their employability in various sectors.
• Education Reforms: Efforts to improve primary and secondary education quality, by introducing new Education Policy 2020.
• Make in India & Atmanirbhar Bharat: These initiatives focus on boosting domestic manufacturing, creating jobs, and enhancing industrial capacity to absorb the growing workforce.
• Start-up Ecosystem: The Startup India campaign encourages entrepreneurship, providing support to young innovators and creating new employment opportunities.
• Digital Infrastructure: Expanding internet access and digital literacy through programs like Digital India to create opportunities for youth in the technology and digital sectors.
• Healthcare Improvements: Programs like Ayushman Bharat aim to improve healthcare access and outcomes.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The Union Education Minister inaugurated the two-day Vice-Chancellors’ Conference of Central Universities at Kevadia, Gujarat, to assess the implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

Key Highlights of the Conference

• Panch Sankalpa: It is the Five Guiding Resolutions of NEP 2020.
  • Next-Gen Emerging Education,
  • Multidisciplinary Education,
  • Innovative Education,
  • Holistic Education, and
  • Bharatiya Education.
  • Academic Triveni Sangamam was proposed to shape academic philosophy.
  • Celebrate the Past: Honouring India’s civilisational richness.
  • Calibrate the Present: Correcting narratives and institutional reform.
  • Create the Future: Repositioning India in global higher education.

Progress in Higher Education in India

• Total Enrollment Growth: Total student enrollment has reached 4.46 crore, reflecting a 30% increase since 2014–15.
• Female Empowerment: Female enrollment has surged by 38%, and the Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for women now exceeds that of men.
• D. enrollment has nearly doubled, with the number of female Ph.D. scholars increasing by a remarkable 136%.
• The GER for Scheduled Tribes (STs) has risen by 10 percentage points, while for Scheduled Castes (SCs), it has increased by over 8 points.
• Institutional growth and expansion:
  • Growing Network: India now boasts over 1,200 universities and 46,000 colleges, making it one of the world’s largest higher education systems.
  • Increased Faculty: The total number of faculty/teachers in 2021-22 reached 15.98 lakh, with 43.4% being female.

Government Initiatives for Higher education

• PM-Vidyalaxmi scheme: The scheme is a Central Sector Scheme and facilitates the extension of education loans to students who get admission in the top quality higher educational institutions (QHEIs) of the nation.
• SWAYAM and SWAYAM Prabha: These platforms offer Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and educational channels, respectively, to expand access to quality education.
• Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA): Provides financial support to state higher education institutions for infrastructure development, research, and innovation.
• Impacting Research Innovation & Technology (IMPRINT): Encourages research and innovation in various engineering and technology domains.
• Impacting Research Innovation & Technology (IMPRINT): Encourages research and innovation in various engineering and technology domains.

Way Ahead

• Each institution should develop a comprehensive NEP implementation roadmap with time-bound targets for GER enhancement, curriculum revision, digital expansion, and faculty development.
• Promote hybrid learning models to enhance access, especially in remote and underserved areas.
• Enhancing Research and Innovation: Operationalise the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) with transparent funding mechanisms.
• Promote innovation hubs, incubation centres, and industry-academia collaboration within universities.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

The recent collapse of the Mujpur-Gambhira bridge over Gujarat’s Mahisagar (Mahi) river has once again exposed the alarming fragility of public infrastructure of India.

About India’s Public Infrastructure

• India’s public infrastructure — like national highways & expressways, economic corridors, bridges, drainage systems, urban utilities, telecom, and infrastructures related to ports & shipping etc — is recognized as the foundation of economic growth, social equity, and national resilience.
• Over the past decade, sectors like transport, energy, housing and digital connectivity have gained momentum.
• According to the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), 431 infrastructure projects faced cost overruns totaling ₹4.82 lakh crore as of December 2023.
• Delays range from 1 month to over 5 years, with 36% of projects running 25–60 months behind schedule.

Reasons For Fragality of India’s Public Infrastructure

• Chronic Underfunding & Investment Gaps: India needs ₹70 lakh crore by 2036 to meet urban infrastructure demands.
  • qMunicipal finances remain stagnant at 1% of GDP, limiting local capacity to maintain infrastructure.
• Overreliance on Public Sector Funding: Public sector contributes 78% of infrastructure investment; private participation remains low due to long payback periods and high risk.
• Fragmented Governance: Multiple agencies (e.g., DDA, PWD, MCD) operate in silos, especially in metros like Delhi and Mumbai.
  • Lack of coordination leads to blame games and reactive maintenance, rather than proactive planning.
• Poor Planning & Execution: Projects often lack comprehensive feasibility studies, resulting in flawed designs—like underpasses that flood every monsoon.
  • Urban infrastructure is frequently built on natural drainage basins, worsening flood risks.
  • Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) are outsourced with inconsistent quality and data accuracy.
• Regulatory & Legal Bottlenecks: Land acquisition delays, outdated building codes, and weak enforcement of safety norms slow down projects.
  • Dispute resolution and arbitration mechanisms are inadequate, leading to prolonged litigation.
• Skill & Capacity Deficits: Local bodies lack trained personnel and modern project management tools.
  • Short-term training programs are being considered, but systemic reform is needed.
• Climate & Disaster Vulnerability: CBRE-CII Report (2024) revealed that 50% of India’s public infrastructure is unprepared for natural or man-made disasters. Key risks include:
  • Floods, heatwaves, and cyclones;
  • Industrial accidents and cyberattacks;
  • Public health crises;

