General Studies Paper-2

Context

Prime Minister Modi and Brazilian President held bilateral talks in Brasilia a day after the BRICS summit.

Major Outcomes

• India and Brazil signed six agreements covering cooperation in security, digital infrastructure, renewable energy, agriculture, and intellectual property.
• The agreements include a pact on combating international terrorism and transnational organized crime, as well as a memorandum on the exchange of large-scale digital solutions to support digital transformation.
• Both countries also announced the establishment of a ministerial-level mechanism to monitor trade, commerce, and investment.
• The leaders decided a strategic roadmap to further strengthen bilateral ties over the next decade around five priority pillars:
  • defense and security;
  • food and nutritional security;
  • energy transition and climate change;
  • digital transformation and emerging technologies;
  • industrial partnerships in strategic areas.
• India and Brazil set a target of almost doubling their bilateral trade to $20 billion over the next five years.
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi was conferred with Brazil’s highest civilian award, the Grand Collar of the National Order of the Southern Cross.

Brief on India- Brazil Relations

• Diplomatic Relations: Relations were established in 1948, and the two countries have been Strategic Partners since 2006.
  • Both sides also have several Joint Working Groups to take forward sectoral cooperation.
• Trade Relations: Brazil is currently India’s largest trade partner in South America.
  • Two-way trade was worth $12.2 billion in 2024-25, with Indian exports amounting to $6.77 billion.
  • Both Nations have established Trade Monitoring Mechanism as an institutional mechanism to monitor and identify bottlenecks in bilateral trade and take appropriate measures to address them.
• Defence & Security Cooperation: India and Brazil signed an agreement in 2003 for cooperation in defence. Meetings of the Joint Defence Committee (JDC) are held as an institutionalized mechanism for defence cooperation.
• Security Cooperation: Established a Strategic Dialogue mechanism in 2006 to cover regional and global issues of mutual concern.
  • The two countries have an Extradition Treaty, Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in Criminal Matters and an Agreement of Transfer of Sentenced Persons in place.
• Space Cooperation: Both signed a framework agreement for peaceful use of outer space in 2004 as well an Agreement for inter-institutional cooperation between the space agencies.
  • Both countries have been collaborating in Data sharing and satellite tracking of Indian satellites.
• Multifora Relations: India and Brazil share a very close and multifaceted relationship both at bilateral level as well as in plurilateral fora such as BRICS, BASIC, G-20, G-4, India, Brazil, and South Africa (IBSA) Dialogue Forum, International Solar Alliance, as well as in the larger multilateral bodies such as the UN, WTO, UNESCO, and WIPO.

Relevance of India–Brazil Cooperation in a Changing World

• UNSC Reform: India and Brazil advocate expansion in both permanent and non-permanent categories, reflecting the aspirations of underrepresented regions.
• Global South Voice: Both champion reforms in international institutions (UN, IMF, World Bank) to reflect contemporary realities and the needs of developing countries.
• Bioenergy and Global Biofuels Alliance: As founding members, both countries offer scalable biofuel solutions for climate change mitigation.
• COP30 and TFFF (Tropical Forests Forever Fund): India supports Brazil’s climate leadership at COP30, emphasizing forest preservation and climate finance.
• Bilateral Investment and Trade Mechanism: Removing trade barriers, improving visa processes, and promoting local currency financing align with evolving global trade dynamics.
• Pharma and Health Security: Joint R&D in vaccines and tropical diseases boosts health sovereignty in the Global South.
• Global Leadership on Food Security: India and Brazil, as major food producers, jointly call for ending hunger by 2030 through multilateral efforts like the Global Alliance Against Hunger and Poverty.
• Joint STI Innovation: Bilateral R&D in AI, quantum tech, and renewable energy drives technological self-reliance and inclusive innovation.

Challenges in the Relations

• Geopolitical Competition: Both India and Brazil are emerging powers with aspirations for greater global influence.
  • This can sometimes lead to competition, particularly in international forums like the UN, where both countries seek greater representation and influence.
• Trade Barriers: Trade between India and Brazil has not reached its full potential, partly due to various trade barriers and protectionist measures in both countries. These barriers hinder the growth of bilateral trade and investment.
• Infrastructure and Connectivity: Improving infrastructure and connectivity between the two countries remains a challenge.
  • Better air and sea connectivity, as well as improved transportation links, are essential for boosting trade and people-to-people contacts.
• Regional Priorities and Strategic Autonomy: Brazil prioritizes Latin American integration and relationships within the Western Hemisphere.
  • India remains more focused on its immediate neighborhood and Indo-Pacific, creating limited overlap in regional strategic focus.

