General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, the Prime Minister of India visited Cyprus, marking the first visit by an Indian PM to the country in over 20 years.

Key Highlights of the Visit

• Strategic Roadmap: A five-year strategic roadmap will be developed to steer bilateral cooperation.
  • Alignment between Cyprus Vision 2035 and India’s Viksit Bharat 2047 — both aiming for inclusive, tech-driven, sustainable development.
• Economic & Trade Relations: India-Cyprus-Greece Business & Investment Council launched earlier in 2025.
  • PM Modi emphasized India-EU Free Trade Agreement (FTA) — target: by end of 2025.
• Grand Cross of the Order of Makarios III: PM Modi was awarded Cyprus’ highest civilian honour.
  • Named after Cyprus’ first President, it is awarded to heads of state and leaders of merit.

Historical Linkages

• India and the Republic of Cyprus (RoC) share a long-standing relationship built on friendship, mutual respect, and cooperation, particularly in international forums.
• Diplomatic ties were established in 1962, two years after Cyprus gained independence.
• The bond was rooted in shared ideals championed by leaders like Archbishop Makarios and Jawaharlal Nehru, both pioneers of the Non-Aligned Movement.
• Cyprus is among the top 10 investors in India with cumulative investments of USD 14.65 Billion during April 2000 – March 2025 .

International fora

• They continue to align closely on major global issues and collaborate actively in the UN, Commonwealth, and other platforms.
• India supports a peaceful resolution to the Cyprus issue based on UN Security Council resolutions, international law, and EU principles, advocating for a bi-zonal, bi-communal federation.
• In return, the Republic of Cyprus has been a dependable ally, backing India’s bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and supporting the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement within the Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG) and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), aiding India’s energy and economic growth.

Economic and Commercial Relations

• India and Cyprus have steadily strengthened their economic and commercial ties, focusing on boosting bilateral trade and investment.
• Key Indian exports to Cyprus include pharmaceuticals, textiles, iron & steel, ceramics, machinery, and chemicals, while Cyprus exports pharmaceuticals, beverages, and manufactured goods to India.
• Despite the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, bilateral trade in 2023–24 reached USD 137 million.

Defence Ties

• India and the Republic of Cyprus have strengthened their defence cooperation through key agreements.
• An MoU on Defence Cooperation was signed in December 2022 during the Indian External Affairs Minister’s visit to Cyprus, followed by the signing of the Bilateral Defence Cooperation Programme (BDCP) for 2025 in January 2025.

Culture

• India and Cyprus share strong cultural ties rooted in shared values and traditions. A Cultural Cooperation Agreement was signed in 1980, and both nations regularly exchange cultural groups and host events like National Days and International Day of Yoga in Cyprus.
• Symbolizing mutual respect, India named an avenue in New Delhi after Archbishop Makarios, the first President of Cyprus.

Importance

• Cyprus is considered a strong and dependable ally of India, supporting its bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and backing the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement.
• Strategically, Cyprus is vital to India as part of the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) and will hold the EU Council Presidency in 2026, enhancing its importance in India’s efforts to strengthen trade and security ties with Europe.
• Cyprus has long-standing tensions with Turkey (a vocal ally of Pakistan). India’s deepening Cyprus ties subtly counterbalance Turkish lobbying against India at the OIC and UN.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) recently examined community seed banks (CSBs) across India and raised concerns over declining intergenerational transfer of traditional seed conservation knowledge.
• Importance of Traditional Seed Conservation
• Genetic Diversity: These seeds have a broad genetic base, making crops naturally resilient to pests and diseases.
• Unlike monocultures that suffer rapid disease spread, traditional polycultures buffer such risks.
• Climate Resilience: With erratic weather becoming the norm—ranging from cloudbursts to droughts—traditional seeds provide insurance. In mixed cropping systems, even if some varieties fail, others survive and yield well.
• Sustainability: Open-pollinated and reusable, these seeds thrive under organic farming methods, unlike commercial hybrid seeds that demand chemical inputs and must be bought each season.

