General Studies Paper 3

Context: The dispute over the water share of the Krishna river between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana remains unresolved, even nine years after the bifurcation of the combined State.

About the Krishna water dispute

• Beginning – Gentlemen’s Agreement:
  • The dispute dates back to the formation of Andhra Pradesh in November, 1956.
  • Before the formation of Andhra Pradesh, four senior leaders each from different regions of Andhra, including the Rayalaseema Region and the Telangana region, signed a Gentlemen’s Agreement on February 20, 1956.
• Protection of Telangana’s interests and needs:
  • Among others, one of the provisions of the agreement was the protection of Telangana’s interests and needs with respect to the utilisation of water resources with equitable distribution based on treaties followed globally.
• Issue:
  • However, the focus of the combined dispensation with respect to irrigation facilities was on Andhra,which already had systems developed by the British at the cost of in-basin drought-prone areas in Telangana — a fact which was argued by the leaders of the latter region from the beginning.
• Bachawat Tribunal (KWDT-I):
  • In 1969, the Bachawat Tribunal (KWDT-I) was constituted to settle the dispute around water share among the riparian States of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh(before bifurcation).
  • Allocation of water:
    • The Tribunal allocated 811 tmcft dependable water to Andhra Pradesh.
      • The Andhra Pradesh government later apportioned it in the 512:299 tmcft ratio between Andhra (including parts of Rayalaseema which comprise the Krishna Basin) and Telangana, respectively, based on the command area developed or utilisation mechanism established by then.
    • Tungabhadra dam:
      • The Tribunal had also recommended taking the Tungabhadra Dam ( a part of the Krishna Basin) water to the drought-prone Mahabubnagar area of Telangana.
        • However, this was not followed through, giving birth to discontent among the people.
        • Telangana had time and again reiterated how it had been met with injustice in Andhra Pradesh when it came to the matter of distributing water resources.

Arrangement for water sharing after the bifurcation

• Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014:
  • There is no mention of water shares in the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, since the KWDT-I Award, which was still in force, had not made any region-wise allocation.
• Ad hoc arrangement:
  • At a meeting convened by the then Ministry of Water Resources in 2015, the two States had agreed for sharing water in the 34:66 (Telangana:A.P.) ratio as an ad hoc arrangement with the minutes clearly specifying that it has to be reviewed every year.
  • The arrangement in the Act was only for the management of water resources by setting up two Boards,
    • The Krishna River Management Board (KRMB) and
    • The Godavari River Management Board (GRMB).
  • Demand of equal share:
    • In October 2020, Telangana raised its voice for an equal share, till water shares are finalised.
    • At a Board meeting held earlier this month, Telangana refused to continue the existing arrangement.
      • Unable to convince the member States, the river Board has referred the matter to the Ministry of Jal Shakti (MoJS).

What does each State claim?

• Telangana’s demand:
  • Telangana has been asking the Centre to finalise water shares from day one of its formation.
  • Citing treaties and agreements followed globally in sharing river waters, Telangana has been arguing that as per the basin parameters, it is entitled for at least a 70% share in the allocation of the 811 tmcft.
  • Besides, it has been highlighting how Andhra Pradesh has been diverting about 300 tmcft water to the areas outside the basin from fluoride-affected and drought-prone areas within the basin in Telangana.
• Andhra Pradesh’s claim:
  • On the other hand, Andhra Pradesh has also been staking claim for a higher share of water to protect the interests of command areas already developed.

Centre’s stand

• The Centre has convened two meetings of the Apex Council comprising the Union Minister and Chief Ministersof Telangana and Andhra Pradesh in 2016 and 2020 without making any attempt to deal with the issue.
  • Following a suggestion made by the MoJS in 2020, Telangana has withdrawn its petition over the issue in the Supreme Court as the Ministry had assured to refer the matter of water shares to a Tribunal.
  • However, the Centre has yet to resolve the issue for over two years now even as the two States continue to spar over the matter day in and day out.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The Supreme Court has recently upheld the changes made by the Tamil Nadu Assembly, as well as the cultural sentiment behind Jallikattu.

About Jallikattu

• About:
  • Jallikattu is a bull-taming sport that has traditionally been part of the festival of Pongal.
  • The festival is a celebration of nature,and thanksgiving for a bountiful harvest, of which cattle-worship is part.
  • Contests in Avaniapuram, Peelamedu and Alanganallur, villages neighbouring Madurai, set the tone for the season, which continues until April.
• How is it played?
  • The elite Jallikattu breeds test the strength and guile of farm hands in especially-constructed arenas.
  • It is a violent sport, and there is only one winner, man or bull.
• What is the conflict?
  • There has been an endless conflict between activists and proponents of the game.
    • The activists argue that any sport involving a physical contest between man and bull violates animal rights.
    • While, the other camp contends that none should stop something that is part of the State’s tradition and culture.