Way Ahead

• India–Brazil relations carry vast untapped potential, but current challenges—ranging from trade and connectivity to strategic divergence—must be addressed through sustained dialogue, institutional mechanisms, and political will.
  • Deeper engagement, better follow-up of agreements, and enhanced people-to-people contact will help realize the full promise of this South–South partnership in a changing global order.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

Citing “technological” and “cross-border fuelling” concerns, the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) deferred the ban on fuel to end-of-life vehicles in Delhi to November 1.

About

• In 2015, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) directed that All diesel vehicles (heavy or light) which are more than 10 years old will not be permitted on the roads of Delhi NCR.
• Also, Petrol vehicles which are more than 15 years old and diesel vehicles that are more than 10 years old shall not be registered in the NCR, Delhi.
• The NGT’s directive was upheld and reinforced by the Supreme Court in 2018. It said that vehicles violating the order should be impounded.
• Most recently, the Environment Protection (End-of-Life Vehicles) Rules, 2025, effective April 1, made scrapping mandatory within 180 days of the expiry of the vehicle’s registration.
• The enforcement relies on Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) systems installed at fuel stations. These cameras scan number plates and cross-check with the VAHAN database to identify ELVs. If detected, fuel will be denied, and vehicles may be subject to impoundment or scrapping unless exempted.

Issue with Older Vehicles

• Pre-BS-VI (Bharat Stage VI) vehicles are disproportionately responsible for vehicular emissions.
• BS-IV vehicles, for instance, emit 4.5 to 5.5 times more particulate matter than BS-VI vehicles.
• Transport emissions account for 28% of PM2.5, 41% of sulphur dioxide (SO2), and 78% of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in the NCR.
• Although legal mandates have existed since 2015, official enforcement was delayed due to the absence of necessary technological infrastructure.

Bharat Stage Norms

• Bharat Stage Norms (BS Norms) are emission standards instituted by the Government to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines and spark-ignition engines, including motor vehicles.
• These are European emission standards (Euro norms).
• They apply to all vehicles: 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers, cars, trucks, buses, etc.

Challenges in the Implementation of Bharat Stage Norms in India

• Automobile Industry Readiness: Sudden transitions, like from BS-IV to BS-VI (skipping BS-V), forced automobile manufacturers to overhaul engines and emission systems in a short time.
• Fuel Availability: Refineries had to upgrade to produce cleaner fuels (e.g., BS-VI compliant fuel), which required huge investments and coordination across the country.
• Testing Facilities: Lack of adequate testing and certification infrastructure for emission standards compliance, especially for real driving emission (RDE) tests.
• For Consumers: BS-VI vehicles are more expensive, discouraging buyers from adopting newer models.
• Weak Enforcement: Limited enforcement capacity to check on-road compliance, especially in smaller towns and rural areas.
• Large Number of Older Vehicles: Older BS-II or BS-III vehicles still ply on roads, emitting significantly more pollutants.
• Resistance to Scrappage: Vehicle owners are reluctant to scrap old vehicles due to sentimental value, poor enforcement of scrappage policy, and lack of economic incentives.
• Low Awareness: Many consumers are unaware of BS norms and their environmental benefits.

Way Ahead

• The CAQM’s directive is a bold enforcement step aiming to remove highly polluting vehicles from roads in a phased manner.
• While legally backed and environmentally justified, its success hinges on technological robustness, cross-state cooperation and public support.
• The solution lies in coordinated planning and action on multiple fronts, involving a wide range of stakeholders.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

As the world grapples with intensifying climate crises, the credibility and effectiveness of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process have come under scrutiny.

About the UNFCCC

• It is the foundational international treaty that guides global efforts to combat climate change.
• It was adopted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, it has since become the bedrock of climate diplomacy, shaping agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.

Institutional Framework

• Conference of the Parties (COP): The supreme decision-making body that meets annually to assess progress and negotiate new commitments.
• Subsidiary Bodies:
  • Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA): Provides scientific and technological advice
  • Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI): Supports implementation and reviews national reports
• Secretariat: Facilitates negotiations, supports implementation, and maintains transparency through data and reporting systems.

Major Milestones of the UNFCCC Process 

• Protocol and Implementation:
  • 1997: Kyoto Protocol adopted — first legally binding emission reduction targets
  • 2005: Kyoto Protocol enters into force
  • 2012: Doha Amendment adopted, extending Kyoto commitments
• Paris Agreement Era:
  • 2015: Paris Agreement adopted at COP21 — aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C
  • 2023: First Global Stocktake – First comprehensive review of climate progress

Why Is UNFCCC Reform Urgent?