Challenges in Seed Conservation

• Declining Youth Engagement: Young farmers increasingly prefer hybrid or genetically modified (GM) seeds, lured by perceptions of higher yield.
• Lack of Support for CSBs: Most community seed banks (CSBs) operate with minimal funding, largely run by NGOs or self-help groups.
  • Government schemes often exclude them, offering no formal recognition or incentives.
• Erosion of Cultural Practices: Familial transmission of agricultural knowledge has weakened over generations.
  • Traditional seed-saving customs, like Rotiyaana in Uttarakhand, are vanishing.
• Policy Gaps and Exploitation of Farmers’ Rights: Despite laws like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPVFRA), documentation of “common knowledge” seed varieties remains poor.
  • This vacuum allows individuals to register age-old community varieties as private property, risking biopiracy.

Preservation Practices on the Ground

• Odisha’s Niyamgiri Foothills: Farmers sow diverse millets, vegetables, and herbs like tulsi and marigold, ensuring ecological balance.
• Barah Anaj System, Uttarakhand: Revived by the Beej Bachao Andolan, it promotes the cultivation of 12 traditional crops together.
• Teeratha Village, Karnataka: Youth are involved in Participatory Variety Selection (PVS) through the Sahaja Samrudha CSB network, testing and selecting the most suitable millet varieties in “diversity blocks”.
• Chizami, Nagaland: A women-led CSB not only conserves seeds but also imparts hands-on training to youth and school students on traditional farming and storage.
  • In many regions women play a central role in storing seeds in mud pots or bamboo baskets with neem leaves, ensuring viability without chemicals.
  • The Bharat Beej Swaraj Manch (BBSM), established in 2014, has revitalised seed-saving through community-led festivals in Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata, and Hyderabad—highlighting seed sovereignty as a people’s movement.

Way Ahead

• Policy Integration and Legal Protection: Fast-track documentation of common knowledge varieties to prevent unjust privatisation.
• Incentivising Young Seed Savers: Offer awards, training, and financial support to youth engaged in seed conservation.
  • Integrate seed-saving in school curricula and rural skill programmes.
• Promoting Decentralised Diversity: Encourage in-situ seed preservation in forests and farms.
  • Cluster-level CSBs (one per 100–200 villages) can ensure localised seed sovereignty.
• Cultural Revitalisation: Leverage festivals, folklore, and family traditions to connect youth with their agrarian heritage.

Concluding remarks

• Traditional seed conservation is not just about biodiversity, it is about ecological security, food sovereignty, and cultural continuity.
• With the right mix of policy, public support, and intergenerational collaboration, India’s seed saviours can help us build a more resilient agricultural future.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar held wide-ranging discussions with French counterpart and the two sides agreed to intensify bilateral cooperation in areas like defence, security, space and civilian-nuclear collaboration.