Debate around the sport

• Arguments in favour of the sport:
  • The political economy of Jallikattu: 
    • It is about showcasing the quality of cattle, the breeding skills of cattle rearers, the centrality of cattle in an agrarian economy, and the power and pride they bring to farmers and land-owning castes in rural Tamil Nadu.
    • Jallikattu is a cultural manifestation of this political economy.
  • Act of cultural resistance to an urban modernity:
    • For agrarian communities like Thevars and Maravars, Jallikattu is one of the few markers of their social standing and identity in a fast-changing world.
    • The contest, which evidently celebrates masculinity, is almost an act of cultural resistance to an urban modernity that tends to marginalise rural and agrarian values.
  • Arguments against the sport:
    • Harming both, bulls & humans:
      • The practice of Jallikattu has long been contested, with animal rights groups and the courts concerned over issues of cruelty to animals and the bloody and dangerous nature of the sport that causes death and injuries to both the bulls and human participants.
    • Apex Court’s view & the Upanishadic wisdom:
      • In 2014, the Supreme Court had ruled that the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, “over-shadows or overrides the so-called tradition and culture”.
      • The court drew upon Upanishadic wisdom and advised Parliament to “elevate rights of animals to that of constitutional rights so as to protect their dignity and honour”.
      • “Bulls are beaten, poked, prodded, harassed and jumped on by numerous people. They have their tails bitten and twisted and their eyes and noses filled with irritating chemicals,”the judgment said.

Legal battle over the sport 

• Ban of 2014:
  • In 2014, the Supreme Court, in the Nagaraja judgment had held Jallikattu as cruelty to bulls.
    • The bone of contention is the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Tamil Nadu Amendment) Act of 2017 and the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Conduct of Jallikattu) Rules of 2017, which had re-opened the gates for the conduct of the popular bull-taming sport in the name of culture and tradition despite a 2014 ban by the Supreme Court.
    • The primary question involved was whether Jallikattu should be granted constitutional protection as a collective cultural right under Article 29 (1).
  • State government’s response:
    • The State government responded to the banby amending the central Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, in its application to the State, and obtained the President’s assent.

Supreme Court’s current judgement 

• The verdict of the five-judge Bench is anchored to two key findings: 
  • That the fresh regulations minimise the game’s potential for cruelty and pain formed the basis for the 2014 judgment.
    • Those conditions were no more prevalent.
  • Second, the Court has accepted the legislature’s view that jallikattu is a sport conducted every year to follow tradition and culture.
• Significance:
  • The has accepted the legislature’s wisdom on what constitutes cultural heritage, holding that the Court cannot embark on such an inquiry.
  • However, it does not mean the Court has in any way diluted the part of the earlier Bench’s verdict reading into Indian law the full import of international rules in favour of animal rights.
  • Rather, it has deferred to the cultural sentiment underlying the legislative scheme by which sports such as jallikattu, kambala, a buffalo race in Karnataka, and bullock-cart racing in Maharashtra are not interdicted by the law preventing animal cruelty.

Way ahead

• The judgment means organisers as well as the respective governments, still bear the burden to prevent infliction of pain and cruelty on animals.
  • These sports also pose an undeniable hazard to humans too; to the participants mainly, but sometimes spectators
• It may be time for organisers to mandate protective gear for the participants and strictly enforce rules for proper barricades to keep spectators safe.
• Cultural assertion, and kindness to animals and adherence to safety norms need not be mutually exclusive.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: A workshop organised by the Ministry of Education aims to bring together the 60 school examination boards operating in various Indian states and Union territories under one umbrella.

• • PARAKH, under the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the main component of this plan, envisioned as the National Assessment Centre.

Need & Significance

• To establish a coherent framework to ensure smooth transitions for students moving between boards or regions.
• This will involve harmonising curriculum, grading, and evaluation procedures to enhance the reliability and credibility of certificates and grades obtained.
• Unification also aims to address the prevailing rote examination culture and promote holistic assessments that encompass various dimensions of a student’s abilities and potential.

About PARAKH

• The PARAKH stands for The Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development.
• PARAKH has been launched as part of the implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP)-2020 that envisaged a standard-setting body to advise school boards regarding new assessment patterns and latest research, and promote collaborations between them.
• It will be tasked with holding periodic learning outcomes tests like the National Achievement Survey (NAS) and State Achievement Surveys.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The government has recently invited bids for 50 GW of renewable energy capacity annually for the next five years.