• Stalled Progress: Despite decades of negotiations, global emissions continue to rise, and climate finance commitments remain unmet.
• Consensus Paralysis: The UNFCCC’s consensus-based decision-making gives every country veto power, often diluting outcomes and delaying action.
• Withdrawal of Key Players: The recent exit of the United States under President Trump has further eroded trust in the process.
• Climate Finance Bottleneck:
  • Current Target: $100 billion annually—far below the estimated $1.3 trillion needed.
  • New Pledge: Developed countries offered $300 billion per year starting 2035, which many see as insufficient.

Proposed Reforms To UNFCCC

• At Bonn Climate Meeting (June 2025):
  • Agenda Simplification: Eliminate overlapping or redundant items to focus on core issues.
  • Team Size Limits: Reduce delegation sizes to improve efficiency.
  • Time Management: Restrict statement lengths to allow more time for negotiations.
• By Civil Society Groups:
  • Majority-Based Decisions: Replace consensus with majority voting when agreement is elusive.
  • COP Host Criteria: Bar countries with poor climate records from hosting COP summits.
  • Fossil Fuel Influence: Limit participation of polluting industries in negotiations.
  • Increased Transparency: Ensuring that climate decisions are made in public and are subject to independent review.
  • Stronger Accountability Mechanisms: Holding countries accountable for unmet commitments.
• Brazil’s Leadership at COP30:
  • Trust Building: Issued a letter urging parties to reflect on the future of the UNFCCC process.
  • Multilateral Synergy: Proposed integrating climate action across UN agencies and financial institutions.
  • 30-Point Agenda: Outlined key areas for accelerating climate action.
  • BRICS’ Call for Climate Justice: At a recent BRICS summit in Brazil, it released a joint declaration on climate finance. The statement reiterated the demand for:
• Full delivery of existing climate finance commitments by developed nations.
• A substantial increase in adaptation finance, which remains significantly underfunded compared to mitigation efforts.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

The Jammu & Kashmir Assembly’s House Committee is currently probing allegations of irregularities in the implementation of the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) in the region.

Background

• During the Budget Session, concerns were raised over the implementation of the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) in Jammu & Kashmir like;
• Use of substandard materials
• Incomplete and abandoned water supply schemes
• Corruption and misuse of public funds
• Failure in providing tap connections despite funds being released
• As a result, a House Committee was established, and it issued a public notice inviting citizens and stakeholders to report malpractices.

What are the Governance Challenges?

• Lack of Transparency and Accountability:
  • Absence of robust audit mechanisms.
  • Weak convergence between local panchayats and implementing agencies.
• Administrative Capacity Gaps:
  • Shortage of trained manpower in remote blocks.
  • Poor maintenance of assets post-implementation.
• Political Interference:
  • Contractors with political links allegedly bypass due process.
  • Quality control is often ignored in favour of cost-cutting.

Way Forward

• Independent Social Audits: Engage NGOs, civil society, and citizen groups for real-time audits and grievance redress.
• Real-time Monitoring Dashboards: Enhance public access to performance data at the panchayat and block level.
• Strengthening Gram Panchayats: Provide technical and financial training to local bodies to manage and maintain infrastructure.
• Expand low-cost water testing facilities to detect contamination early.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• As the trade deadline approaches, the USA is ramping up pressure on India to open its agriculture market to genetically modified (GM) crops.
• However, India has drawn firm red lines, citing farmers’ livelihoods and food safety as non-negotiable.

India’s Agriculture & Genetic Innovation

• Genetic innovation in agriculture refers to the use of tools like CRISPR gene editing, genomic selection, and transgenic technologies to improve crop traits. These include:
• Enhancing crop yields and nutritional content;
• Increasing resistance to pests, diseases, drought and heat;
• Reducing dependency on chemical pesticides and fertilizers;
• Shortening crop cycles and making agriculture more climate-resilient;

Global Expansion of GM Crops

• GM crops have seen massive adoption, since their global debut in 1996.
• By 2023, over 200 million hectares of GM soy, maize, canola, and others were cultivated across 76 countries.
• Many of India’s trading partners — including the US, Brazil, and China — have fully embraced GM agriculture.

Bt Cotton: India’s Only GM Crop

• Bt cotton was approved in 2002 by India.
• Its production had grown by 193%, and productivity rose by 87%, by 2013–14.
• India became the second-largest producer and exporter of cotton globally, with net exports touching $4.1 billion in 2011–12.
• Bt cotton seeds are now used across 90%+ of India’s cotton area.
• Cottonseed oil, a by-product, enters the human food chain, while the cotton cake feeds cattle.