Major Highlights of the India-France Relations

• India–France Strategic Partnership: It was launched on 26 January 1998 and is India’s first-ever Strategic Partnership.
• Core vision: Enhance strategic autonomy and deepen bilateral cooperation.
• Key Strategic Pillars: Defence and security, Civil nuclear cooperation and Space collaboration.
• Expanding areas: Indo-Pacific cooperation, maritime security, digitalisation, cyber security, climate change, sustainable development, advanced technologies, and, counter-terrorism.
• Defence Cooperation: It is reviewed via the Annual Defence Dialogue (Minister-level) and High Committee on Defence Cooperation (HCDC) (Secretary-level).
• Rafale Fighter Jets: India procured 36 Rafales from Dassault Aviation.
• Scorpene Submarines (Project P-75): Collaboration with France’s Naval Group, 6 submarines built in India; latest is INS Vaghsheer.
• Combat Aircraft Engine Development: HAL and France’s Safran Helicopter Engines signed an agreement under the IMRH programme to co-develop engines.
• Recently both nations formally concluded an Inter-Governmental Agreement (IGA) to procure 26 Rafale-M fighter jets for the Indian Navy.
• Future plans: Co-development of next-gen fighter jet engines
• Joint Exercises: Shakti, Varuna, FRINJEX-23.
• Economic Cooperation: Within the European Union, France remains India’s fifth-largest trading partner, following the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, and Germany.
  • The bilateral trade between India and France has more than doubled in the last decade to USD 15.11 Billion in 2023-24.
  • Both countries are also moving to jointly develop technologies and integrate existing technologies.
  • The process of enabling Unified Payment Interface (UPI) has been successful in France.
  • French technologies especially in renewables, sustainable manufacturing and urban infrastructure development are being integrated in India.
• Space Cooperation: There is a over 60 years of collaboration between ISRO and CNES (French space agency)
• France is a key supplier of components, launch services (Arianespace).
• Joint missions: TRISHNA (satellite mission), MDA systems, ground station support.
• Energy Cooperation:
• International Solar Alliance (ISA): Co-founded by India and France in 2015 to promote solar energy worldwide.
• Nuclear Energy Cooperation: The first meeting of special task force on nuclear energy in the framework of the Indo-French Strategic Dialogue, was convened in 2025.
  • Both sides have agreed to work on establishing a partnership on low and medium power modular reactors or Small Modular Reactors (SMR) and Advanced Modular Reactors (AMR).
• Community: There are an estimated 1,19,000 Indian community in mainland France, largely originating from erstwhile French colonies.

Areas of Concern

• Trade Imbalance: Bilateral trade remains below potential, especially compared to India’s trade with other EU nations.
• Technology Transfer & Defence Restrictions: While France has supported India’s defence goals, there are concerns over the depth of technology transfer in big-ticket items.
• Nuclear Liability Concerns: Despite a civil nuclear agreement in 2008 and plans for reactors at Jaitapur, progress has been slow.
• The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (2010) poses hurdles for French firms as it imposes liability on suppliers in the event of a nuclear accident.
• Geopolitical Differences: France’s strong economic ties with China may sometimes dilute full alignment with India on Indo-Pacific issues.
• Differences in approach to Middle East geopolitics (e.g., stance on Iran, Israel–Palestine) occasionally diverge.

Future Outlook

• Horizon 2047 Roadmap envisions: To mark the 25th anniversary of the Indo-French partnership, both countries agreed to adopt a roadmap to set the course for the bilateral relationship up to 2047.
• Joint development and production of advanced defence technologies.
• Export of jointly developed products to third countries for global good.
• Deeper maritime and space security cooperation.
• Growing convergence in the Indo-Pacific through strategic dialogue and joint military presence.

Conclusion

• India–France defence cooperation is a cornerstone of their wider Strategic Partnership.
• With shared interests in sovereignty, multilateralism, and regional stability, both countries are set to elevate ties further under the Horizon 2047 vision — making defence ties more collaborative, innovative, and export-oriented.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• After the IAEA resolution accused Iran of nuclear non-compliance (first such resolution in two decades), Israel launched Operation Rising Lion, a coordinated military strike targeting Iran’s nuclear and missile infrastructure.

About

• Israeli officials have described this operation as an “existential battle” to eliminate Iran’s ability to pose a long-term threat to Israel.
• The two states have been at conflict since the founding of the Islamic Republic in 1979, but Israel’s attacks are a definite major escalation of the conflict.

Iran’s Proxy Warfare Strategy

• Over the years, Iran has developed a network of armed non-state groups across the region to exert influence and challenge Israel without engaging directly.
• These include: Hamas in Palestine, Hezbollah in Lebanon, Houthis in Yemen and Popular Mobilisation Forces (PMF) in Iraq.
• This proxy model has allowed Iran to:
  • Minimize its own risks and costs;
  • Retain a layer of deniability while supporting actions against israel;
  • Tie down israeli military capabilities across multiple fronts.
• Strategic Impact of Iran’s Proxy Network: Through this strategy, Iran has managed to extend its influence well beyond its borders, impacting areas as far as the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea and the northern Arabian Sea.
  • This indirect warfare has helped Iran strengthen its geopolitical position without triggering large-scale retaliation—until now.