About renewable &  non-renewable resources of energy

• Renewable energy:
  • Renewable energy is energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed.
    • Sunlight and wind, for example, are such sources that are constantly being replenished. Renewable energy sources are plentiful and all around us.
  • Non-renewable energy:
    • Fossil fuels – coal, oil and gas – on the other hand, are non-renewable resources that take hundreds of millions of years to form.
    • Fossil fuels, when burned to produce energy, cause harmful greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide.
  • Significance of renewable resources of energy:
    • Addressing Climate crisis:
      • Generating renewable energy creates far lower emissions than burning fossil fuels.
      • Transitioning from fossil fuels,which currently account for the lion’s share of emissions, to renewable energy is key to addressing the climate crisis.
    • Cheaper & employment generator:
      • Renewables are now cheaper in most countries, and generate three times more jobs than fossil fuels.
      • The sources also have comparatively low maintenance costs.
    • Atmanirbhar Bharat:
      • Investment by the private sector in renewable energy would also be helpful in fulfilling the Government’s objective of self-reliance. It will also create employment opportunities in the country.

Common sources of renewable energy

• Solar Energy:
  • Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources and can even be harnessed in cloudy weather. The rate at which solar energy is intercepted by the Earth is about 10,000 times greater than the rate at which humankind consumes energy.
• Wind Energy:
  • Wind energy harnesses the kinetic energy of moving air by using large wind turbines located on land (onshore) or in sea- or freshwater (offshore).
• Geothermal Energy:
  • Geothermal energy utilizes the accessible thermal energy from the Earth’s interior. Heat is extracted from geothermal reservoirs using wells or other means.
• Hydropower:
  • Hydropower harnesses the energy of water moving from higher to lower elevations. It can be generated from reservoirs and rivers. Reservoir hydropower plants rely on stored water in a reservoir, while run-of-river hydropower plants harness energy from the available flow of the river.
• Ocean Energy:
  • Ocean energy derives from technologies that use the kinetic and thermal energy of seawater – waves or currents for instance –  to produce electricity or heat.
• Bioenergy:
  • Bioenergy is produced from a variety of organic materials, called biomass, such as wood, charcoal, dung and other manures for heat and power production, and agricultural crops for liquid biofuels. Most biomass is used in rural areas for cooking, lighting and space heating, generally by poorer populations in developing countries.

Renewable energy capacity in India

• About:
  • India currently has a total renewable energy capacity of 168.96 GW (as on February 28, 2023) with about 82 GW at various stages of implementation and about 41 GW at tendering stage.
  • This includes 64.38 GW Solar Power, 51.79 GW Hydro Power, 42.02 GW Wind Power and 10.77 GW Bio Power.
• Upcoming plans:
  • The government invited bids for 50 GW of renewable energy capacity annually for the next five years.
  • These annual bids of ISTS (Inter-State Transmission) connected renewable energy capacity will also include setting up of wind power capacity of at least 10 GW per annum.
  • The plan finalised by Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) was in accordance with India’s COP26 commitments.
• Major initiatives:
  • National Solar Mission (NSM)
  • Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM).
  • Atal Jyoti Yojana (AJAY) Phase-II
  • Solar Parks Scheme
• Potential:
  • Considering that Renewable Energy projects take 18-24 months for commissioning, the bid plan will add 250 GW of renewable energy and ensure 500 GW of installed capacity by 2030.
    • The Power Ministry is already working on upgrading and adding the transmission system capacity for evacuating 500 GW of electricity from non-fossil fuel.
  • Challenge:
    • The challenge is the availability of equipment and infrastructure to implement this ambitious plan as well as evacuation of the power.
    • While financing these projects may not be a challenge, as money is flowing into the clean energy sector, who will supply the equipment like turbines and modules, power cables etc will be an issue as there are only a handful of original equipment manufacturers.

Reasons for the growth of renewable energy:

• Expansion of electricity coverage: 
  • Increased coverage of electricity, along with the provision of last-mile connectivity to all households under the SAUBHAGYA scheme or Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (see inset), has led to higher demand for energy.
  • As urbanisation increases, there is also an Increase in the per capita consumption of energy leading to the growth of energy demand.
• Growth: 
  • Despite the COVID-induced slowdown, India is one of the few countries which are looking at a substantial growth rate in the future, thus increasing the requirement of energy in the post-COVID world.
• Growing acceptance of electric mobility: 
  • Electric and hybrid vehicles have become the technology of choice around the world. This will create additional power demand for charging the needs of the Electric vehicles.
• Rise in importance of clean energy: 
  • India’s commitments under the Paris climate deal: Apart from decreasing the energy intensity and creation of carbon sink, India has also committed itself to meet 40% of its total energy demand from non-fossil sources.
  • Thus, it is imperative to invest in renewable energy to meet this target.