Related Efforts Made By India

• From the Lab to the Field: CRISPR-edited rice lines with improved nitrogen use efficiency and yield, developed by ICAR scientists in Delhi.
• Genome-edited chickpea variety ‘Saatvik (NC9)’, which performs better under drought stress.
• RNA-based antivirals to protect crops like banana and cucumber from devastating viruses, offering a pesticide-free solution.
• Miniature genome editors like TnpB, developed by ICAR, are small enough to work efficiently in plant cells—especially useful for crops like rice.
• From Gene Banks to Global Partnerships: India’s first National Gene Bank, established by ICAR-NBPGR, safeguards genetic diversity for future breeding.
• A regional center of the International Potato Center (CIP) is being set up in Agra to develop climate-resilient, high-yield potato varieties.
• The Amaranth Genomic Resource Database helps identify varieties that combat obesity and malnutrition.

Concerns & Challenges

• Stagnation and Policy Failure: India’s cotton yields fell from 566 kg/ha in 2013–14 to 436 kg/ha in 2023–24—far below the global average (770 kg/ha) and significantly lower than China (1,945 kg/ha) and Brazil (1,839 kg/ha).
• Annual cotton production has declined by about 2%, driven by pest outbreaks and policy barriers.
• Illegal HT-Bt Cotton: Herbicide-Tolerant (HT) Bt cotton, which allows glyphosate spraying, has not been cleared for official use.
• However, these seeds have illegally spread across states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana.
• Estimates suggest 15–25% of cotton acreage now uses unauthorised HT-Bt seeds.
• Regulatory Bottlenecks: Government interventions since 2015 have disincentivized R&D:
• The Seed Price Control Order (SPCO) capped royalties and trait fees, reducing them to Rs 39 per seed packet by 2018.
  • By 2020, stricter caps and forced technology transfers drove away global biotech investors.
  • It turns India into a net cotton importer worth $0.4 billion in 2024–25.
• India’s regulatory paralysis also affects other GM innovations:
  • Bt Brinjal, cleared by the GEAC, has faced a moratorium since 2009.
  • GM Mustard (DMH-11) received environmental clearance in 2022, but commercialization is stalled pending more studies and possible court rulings.
  • GM soy and corn, widely used elsewhere, remain off the table despite earlier imports for poultry feed
• Policy Paralysis: India’s regulatory framework has discouraged biotech innovation:
• Seed Price Control Order (2015) drastically cut royalties on GM traits;
• 2016 regulations mandated forced technology transfers and royalty caps;
• By 2020, even tighter restrictions were imposed.

Other Concerns

• Loss of Crop Diversity: As farmers adopt high-performing genetically modified (GM) varieties, traditional and locally adapted crops may be abandoned, reducing biodiversity.
• Seed Dependency: Some GM seeds are patented, meaning farmers may need to purchase new seeds each season, increasing reliance on biotech companies.
• Access Inequality: Smallholder and marginal farmers may face barriers to accessing advanced genetic technologies due to cost, awareness, or infrastructure gaps.
• Regulatory and Ethical Issues: Concerns around biosafety, labeling, and long-term ecological effects can create uncertainty and resistance among farming communities.

India’s Balancing Act

• The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) plays a pivotal role in approving and regulating genetically engineered organisms.
• It has cleared some crops for field trials — like GM mustard — however, wider commercial adoption remains sluggish.
• The government’s regulatory framework, including the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM), plays a key role in ensuring biosafety and ethical deployment.
• Public and Private Collaboration: Public sector research institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR);
• Private sector biotech firms bringing in cutting-edge tech;
• Farmers, who must be educated and empowered to adopt new practices;

Way Forward: Need for Science-Led Agricultural Reform

• India’s Prime Minister’s ‘Jai Anusandhan’ (Hail Innovation) and a Rs 1 lakh crore RDI fund are welcome steps — but innovation must move from lab to land.
• As Former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee envisioned, ‘What IT is for India, BT can be for Bharat’. The potential for biotechnology to transform rural prosperity is immense.
• Key steps include:
  • Approval and regulation of HT-Bt cotton, Bt brinjal, and GM mustard;
  • Reform of seed pricing and licensing policies to incentivise innovation;
  • Public engagement to build trust in GM safety and benefits.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Union Minister of Science & Technology called for a wider public understanding and inclusive participation in India’s biotechnology mission, stating that every Indian is a stakeholder in the country’s bioeconomy.
• The Minister reiterated the government’s commitment to realizing a $300 billion bioeconomy by 2030.