Israel’s Ongoing Dilemma with Proxies

• Despite repeated military strikes against Iran-backed groups, Israel has been unable to completely eliminate or neutralize them.
• For instance, Hamas continues to operate in Gaza despite significant Israeli military action.
• Hezbollah still poses a threat from Lebanon.
• The Houthis have withstood Israeli-aligned efforts despite attacks on infrastructure like the Sanaa airport.
• Many of these groups, except Hamas, are heavily dependent on Iranian support, especially in terms of weapons and training.

Shift in Israeli Military Strategy

• Israel appears to have concluded that targeting these proxies individually is not enough to ensure long-term security.
• The new approach targets the root of the problem — Iran itself, which supports and sustains the “Axis of Resistance.”
• Previous direct confrontations between the two countries in 2024 did not change the strategic balance. However, they revealed that many regional countries tacitly support Israel’s stance against Iran.

Implications of the Iran-Israel Conflict

• Escalation of Proxy Conflicts: Iran’s regional proxies — Hamas, Hezbollah, Houthis, and PMF — may retaliate, opening multiple fronts and turning the war into a wider Middle Eastern conflict.
• Destabilization of Fragile States: Countries like Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen could witness a surge in violence, leading to internal political chaos and humanitarian crises.
• Maritime Insecurity: Key shipping routes like the Strait of Hormuz, Bab el-Mandeb, and Eastern Mediterranean may face threats, disrupting global trade and energy supply.
• Oil Price Surge: A direct war involving Iran — a major oil producer — risks disrupting global oil exports, potentially triggering a spike in oil prices and inflation worldwide.
• Derailment of Iran Nuclear Deal Talks: Ongoing efforts to revive the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) are likely to collapse, ending hopes for a peaceful nuclear settlement.
• Strengthening Iran’s Resolve: Israeli strikes on nuclear facilities may encourage Iran to accelerate its nuclear weapons program under the pretext of national defense.
• Arms Race in the Region: Gulf countries like Saudi Arabia may push for nuclear capabilities, intensifying the regional arms race.
• Reconfiguration of Regional Alliances: Arab states fearful of Iranian aggression may deepen cooperation with Israel.
  • Regional powers like Turkey may recalibrate their roles to balance influence, while Russia may attempt to exploit the crisis for strategic gains.
• India’s Strategic and Economic Concerns: Over 60% of India’s crude oil comes from the Middle East; instability can disrupt supplies and widen the current account deficit.
  • Millions of Indian citizens work in the Gulf; escalation may require emergency evacuations and increase remittance risk.
  • India will have to balance relations between Israel, Iran, and Arab countries, maintaining neutrality while protecting its strategic interests.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Despite India’s rise as the world’s fourth-largest economy with a nominal GDP of $3.9 trillion, concerns persist over the lack of inclusivity in economic growth.

The Illusion of Growth

• GDP vs. Per Capita Reality: Although India’s GDP has expanded significantly, the average per capita income stands at just $2,800 (₹2.33 lakh/year), far below countries like Vietnam ($4,300) and China ($12,500).
• Extreme Wealth Concentration: The top 1% of Indians own over 40% of the nation’s wealth. The top 5% control 62%.
  • If their wealth is excluded, the effective per capita income for the rest falls to ₹5,600 per month, barely above subsistence level.
• Global Comparisons: India ranks 111th out of 125 on the Global Hunger Index, and 134th on the Human Development Index — lower than peers like Vietnam or Sri Lanka.
  • 80 crore people in India rely on free ration schemes under the NFSA. 230 million Indians live in multidimensional poverty.
  • 35% of Indian children are stunted, indicating chronic undernutrition.
• Exchange Rate Distortion: India’s GDP in dollar terms is nominal, and heavily influenced by exchange rates.
  • A weakening rupee can shrink India’s dollar-based economy without any real decline in domestic production.
• Employment Crisis: Female Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is among the lowest in the world. Youth unemployment, especially among graduates, remains alarmingly high.