Way Ahead

• India’s switch from coal to clean power is a win-win and a promising step towards meeting the country’s net zero emissions target by 2070
• Governments and private sector organizations need to collaborate and work together to develop innovative solutions and strategies that can help to overcome these obstacles.
• India’s energy demand is expected to increase more than that of any other country in the coming decades due to its sheer size and enormous potential for growth and development.
  • Therefore, it is imperative that most of this new energy demand is met by low-carbon, renewable sources.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, the President of India has inaugurated the 25th anniversary celebrations of Kudumbashree, the largest Self-Help Group (SHG) network in the country.

The president also released a handbook called “chuvadu” (meaning footsteps) that outlined ideas for the future of the movement and highlighted its achievements so far.

What is Kudumbashree?

About:

• Kudumbashree was established in 1997 in Kerala, aiming at eradicating poverty and empowering women following the recommendations of a government-appointed task force.
• The mission was launched with the support of the Government of India and NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development).
• Kudumbashree meaning ‘prosperity of the family’ in the Malayalam language and therefore focuses on poverty alleviation and women empowerment, promoting democratic leadership and provides support structures within the “Kudumbashree family.”

Operation: The mission operates through a Three-Tier structure consisting of,

• Neighbourhood Groups (NHGs) at the primary level
• Area Development Societies (ADS) at the ward level
• Community Development Societies (CDS) at the local government level.
• This structure forms a large network of Self-Help Groups.

Goal:

• The goal of Kudumbashree is to eliminate absolute poverty within a specific timeframe of 10 years, with the active involvement of local self-governments.
• Through its mission and self-help group approach, Kudumbashree aims to uplift families and empower women to improve their socio-economic status and overall well-being.

Significance:

• It has empowered women, generated employment, alleviated poverty, and initiated various social initiatives.
• It has become Kerala’s biggest social capital, and its members have become elected representatives in local government bodies.
• During a severe flood that occurred in Kerala five years ago, Kudumbashree, the self-help group network, donated Rs 7 crore to the Chief Minister’s distress relief fund.
• They contributed more money than tech giants like Google and Apple and even surpassed the contribution of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
• Many of the Kudumbashree workers themselves were victims of the flood, but they still wanted to help others by contributing to the relief fund.

What is the Role of SHGs in Women Empowerment and Fighting Poverty?

Economic Empowerment:

• SHGs provide women in rural areas with an opportunity to create independent sources of income. Women can utilize their skills and talents to start their own businesses and become financially self-reliant.
• Access to capital through SHGs enables women to invest in their ventures and expand their economic activities.

Overcoming Social Barriers:

• SHGs play a crucial role in challenging regressive social norms and empowering women to take on decision-making roles.
• Through participation in SHGs, women gain confidence, assertiveness, and leadership skills, which help them challenge gender stereotypes.
• Empowered women actively participate in local governance (e.g., gram sabha) and even contest elections.

Improved Socio-economic Status:

• Formation of SHGs leads to a multiplier effect in improving women’s status in society and within their families.
• Women experience enhanced socio-economic conditions, including better access to education, healthcare, and resources.
• SHGs contribute to women’s self-esteem and confidence by providing them with a platform to voice their opinions and contribute to decision-making processes.

Access to Financial Services:

• SHG-Bank linkage programs, pioneered by organizations like NABARD, facilitate easier access to credit for SHGs.
• Priority Sector Lending norms and assured returns incentivize banks to lend to SHGs.
• This reduces women’s dependence on traditional moneylenders and non-institutional sources, leading to fairer and more affordable financial services.

Alternative Employment Opportunities:

• SHGs provide support for setting up micro-enterprises, offering women alternatives to agriculture-based livelihoods.
• Women can establish personalized businesses such as tailoring, grocery shops, and repair services, diversifying their income sources.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: India’s security potential in the IOR fits well with the US’ search for like-minded partners that could share security responsibilities in the Asia-Pacific region.