What is Bioeconomy?

• The bioeconomy is the use of renewable biological resources to produce food, energy and industrial goods, which supports sustainability and economic growth.
• Innovations like gene editing and bioprinting are driving progress, while integration across sectors strengthens long-term impact.
• By aligning biotechnology with digital tools and circular economy principles, the bioeconomy offers sustainable solutions to environmental challenges and promotes overall societal well-being.

India’s Bioeconomy

• India is among the Top 12 destinations for biotechnology worldwide and 3rd largest destination for biotechnology in Asia Pacific.
• India’s bioeconomy has grown sixteen-fold from $10 billion in 2014 to an impressive $165.7 billion in 2024.
• Contributing 4.25% to the national GDP, the sector has demonstrated a robust compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 17.9% over the past four years.
• India’s Biotechnology sector is categorised into Biopharmaceuticals, Bio agriculture, Bio IT and Bio Services.
• Future Goals: Target of achieving a $300 billion bioeconomy by 2030.
• India also seeks to lead globally in bio-pharma, including vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics.

Government Initiatives and Key Programmes

• BioE3 Policy (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment): It was approved by the Union Cabinet in 2024, and aims to transform India into a global biotech powerhouse by fostering high-performance biomanufacturing. Key features of the policy include:
  • Innovation-driven support for R&D and entrepreneurship;
  • Establishment of Biomanufacturing & Bio-AI hubs and Biofoundry;
  • Focus on regenerative bioeconomy models for green growth;
  • Expansion of India’s skilled workforce;
  • Alignment with ‘Net Zero’ carbon economy and ‘Lifestyle for Environment’ (LiFE) initiatives.
• National Biopharma Mission: It is a government-approved initiative led by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and implemented by BIRAC.
  • Aim: To boost India’s capabilities in biopharmaceuticals, vaccines, biosimilars, medical devices, and diagnostics by fostering collaboration between industry and academia.
  • With a budget of $250 million, co-funded 50% by the World Bank, the mission supports 101 projects, involving over 150 organisations and 30 MSMEs.
• Bio-agriculture: Agricultural biotechnology in India is advancing rapidly through innovations in genomics, transgenics, and gene editing under the Department of Biotechnology’s Agriculture Biotechnology programme.
  • Climate-Smart Crops: A drought-tolerant, high-yielding chickpea variety SAATVIK (NC 9) has been approved for cultivation.
  • Genome-Edited Rice: Loss-of-function mutations in yield-limiting genes have led to improved rice lines like DEP1-edited MTU-1010, showing higher yields.
  • Genotyping Arrays: India’s first 90K SNP arrays—IndRA for rice and IndCA for chickpea—enable DNA fingerprinting and variety identification.
  • Amaranth Resources: A genomic database, NIRS techniques, and a 64K SNP chip aid nutritional screening and development of anti-obesity amaranth varieties.
  • Biocontrol: A nano-formulation from Myrothecium verrucaria offers eco-friendly control of powdery mildew in tomato and grape.
  • Kisan-Kavach: An anti-pesticide protective suit enhances farmer safety from toxic exposure.
• Biotech-KISAN (Biotech-Krishi Innovation Science Application Network): Biotech-KISAN is a scientist-farmer partnership programme launched to empower farmers through agricultural innovation and scientific interventions.
  • It follows a hub-and-spoke model and is active across 115 Aspirational Districts in India.
• Bioenergy: Bioenergy is a form of renewable energy that is derived from recently living organic materials known as biomass, which can be used to produce transportation fuels, heat, electricity, and products.
  • Ethanol blending has seen a significant rise—from 1.53% in 2014 to 15% in 2024, with a target of 20% blending by 2025.
  • This shift has not only reduced crude oil imports by 173 lakh metric tons but also saved Rs. 99,014 crores in foreign exchange and cut 519 lakh metric tons of CO₂ emissions.
• Boosting Biotech Innovation Through BIRAC Initiatives: The Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), established by the Department of Biotechnology in 2012, plays a pivotal role in nurturing India’s biotech startup ecosystem.
  • With 95 bio-incubation centres set up nationwide, BIRAC supports startups through funding, infrastructure, and mentorship.