Reasons for wealth concentration

• Historical Factors: India’s history, including colonization and feudalism, has led to the accumulation of wealth in the hands of certain groups.
  • These historical inequalities have persisted over time, influencing wealth distribution patterns.
  • Economic policies, including liberalization and privatization measures implemented since the 1990s, have spurred economic growth in certain sectors, benefitting those with access to capital and resources.
• Urban-Rural Divide: Urban centers tend to attract more investment and offer better job opportunities, leading to the concentration of wealth in these regions.
• Access to Education and Opportunities: Disparities in access to education persist, particularly among marginalized communities, exacerbating wealth inequality.

Way Ahead

• Shift to Human-Centric Metrics: Focus on Human Development Indicators (HDI), Nutrition, Education, and Gender Equality alongside GDP.
• Focus on Labour-Intensive Sectors: Promote MSMEs, rural industries, and social infrastructure to create broad-based employment.
• Decentralized Planning: Empower local bodies, cooperatives, and community-based governance.
• Ecological Justice: Align growth with sustainability, climate action, and environmental protection.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, the World Economic Forum (WEF) released its 19th edition of Global Gender Gap Report 2025.

Global Overview

• Overall Gender Parity: The world has closed 68.5% of the gender gap, a marginal improvement from the previous year.
• Top Performers: Iceland remains the most gender-equal country for the 16th consecutive year, achieving over 90% parity.
• Other top-ranking nations include Finland, Norway and the United Kingdom etc.

India’s Performance

• Overall Rank: India slipped to 131st out of 148 countries, with a parity score of 64.1%.
• Economic Participation: Improved slightly to 40.7%, with a rise in estimated earned income parity from 28.6% to 29.9%.
• Educational Attainment: Scored 97.1%, reflecting strong gains in literacy and higher education enrollment.
• Health and Survival: Showed modest improvement in sex ratio at birth and healthy life expectancy.
• Political Empowerment: Declined, with women’s representation in Parliament dropping from 14.7% to 13.8%, and ministerial roles falling from 6.5% to 5.6%, marking a continued decline from the 2019 peak of 30%.

Regional Insights

• South Asia: India ranks below Bangladesh (24), Nepal (125), and Sri Lanka (130), but above Maldives (138), Bhutan (119) and Pakistan (148).
• Europe: Leads globally with 76.3% parity, surpassing North America.
• Middle East and North Africa: Remains the furthest from parity at 62.6%.

Key Concerns Highlighted in Report

• Time to Full Parity: At the current pace, it will take 123 years to close the global gender gap, highlighting the need for accelerated efforts.
• Economic Disparities: Despite progress, women still earn significantly less than men, with wage gaps persisting across industries.
• Regional Inequalities: Certain regions, particularly South Asia and the Middle East, continue to lag behind in gender parity, facing structural and cultural barriers.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India marked the ninth anniversary of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY).

About PMUY

• Launched: In 2016 by the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas.
• Objective: To provide LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) connections to women from Below Poverty Line (BPL) households to reduce the health risks associated with traditional cooking methods.
• Target Group: Adult women from BPL households, with a focus on women’s empowerment and improving their living standards.
• Eligibility Criteria: Women from Below Poverty Line (BPL) households, with priority given to SC, ST, PMAY (Gramin) families, forest dwellers, and tea garden workers. Migrant households can avail self-declaration for address proof.
• Phase I (2016-2020): 8 crore deposit-free LPG connections were provided to women from BPL households by 2020.
• Phase II (2021 onwards): An additional allocation of 1.6 crore LPG connections was made under the PMUY scheme by December 2022, with a special provision for migrant households.
• Achievements (As of March 1, 2025): Total number of active domestic LPG consumers in India stands at 32.94 crore, with 10.33 crore beneficiaries under PMUY.