About QUAD

• About:
  • It is also known as Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD).
  • QUAD is an informal group of India, the US, Japan and Australia.
  • It is a strategic dialogue with the objective to ensure a free, open, inclusive and prosperous Indo Pacific.
• Shared values between the nations are:
  • Political democracies
  • Market economies
  • Pluralistic societies
• Timeline:
  • 2007: 
    • Japanese PM Shinzo Abe mooted the idea of Quadrilateral Security Dialogue
    • It could not materialize due to the reluctance of Australia
  • December 2012: 
    • Shinzo Abe again initiated a concept of Asia’s Democratic Security Diamond, involving Australia, India, Japan and the US.
    • The aim was to safeguard the maritime commons from the Indian Ocean to the western Pacific.
  • November 2017: 
    • QUAD Coalition was finally given a present-day form with the active participation of India, the US, Australia and Japan.
    • The aim was to keep critical sea routes open and free for navigation in the Indo-Pacific.
    • Foreign ministers of the four countries held their first meeting under the ‘Quad’ framework in New York in September 2019.

Significance of QUAD for India

• Countering Chinese Influence:
  • Recent stand-offs on the Indo-China Border and the reluctance of Russia to step in and build pressure is forcing India to look for alternatives.
• Post-COVID Diplomacy:
  • The disruption across the world and non-transparent systems of China pose an opportunity for India to take lead and become the World’s Manufacturing Hub.
  • India can leverage its expertise in the vaccine and pharma industry to increase its soft power.
  • Further, Japan and the US want to shift their manufacturing companies out of China in order to curb its imperialistic behavior.
• India’s SAGAR initiative:
  • India under the SAGAR initiative wants to become a net security provider in the Indian Ocean.
  • QUAD cooperation may give India access to multiple strategic locations for creating Naval bases.

Multipolar World: 

• India has supported a rule-based multipolar world and QUAD can help it in achieving its ambition of becoming a regional superpower.

• Climate Change:
  • The climate crisis calls for urgency in action.
  • Quad nations are already driving their efforts toward climate ambition, including working on the 2030 targets for national emissions and renewable energy, clean-energy innovation, and deployment.
  • The most commendable commitment is their focus on increasing the Indo-Pacific region’s resilience to climate change by improving critical climate information-sharing and disaster-resilient infrastructure.

India & USA’s current positions at QUAD

• About:
  • Since the turn of the century, India has viewed itself as a major power, first responder, and security actor in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
  • At the same time, the USA was keen to nurture India as a counterbalance to China’s influence in the region, opening the window for greater convergence of interests.
• Conflicting positions:
  • India’s position on Ukraine war:
    • India’s muted criticism of the Russian invasion of Ukrainein 2022 expectedly led to some frustration in the West, raising questions over India’s credibility as a security partner.
    • Even with converging Indo-US strategic interests in the Indo-Pacific, differences persistbetween Washington and New Delhi.
  • Position on Indo-Pacific region:
    • The US views the Indo-Pacific as a region where rules-based liberal international orderneeds to be preserved vis-à-vis China’s assertive rise and even the Russian threat.
    • By contrast, India does not see the Indo-Pacific as an exclusive group of actors in a region that is against any country.
      • New Delhi considers it an “inclusive” region and has, at times, even signalled the inclusion of China and Russia within its definition of the Indo-Pacific.
    • Threat of China:
      • The US is open about the threat China poses to its interest and is ready to deter and even fight if required.
      • India, on the other hand, is wary of balancing China directly and prefers maintaining the competition-cooperation model in its ties with China.
    • Views on “maritime order” and “freedom of navigation”:
      • India and the US have contrasting views on “maritime order” and “freedom of navigation.”
      • India has ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) while the US has not, and both have distinct interpretations of the law
      • In fact, India’s interpretation is closer to China’s understanding of the law.
        • While Indian law is against freedom of navigation operation in its exclusive economic zone, these differences have been managed well at the diplomatic level.

India’s Balancing Act

• Multi-alignment:
  • India has been tilting towards the West for the last two decades, it continues to balance multiple partnerships, at times with countries at odds with each other.
    • This is evident in India’s decision to cooperate with the US and its allies on the Quad and other arrangements while maintaining ties with China and Russia
    • This also explains Indian silence on Russia’s actions in Ukraine.
  • The multi-alignment posture relates to India’s position regarding “strategic autonomy” and its legacy of not depending on any of the competing countries.
• Non-involvement:
  • India will likely remain less involved or enthusiastic about overtly addressing Chinese actions in regions that do not directly impinge on its security interests (case in point, Taiwan or even Ukraine as visible in the present context).