Way Ahead

• India’s bioeconomy stands at a defining moment, with its integrated approach to innovation, sustainability, and inclusive development setting a global benchmark.
• Through robust policy frameworks, cutting-edge research, and a strong emphasis on collaboration across sectors, the nation is well on track to redefine its industrial and environmental landscape.
• The convergence of bio-manufacturing, bio-agriculture, and bioenergy not only strengthens national resilience but also signals India’s strategic intent to lead in the emerging global bioeconomy.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India’s foreign trade dynamics have shifted significantly over the past two decades, with “invisibles”—exports of services and remittances from Indians abroad—now playing a more crucial role than physical goods.

India’s Service Sector

• India’s services sector covers a wide variety of activities such as trade, hotel and restaurants, transport, storage and communication, financing, insurance, real estate, business services, community, social and personal services, and services associated with construction.
• The Economic Survey 2024-25, presented by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, highlights the service sector as the ‘Old War Horse’ of India’s economy, driving growth both domestically and globally.

Present Status

• Services have consistently supported GDP growth, contributing around 55% to India’s Gross Value Added (GVA) in FY25, up from 50.6% in FY14.
• The sector has maintained an average growth rate above 6% annually over the past decade, except during the pandemic, with post-pandemic growth accelerating to 8.3%.
• It employs about 30% of the workforce and it also boosts manufacturing through ‘servicification’—the increasing integration of services in industrial processes.
• India’s global share in services exports has risen steadily, now ranking seventh worldwide with 4.3% of the market.
• India remained amongst the top five major countries in terms of growth in services exports in FY25 (April-September).
• India’s services export growth accelerated to 12.8% in April-November FY25 from 5.7% in FY24. Computer services and business services exports account for around 70% of India’s total services exports.

Potential

• India is a unique emerging market in the globe due to its unique skills and competitive advantage created by knowledge-based services.
• The Indian services industry, which is supported by numerous government initiatives like smart Cities, clean India, and digital India is fostering an environment that is strengthening the services sector.
• The sector has the potential to open up a multi-trillion-dollar opportunity that might stimulate symbiotic growth for all nations.

Challenges and Issues

• India’s service sector faces key challenges including infrastructure gaps—especially in digital connectivity and logistics—that limit growth outside urban areas.
• There is also a significant skill shortage, with many workers lacking specialized training for high-value services, impacting productivity and innovation.
• Regulatory complexities and limited access to global markets further restrict export growth.
• It also remains vulnerable to global economic fluctuations.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• India’s service sector remains strong and vital for growth and jobs.
• India’s services-led surplus and remittances have kept its overall current account deficit manageable.
• This shift underscores India’s emergence as the “office of the world,” driven less by trade in tangible products and more by global flows of intangibles.
• Improving infrastructure, enhancing skills, easing regulations, and boosting global market access can help India realize its full potential and reinforce its role as a global services leader.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

The Union Cooperation Minister laid the foundation stone for India’s first national-level cooperative university, ‘Tribhuvan Sahkari University’ (TSU), in Anand, Gujarat.

He also said that cooperative societies have an important contribution in the economic development of the country.

What are Cooperatives?

• A cooperative (or co-op) is an organization or business that is owned and operated by a group of individuals who share a common interest, goal, or need.
• These individuals, known as members, participate in the cooperative’s activities and decision-making process, typically on a one-member, one-vote basis, regardless of the amount of capital or resources each member contributes.
• The main purpose of a cooperative is to meet the economic, social, or cultural needs of its members, rather than to maximize profits for external shareholders.

Types of Cooperatives in India:

• Agricultural Cooperatives:
  • Dairy Cooperatives: Focus on the collective production, processing, and marketing of dairy products (e.g., Amul).
  • Farmers’ Cooperatives: Provide services like access to seeds, fertilizers, and agricultural equipment, and help with marketing and processing crops.
  • Fishermen Cooperatives: Support fishermen in managing resources and marketing their catch collectively.
  • Consumer Cooperatives: These cooperatives are formed to provide goods and services to members at reasonable prices, reducing reliance on middlemen. Examples include consumer stores and fair-price shops.
  • Worker Cooperatives: In these cooperatives, workers own and manage the business, sharing profits and decision-making. Examples include small-scale manufacturing cooperatives or artisan co-ops.
  • Credit Cooperatives: Cooperative Banks and Credit Societies offer financial services, such as savings accounts, loans, and credit, to members, particularly in rural and underserved areas.
  • Housing Cooperatives: These cooperatives help members collectively build or manage housing projects, providing affordable living spaces, especially in urban areas.