Significance

• Health Benefits:
  • Improved Health: PMUY aims to eliminate the use of traditional cooking methods like wood, coal, and crop residues, which lead to indoor air pollution.
  • WHO Estimates: Around 5 lakh deaths in India occur annually due to the use of unclean cooking fuels.
• Women Empowerment:
  • Freedom from Collecting Firewood: PMUY empowers women by reducing the time spent collecting firewood, often from faraway forests.
  • Improved Lifestyle: Access to clean fuel saves time and energy, allowing women to focus on productive activities.
• Socio-Economic Benefits:
  • Increased Productivity: Women are freed from labor-intensive cooking methods, enabling them to engage in economic activities.
  • Control over Resources: LPG connections are issued in the name of women, promoting financial independence and decision-making power within households.
• Environmental Benefits:
  • Reduced Air Pollution: Use of cleaner cooking fuel reduces the harmful emissions associated with burning wood or kerosene, contributing to environmental conservation.

Challenges

• Refilling Costs: While the initial connection is free, the refilling cost is a challenge. Poor households may struggle to afford regular refills due to limited financial resources.
• Bureaucratic Hurdles: Delays in documentation and approval processes can slow down the rollout of the scheme.
• Lack of Infrastructure: Rural areas often face challenges with the last-mile connectivity required for LPG delivery. Filling plants and distributors are often not present in remote areas.
• Habitual Practices: Despite having access to LPG, many beneficiaries still rely on firewood due to the cost-saving nature of traditional methods, especially in areas where LPG refilling is expensive.

Way Forward

• Strengthening the Supply Chain: Expand the LPG distribution network, especially in rural and remote areas, by setting up more distribution points and refilling stations.
• Ensure Affordability: Government subsidies or support for refilling costs would make LPG more accessible to low-income households.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Indian government is preparing to implement a 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies, aiming for the 2029 general elections.

Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023 (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam)

• It mandates 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies including Delhi, aiming to enhance female representation in governance.
• Currently, women constitute only about 15% of the Lok Sabha and less than 10% in many state assemblies.
• Key Provisions:
  • The quota extends to seats already reserved for SCs and STs women.
  • The reservation aims to take effect after the next Census and subsequent delimitation exercise, ensuring fair seat allocation.
  • The quota aims to remain in place for 15 years, with the possibility of extension through Parliamentary action.

Concerns and Challenges

• Delayed Implementation: The reservation aims to take effect only after the Census in 2027 and delimitation process.
• Impact of Delimitation: The delimitation process has raised concerns among southern states.
  • Since northern states have experienced higher population growth, they may gain more seats, potentially reducing the political influence of southern states.
• Demand for OBC Sub-Quota: Some political groups advocate for reservation within reservation for OBCs.
  • They argue that without a separate quota, upper-caste women may disproportionately benefit from the policy.
• Rotation of Reserved Seats: The Act mandates that reserved seats aim to be rotated after each delimitation exercise.
  • It could create uncertainty for political parties and candidates, making long-term electoral planning difficult.

Conclusion & Way Ahead

• The Women’s Reservation Act, 2023 aims to empower women, strengthen democracy, and pave the way for more inclusive governance.
• However, addressing concerns related to delimitation, sub-quotas, and implementation delays will be essential to ensure its success.
• The upcoming Census and delimitation process will play a decisive role in determining how soon this vision becomes a reality.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: France and Brazil launched a landmark international initiative Blue Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) Challenge.

About Blue Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) Challenge

• It urges countries to embed ocean-centric actions into their climate plans, known as Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
• The challenge aims to dramatically scale up ocean-focused climate action ahead of the 30th Conference of Parties (COP30) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Belem, Brazil.
• The initiative is supported by various organizations like Ocean Conservancy, the Ocean & Climate Platform, the World Resources Institute (through the Ocean Resilience and Climate Alliance – ORCA), and WWF-Brazil.