Way Ahead

• Overall,India-US strategic and security ties are not perfect and are unlikely to be so in the coming future.
• The spectre of divergences will continue to exist within the role compatibility the two enjoy.
  • This may also affect the orientation of the Quad from a security perspective.
• However, the differences are unlikely to impede the incremental progress of their bilateral ties or engagement in a Quad arrangement.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: India recently celebrated the 25th anniversary of Pokhran-II on 11th May 2023 marking the successful nuclear bomb test explosions which became a significant milestone in its journey to become a nuclear power.

May 11 is also celebrated as the National Technology Day to honour Indian scientists, engineers and technologists, who worked for the country’s scientific and technological advancement and ensured the successful conduct of Pokhran tests.

What is Pokhran-II and India’s Journey as a Nuclear Power?

Origin:

• In 1945, renowned physicist Homi J. Bhaba lobbied for the establishment of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in Bombay, dedicated to nuclear physics research.
• TIFR became India’s first research institution dedicated to the study of nuclear physics.
• Post-independence, Bhaba convinced the then PM Jawaharlal Nehru about the importance of nuclear energy and in 1954, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was founded, with Bhabha as the director.
• The DAE operated autonomously, away from significant public scrutiny.

Reasons for India’s Pursuit of Nuclear Weapons:

• India’s pursuit of nuclear weapons was motivated by concerns over its sovereignty and security threats from China and Pakistan.
• The 1962 Sino-Indian War and China’s nuclear test in 1964 heightened the need for India to safeguard its national security.
• The war with Pakistan in 1965, with Chinese support, further emphasized the need for self-sufficiency in defense capabilities.

Pokhran- I:

About:

• By the 1970s, India was capable of conducting a nuclear bomb test.
• Pokhran-I was India’s first nuclear bomb test conducted on May 18, 1974, at the Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan.
• It was code-named Smiling Buddha and officially described as a “peaceful nuclear explosion” with “few military implications”.
• India became the 6th country in the world to possess nuclear weapons capability after the US, Soviet Union, Britain, France and China.

Implications of Test:

• The tests faced near-universal condemnation and significant sanctions especially from US and Canada.
• It hindered India’s progress in nuclear technology and slowed down its nuclear journey.
• Domestic political instability, such as the Emergency of 1975 and opposition to nuclear weapons also hindered progress.

After Pokhran-I:

• The 1980s saw a resurgence of interest in nuclear weapons development due to Pakistan’s progress.
• India increased funding for its missile program and expanded its plutonium stockpiles.

Pokhran-II:

About:

• Pokhran-II refers to a sequence of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India on between 11-13th May 1998 at Rajasthan’s Pokhran desert.
• Code name – Operation Shakti, this event marked India’s 2nd successful attempt.

Significance:

• Pokhran-II cemented India’s status as a nuclear power.
• It demonstrated India’s ability to possess and deploy nuclear weapons, thus enhancing its deterrence capabilities.
• The Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee officially declared itself as a state possessing nuclear weapons following Pokhran-II.

Implication:

• While the tests in 1998 also invited sanctions from some countries (like the US), the condemnation was far from universal like in 1974.
• In context of India’s fast-growing economy and market potential, India was able to stand its ground and thus cement its status as a dominant nation state.

India’s Nuclear Doctrine:

• India adopted a policy of credible minimum deterrence, stating that it would maintain a sufficient nuclear arsenal for deterrence purposes but would not engage in an arms race.
• In 2003, India officially came out with its nuclear doctrine that clearly elaborated on the ‘no first use’ policy.

India’s Current Nuclear Capability:

• India currently possesses approximately 160 nuclear warheads, according to the Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
• India has achieved an operational nuclear triad capability, allowing for the launch of nuclear weapons from land, air, and sea.
• The triad delivery systems include Agni, Prithvi, and K series ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft, and nuclear submarines.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Recent data from the Department of Science and Technology (DST) showed women made up 28% of participants in 2018-19 in extramural Research and Development (R&D) projects, up from 13% in 2000-01.

About

• The proportion of women primary investigators in R&D increased more than four times — from 232 in 2000-01 to 941 in 2016-17. The proportion of women researchers rose from 13.9% in 2015 to 18.7% in 2018.
• In 2008, the Indian Academy of Sciences published Lilavati’s Daughters: The Women Scientists of India, a volume capturing the journeys of nearly 100 Indian women in science.
• In 2016, Aashima Dogra and Nandita Jayaraj launched the website com that would profile the stories of women and non-binary people in science in India. It would serve the dual purpose of throwing up role models for a younger generation and shedding light on the constraints that discourage diversity at India’s premier institutes and labs.