Cooperatives as India’s Economic Backbone

• Cooperatives empower small farmers, artisans, fishermen, women, and labourers by giving them collective bargaining power.
  • Example: Amul has uplifted millions of dairy farmers, many of whom are landless or marginal farmers.
• Strengthening Rural Economy: Over 65% of India’s population lives in rural areas. Cooperatives provide credit, inputs, marketing, and infrastructure support.
  • PACS (Primary Agricultural Credit Societies) are the first point of credit delivery in rural India.
• Promoting Self-Reliance: Cooperatives reduce dependence on middlemen and large corporations by pooling local resources for production, processing, and marketing.

Legal Framework and Support for Cooperatives

• In India, cooperatives are governed by the Cooperative Societies Act, which is implemented at both the state and national levels.
• The Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act (2002): This law regulates cooperatives that operate in more than one state.
• The National Cooperative Policy (2002): Aimed at creating an enabling environment for the cooperative movement, it focuses on improving governance, member participation, and financial sustainability.
• The Ministry of Cooperation: Established in 2021, this ministry focuses on supporting the growth of cooperatives in India, including reforming their governance and providing financial support.

Success Stories of Cooperatives in India

• Amul (Gujarat): Amul, a dairy cooperative, has been one of India’s most successful cooperatives, transforming the dairy sector by empowering millions of small farmers and bringing India to the forefront of the global dairy market.
• Irrigation Cooperatives in Maharashtra: Water-user associations and cooperatives in Maharashtra have successfully managed water resources for irrigation purposes, helping farmers achieve better yields.
• Kerala’s Co-operative Movement: Kerala has one of the most successful cooperative movements in India, with strong cooperatives in sectors like banking, farming, consumer goods, and housing.

Challenges Faced

• Weak Governance: They are issues of poor management, corruption, and political interference, leading to inefficiency and lack of transparency.
• Limited Access to Credit: Many cooperatives struggle with access to financing, which hinders their ability to expand or improve their operations.
• Competition from Private Sector: Cooperatives often face stiff competition from large private enterprises and multinational corporations, especially in sectors like retail and agriculture.
• Technological Gaps: Many cooperatives, especially in rural areas, lack access to modern technology or are slow to adopt new systems that could improve efficiency.

Concluding remarks

• Cooperatives are not just economic institutions but are central to India’s vision of inclusive and participatory development.
• Strengthening this third economic pillar — alongside the public and private sectors — is vital for building an Atmanirbhar Bharat.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed the BRICS Summit Plenary session on ‘Strengthening Multilateralism, Economic-Financial Affairs, and Artificial Intelligence.

Major Highlights of the BRICS Summit

• The BRICS Leaders’ Declaration, adopted at the summit reflected India’s key concerns, especially on cross-border terrorism and global governance reforms.
• PM Modi said that the majority of the world’s population is not properly represented in key global institutions.
• He called for a greater role for the developing world in international decision-making.
• He also emphasizes the need for making BRICS more effective in an increasingly multipolar world.
• He put forward four key suggestions to enhance cooperation among BRICS nations:
  • Improving Systems to Boost Credibility: Highlighted the importance of demand-driven decision-making, long-term financial sustainability, and maintaining a healthy credit rating.
  • Collaborative Initiatives: Proposed creating a BRICS Science and Research Repository that can also benefit the countries of the Global South.
  • Resilient supply chain: He emphasised the need to secure and make the supply chain resilient, particularly for critical minerals and technology.
  • Responsible AI: Stressed the importance of Responsible AI, stating that India believes in artificial intelligence as a tool for enhancing human values and capabilities and is guided by the mantra of ‘AI for All’.

Increasing Relevance of BRICS

• Platform for Strategic Autonomy: BRICS offers India a non-Western multilateral platform to engage with global powers without aligning exclusively with any bloc.
• Strengthening the Group: With the additions of new countries, it will represent almost half the world’s population, and will include three of the world’s biggest oil producers, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Iran.
• Focus on Middle East: With the inclusion of Saudi Arabia, Iran, the UAE, and Egypt, there is a Middle East focus, bearing geo-economic, geostrategic, and geopolitical implications.
• Voice for Global Governance: The grouping now represents a larger share of the world’s population and economy.
  • This means the group is potentially a powerful voice for reforming global governance structures and can also act as an influential player within these arrangements.
  • Additionally, India positions itself as a leading voice of the Global South within BRICS.
• Push for Multilateral Reform: A larger BRICS enhances the push for UNSC reform, where India seeks a permanent seat.
• Counterbalance to China’s Dominance: A broader membership may dilute China’s dominance within BRICS.
  • India can build coalitions with new members to promote balanced agendas and prevent unilateralism.