Proposed Reform

• Structural & Governance Reforms: Treat urban infrastructure as core national infrastructure to unlock long-term capital.
  • Create unified, tech-enabled urban governance bodies for integrated planning.
  • Strengthen State Finance Commissions to empower municipal autonomy.
• Financing Innovations: Develop a municipal bond market and pooled finance mechanisms.
  • Decouple project preparation from financial assistance to ensure sustainability.
  • Leverage Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) for efficient service delivery.
• Spatial & Industrial Integration: Synchronize urban expansion with industrial corridors to reduce inefficiencies.
  • Capture land value in transport projects, especially metro rail.
• Sustainability & Climate Resilience: Integrate climate adaptation into infrastructure planning.
  • Promote circular economy models in sanitation and waste management.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

India’s space regulator INSPACe has granted a licence to Elon Musk-run Starlink to offer space-based internet services in the country.

About

• Starlink has been waiting since 2022 for licences to operate commercially in India.
• It would be the third company to receive India’s nod to enter the space after Eutelsat’s OneWeb and Reliance Jio.
• Starlink will now need to secure spectrum from the government, set up ground infrastructure, and also demonstrate through testing and trials that it meets the security rules it has signed up for.
• Starlink authorisation is to operate Gen1 constellation for providing satellite broadband capacity over India till 2030.

Regulation Landscape in India

• Licensing Framework under Indian Telegraph Act, 1885:
  • Section 4: Grants exclusive privilege to the Union government for establishing and operating telecommunication systems (including VSAT).
  • Section 7: Authorises the government to frame rules and conditions for such licences.
• Regulatory Oversight by TRAI (TRAI Act, 1997): Section 11: Lists TRAI’s functions:
  • Recommending licence terms and conditions.
  • Advising on spectrum management.
  • Ensuring level playing field and fair competition.
  • TRAI significantly influences Starlink’s operational framework through its regulatory recommendations.
• Telecommunications Act, 2023: Governs satellite spectrum allocation.
  • Allows administrative allocation of spectrum.
  • Imposes compliance on: Security obligations and Pricing norms.
• Space Sector Regulation: Satellite Communications Policy, 2000 regulates satellite use in India.
  • IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) coordinates with private players like Starlink.
  • Ensures non-conflict with ISRO assets.
  • Aligns operations with national space priorities.
• Data and Cybersecurity Laws: Information Technology Act, 2000 governs cybersecurity and lawful interception.
  • Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 regulates personal data handling, imposes data storage and encryption norms.
• National security compliance: Directives from the Ministry of Home Affairs and intelligence agencies must be followed.

Significance of privatization of space sector

• Cost Reduction: The profit-driven nature of private enterprises compels them to bring innovation and cut unnecessary costs.
• For example: Companies like SpaceX have revolutionized space economics through reusable rockets (e.g., Falcon 9), slashing launch costs dramatically.
• Lean Operational Models: Private firms operate with smaller, highly specialized teams. Fewer layers of hierarchy lead to faster decision-making and lower overhead costs.
• Employment & Self-reliance: Privatization generates jobs, supports modern technology adoption, and helps make the space sector self-reliant.

Steps Taken by Government to Strengthen Space Sector

• Space Sector Reforms (2020): Government allowed private sector participation, defining roles of IN-SPACe, ISRO, and NSIL.
• Space Vision 2047: Aims for Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) by 2035 and an Indian Moon landing by 2040.
  • Gaganyaan follow-on missions & BAS first module by 2028.
  • Next Generation Satellite Launch Vehicle (NGLV) by 2032.
  • Chandrayaan-4 by 2027, to collect moon samples and demonstrate return technology.
  • Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM) by 2028, to study Venus.
• Indian Space Policy, 2023: Ensures level playing field for Non-Government Entities (NGEs) in space activities.
• Venture Capital Fund: Rs. 1000 crore fund for space startups under IN-SPACe over the next 5 years.
• SpaceTech Innovation Network (SpIN): SpIN is a one-of-its-kind public-private collaboration for start-ups and SMEs in the space industry.
  • Under the amended FDI policy, 100% FDI is allowed in the space sector.

Way Ahead

• Early and Structured Engagement: Starlink’s experience highlights the importance of early dialogue between technology firms and regulatory bodies.
  • Proactive engagement can preempt legal ambiguities and build mutual understanding between innovators and the state.
• National Security as a Pillar: Compliance with encryption norms, data localisation, and surveillance directives reflects India’s strong emphasis on digital sovereignty.
• Broader Significance for India’s Digital Future: As India positions itself as a global digital leader, the regulatory treatment of technologies like Starlink serves as a litmus test of its commitment to:
  • Transparency and predictability in governance,
  • Innovation-friendly ecosystems, and
  • Digital inclusion across geographies, a step towards bridging India’s rural-urban digital divide.