Women scientists of India

• Anandibai Joshi (India’s first woman physician), Janaki Ammal (first Indian scientist to have received the Padma Shri Award in 1977), Iravati Karve (India’s first woman anthropologist), Kamala Sohonie (first Indian woman to have bagged a PhD degree in the scientific discipline), Rajeshwari Chatterjee (First woman engineer from the state of Karnataka), Kalpana Chawla (first astronaut of Indian origin to have forayed into the space), and V R Lalithambika (leading the Gaganyaan mission).

What are the obstacles that hold women back?

• Familial issues:
  • Lack of representation, deeply entrenched patriarchy.
  • Women tend to drop out when they get married or have children.
  • These reasons are attributed to dropout from higher studies, career break, overage for scientific jobs and prolonged absence from place of work or even resignation from the job.
• Institutional Issues: 
  • Poor working conditions and sexual harassment at workplaces.
• Drop at the post-doctoral level: 
  • We have observed that participation (of women) is healthy till the postgraduate level. But there is a drop at the post-doctoral level, where most of the research takes place.
• Participation in IIT’s:
  • The rate of women’s participation is particularly low across the five IITs in Delhi, Mumbai, Kanpur, Chennai, and Roorkee ranging from 9% to 14%.

Measures Taken by the Government

• Gender Advancement for Transforming Institutions (GATI):
  • It is a pilot project under the Department of Science and Technology to promote gender equity in science and technology.
  • In the first phase of GATI, 30 educational and research institutes have been selected by DST, with a focus on women’s participation in leadership roles, faculty, and the number of women students and researchers.
• Knowledge Involvement in Research Advancement through Nurturing (KIRAN): 
  • It is a plan under the Department of Science and Technology to encourage women scientists and also prevent women scientists from giving up research due to family reasons.
• SERB-POWER (Promoting Opportunities for Women in Exploratory Research):
  • SERB – POWER provides structured support in research to ensure equal access and weighted opportunities for Indian women scientists engaged in R&D activities.
  • The R&D support to women scientists is provided through two components, namely: SERB POWER Fellowships & SERB POWER Research Grants.
• Consolidation of University Research through Innovation and Excellence in Women Universities (CURIE) Programme:
  • Only women Universities are being supported for the development of research infrastructure and the creation of state-of-the-art research laboratories to enhance women’s participation in the S & T domain.
• Indo-US Fellowship for Women in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics & Medicine):
  • It encourages Indian women scientists and technologists to undertake international collaborative research in premier institutions in the USA for a duration of 3-6 months.
• Vigyan Jyoti Scheme:
  • It encourages girl students of Class 9 to 12 to pursue education and career in S&T, particularly in the areas where women are underrepresented.
• National Award for woman scientist:
  • To recognize the contribution of women scientists in the field of Earth System Sciences, Ministry of Earth Sciences has initiated a special award called “National Award for woman scientist” which is conferred to one-woman scientist each year on the Foundation Day.
• Setting up of creches:
  • Some institutions are setting up creches so that the scientist mothers can carry on with their research work uninterrupted.

Conclusion

For a better tomorrow, we need to empower women in STEM, as it helps women pursue their dreams, and science, businesses, society and therefore, nations would gain immensely from their equal representation.

General Studies Paper 3

The State of the Global Climate 2022 report has been released by the World Meteorological Organization.

More about the report

• About:
  • It focuses on key climate indicators: 
    • greenhouse gases, temperatures, sea level rise, ocean heat and acidification, sea ice and glaciers. It also highlights the impacts of climate change and extreme weather.
  • Greenhouse gases & rising temperature:
    • It shows the planetary scale changes on land, in the ocean and in the atmosphere caused by record levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases.
    • It has warned that at least one of the next four years could be5 degrees hotter than the pre-industrial average.
  • Report Highlights;
    • Increase in Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions: 
      • Global GHGs emissions continued to increase in 2022. Carbon dioxide is at 149% of pre-industrial levels, Methane is at 262% of pre-industrial levels, Nitrous oxide is at 124% of pre-industrial levels.
      • The annual increase of methane was 18 ppb from 2020 to 2021. This is the largest increase on record.
    • High Global Mean Temperature: 
      • In 2022, the planet was 1.15 ± 0.13 °C warmer than the pre-industrial (1850-1900) average, making the last 8 years the warmest on record.
      • Despite cooling  La Niña conditions , 2022 was the 5th or 6th warmest year.
    • Above Normal Precipitation: 
      • In 2022, large areas with above normal precipitation included large parts of Asia and the south-west Pacific, areas of northern South America and the Caribbean, the eastern Sahel region, parts of southern Africa, Sudan, and eastern Europe.
      • Meanwhile, regions with rainfall deficits included western and central Europe, northwest Africa, parts of the Middle East, Central Asia and the Himalayas, Eastern Africa and Madagascar, central and southern South America, and central and western North America.
    • Ocean Heat Content: 
      • As GHGs accumulate in the atmosphere, temperatures warm on land and in the ocean.  It is expected that the ocean will continue to warm well into the future – a change which is irreversible on centennial to millennial time scales.
      • In 2022, 58 percent of the ocean surface suffered at least one marine heatwave event and 25 per cent of the surface experienced at least one marine cold spell.
    • Rise in Sea Level: 
      • In 2022, global mean sea level continued to rise. The sea has risen approximately 3.4 ± 0.3 mm per year over the past 30 years .
    • Extreme Events: 
      • Rising global temperatures have contributed to more frequent and severe extreme weather events around the world, including cold and heat waves, floods, droughts, wildfires and storms.