Challenges

• Internal Geopolitical Tensions: India–China border disputes strain bilateral trust.
• Asymmetry in Power and Influence: China’s economic dominance creates imbalance in decision-making.
• Lack of Cohesive Vision: BRICS lacks a unified ideology or strategic coherence beyond broad themes like multilateralism and development.
  • Members pursue divergent national interests, limiting collective action.
• Institutional Limitations: BRICS has no permanent secretariat, making coordination ad hoc and dependent on rotating presidencies.
  • Limited enforcement mechanisms reduce implementation of summit declarations and commitments.
• Economic Disparities: Members are at different stages of economic development and face unique challenges, it creates difficulty in setting common economic goals or trade policies.
• Impact of External Alliances: India’s engagement with the West and Indo-Pacific frameworks.
  • Russia’s increasing dependence on China post-Ukraine conflict.
  • These shifts complicate internal unity and raise questions about long-term alignment.
• Expansion-related Challenges: The inclusion of new members adds diversity but also increases coordination complexity and risks diluting the original focus.

Way Ahead

• While BRICS holds significant potential as a voice of the Global South and a platform for multipolarity, it faces serious structural, political, and institutional challenges.
• Overcoming these would require a shared strategic vision, institutional strengthening, and internal diplomacy — especially among key players like India, China, and Russia.
• As the BRICS operates based on consensus-driven decision-making, attaining consensus among 11 countries characterized by diverse economies, geographical locations, and interests proves to be substantially more challenging than doing so among the original five members.
• To ensure the continued effectiveness and consistency of the institution, in the long run, BRICS might opt to focus on easier-to-achieve objectives.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

Recently, the Chief Justice of India underscored the enduring value of education in one’s mother tongue, calling it a cornerstone of personal growth and ethical grounding.

About

• A language is an umbrella term which contains many mother tongues.
• India is a linguistically diverse country, and one of the richest in the world — with over 1,300 rationalized mother tongues and 122 major languages spoken by more than 10,000 people each.
• In ancient gurukuls and madrasas, students learned through Sanskrit, Pali, Persian, or regional dialects.
• However, colonial education policies introduced English as the dominant medium, marginalizing native languages and creating a linguistic divide that persists today.
• The push for mother tongue-based education is more than a pedagogical shift — it’s a cultural renaissance.
• Language was not just a medium — it was a carrier of values, identity, and indigenous knowledge.

Present Form

• Commissions like Radhkrishnan (1948), Mudaliar (1952-53), Kothari (1964-66), and the National Policy on Education (1986) stated that education should be provided in the mother tongue in early ages at Primary School Level.
• The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and National Curriculum Framework 2023 mark a paradigm shift by advocating for mother tongue or home language as the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, and preferably till Grade 8 and beyond. It is backed by:
• Right to Education Act, 2009, which mandates mother tongue instruction ‘as far as practicable’.
• Initiatives like NIPUN Bharat, Vidya Pravesh, and NISHTHA FLN, which promote foundational literacy through native languages.
• CBSE’s recent push for language mapping and regional-language primers in 52 Indian languages, including tribal tongues like Bhutia, Kuki, and Sherpa, to support early education.

Arguments For Teaching in the Mother Tongue

• Cognitive and Academic Benefits: Children grasp concepts more easily when taught in a language they understand from birth.
  • Studies show improved critical thinking, literacy, and problem-solving skills when early education is delivered in the mother tongue.
• Cultural Identity and Confidence: Learning in one’s native language fosters self-esteem, cultural pride, and a stronger sense of identity.
  • It helps preserve linguistic diversity and indigenous knowledge systems.
• Better Learning Outcomes: UNESCO and UNICEF report that students taught in their mother tongue perform better in reading comprehension and numeracy in early grades.
  • It reduces dropout rates and increases classroom participation.

Arguments Against Teaching in the Mother Tongue

• Limited Global Competitiveness: Overemphasis on regional languages may hinder English proficiency, which is often essential for higher education and global job markets.
  • Implementation Challenges: In linguistically diverse regions, it’s difficult to choose a single ‘mother tongue’ for instruction.
    • There’s a shortage of trained teachers fluent in local languages and a lack of quality textbooks.
  • Transition Difficulties: Students may struggle when switching from mother tongue to English or other languages in later grades, especially in science and technical subjects.
    • Some learners become overly reliant on their native language and avoid using the second language, limiting fluency development.

Way Forward

• Promote bilingual education, starting with the mother tongue and gradually integrating English.
• Invest in teacher training and multilingual resources.
• Respect regional autonomy while aligning with national goals.