Significance of Oceans in Climate Action

• Carbon Sequestration: Oceans absorb over 25% of global CO₂ emissions and 90% of excess heat generated by human activity, making them critical in mitigating climate change.
• Blue Carbon Ecosystems: Coastal ecosystems like mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes store carbon at a rate up to five times higher than terrestrial forests.
• Biodiversity: Oceans are home to a vast diversity of life forms, and protecting marine ecosystems is essential for maintaining biodiversity, which in turn ensures the resilience of the ecosystem to climate impacts.
• Livelihood and Food Security: Oceans support over 3 billion people worldwide who depend on marine resources for food, livelihoods, and economic activities.

Initiatives for Ocean Conservation

• Ocean Cleanup Project: Launched in 2013, The Ocean Cleanup is a non-profit organization focused on developing advanced technologies to remove plastic pollution from the ocean.
• United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030): Aims to promote ocean science as a key tool for sustainable development, environmental protection, and climate action.
• High Seas Treaty (Agreement on Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction – BBNJ Agreement): Adopted in 2023, this landmark legally binding agreement aims to protect marine biodiversity in international waters.
• Blue Carbon Initiatives: It refers to the carbon captured by coastal and marine ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes.
• National Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Network: It aims to conserve critical marine and coastal habitats like coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrasses.
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): To address the challenges of coastal ecosystem degradation, including erosion, overfishing, and pollution.

Challenges and Barriers

• Financial Constraints: Many developing nations may struggle to secure the necessary funding to implement ocean-based climate solutions.
• Technical and Scientific Challenges: Ocean-based solutions are complex and require sophisticated scientific knowledge to implement effectively.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, VV Giri National Labour Institute (VVGNLI) forecasted that the Gig workforce in India, making up 15% of the country’s total non-agricultural workforce.

• It builds on estimates from NITI Aayog’s 2022 gig workforce report.

Key Findings & Projections of Study

• Approximately 3 million workers were engaged in platform jobs across 11 major companies in 2020.
• It is expected to reach 23 million, making up 7% of the non-agricultural workforce by 2030, and is projected to more than double, reaching 62 million workers by 2047.
• It could generate up to 90.8 million jobs under aspirational growth scenarios, but economic and regulatory uncertainties could limit growth to 32.5 million.
• Sectoral Expansion: Initially concentrated in ride-sharing and food delivery, gig jobs have diversified into healthcare, education, creative services, and professional consulting with the rapid rise of app-based services and shifting work preferences.

Challenges and Regulatory Gaps

• Lack of Social Security: Gig workers often operate without health benefits, insurance, or retirement provisions.
• Long Working Hours and Stress: Unregulated working hours, erratic schedules, and heavy workloads lead to stress and health safety issues.
• Absence of Grievance Redressal Mechanisms: Workers who raise concerns or speak out against unfair practices often face retaliation, including instances like ID blocking.

Regulatory Considerations Highlighted in Study

• Worker Rights & Unionisation: The study calls for legal recognition of gig workers, including the right to unionize and collectively bargain.
  • Transparency in task allocation algorithms is crucial for fair pay distribution and improved working conditions.
• Classification & Legal Protections: Countries like the UK, Canada, Spain, and France legally differentiate workers from independent contractors, ensuring access to labor protections and social security.
  • India needs clear classification criteria to address worker vulnerabilities.
• Fair Wages & Algorithmic Accountability: The study recommends policies to:
  • Ensure minimum income guarantees
  • Regulate working hours
  • Increase transparency in gig work assignments
  • Enhance grievance redressal mechanisms
• National Registry for Gig Workers: A statutory registry (i.e. National Platform Worker Registry), managed by central and state governments, could help streamline social security access for gig employees.
  • Integration of occupational health and safety standards in platform-based work.

Other Policies & Initiatives

• Code on Social Security, 2020: It aims to extend social security benefits to gig and platform workers.
  • It proposes the creation of a social security fund, financed through contributions from aggregators, to provide health insurance, pension schemes, and accident coverage.
• Skill Development & Training: Programs focused on upskilling gig workers in areas like digital literacy, entrepreneurship, and specialized trades are being encouraged to enhance employability.