Analysing the report

• IMO’s record for India:
  • The agency did not specify country-wise trends.
  • However, the India Meteorological Organisation recorded 2022 as the fifth warmest year on record since 2021, and the last decade as the hottest 10 years in the country’s history.
• Worldwide impacts:
  • The Indian monsoon arrived earlier last year and withdrew before its normal date.
    • Northeast India experienced floods in June and a dry spell in July and August.
  • Floods in Pakistan claimed more than 1,500 lives and affected more than 30 million people.
  • Heatwaves led to record temperatures in several parts of Europe last year, leading to droughts and reduced river flows.
  • North America had its warmest August and forest fires raged in several parts of the US and Australia.
• What can be done?
  • Need of greater investments:
    • These weather vagaries have underlined the need for greater investments in building people’s resilience —interventions to risk-proof agriculture, build food security, develop flood and cyclone warning systems and strengthen the defences of coasts and other vulnerable areas.
      • According to a UN report released at the end of last year, most countries have adaptation plans in place, and “instruments are getting better at prioritising disadvantaged groups”.
      • However, the report also notes that international “adaptation finance flows to developing countries are 5-10 times below estimated needs and the gap is widening”.
    • Need of reviewing Paris targets:
      • At Paris in 2015, most nations agreed that checking global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels holds the key to keeping climate change at tolerable levels.
        • It was clear then that achieving this goal required making drastic cuts in emissions.
      • However, many experts now argue that the cumulative ambition expressed through the Paris Pact’s voluntary targets—the Nationally Determined Contributions —was insufficient to keep the temperature rise below the tolerance threshold.

Way ahead

• The 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference or Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC, more commonly referred to as COP28, will be the28th United Nations Climate Change conference, held from November 30th until December 12th, 2023 at the Expo City, Dubai.
  • The climate diplomats will take stock of the progress on meeting the Paris Pact’s targets at the COP-28 in Dubai.
  • The latest WMO report should lead to rethinking targets and course corrections, especially to protect the most vulnerable.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Cracks in buildings and ‘sinking’ land in Joshimath, Uttarakhand a hill town in Uttarakhand, made the headlines earlier in 2023.

A similar phenomenon has been playing out for years in the plains of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Faridabad. According to the data gathered for years by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), excessive groundwater extraction is identified as the underlying cause of these alarming incidents.

What has the CGWB Identified About Groundwater Extraction and Land Subsidence?

Land Subsidence Due to Groundwater Extraction:

• Digging operations conducted for mining activities demonstrated the occurrence of “soil settlement” or sinking due to voids created from mining. Similar observations prompted researchers to investigate the role of groundwater extraction in land subsidence in India.

Evidence of Land Subsidence in Different Regions:

• Unlike land movement from landslides or earthquakes, subsidence from groundwater extraction was gradual and barely visible annually.
• Studies utilizing satellite-based analysis of ground movement have identified building deformities resulting from groundwater withdrawals.
• Using data from the Sentinel-1 satellite shows that the National Capital Region (NCR) sank an average of 15 mm per year from 2011-2017.
• Urbanization and unplanned growth exacerbated groundwater withdrawal and contributed to subsidence in the NCR.
• Kolkata and parts of eastern India also experience overexploited groundwater blocks and land subsidence.
  

What is the Status of Ground Water Extraction in India?

• Currently, 85% of rural and 50% of urban population is dependent on groundwater for sustenance, making India the largest groundwater user globally.
• India’s stage of groundwater extraction, which is the percentage of utilization of groundwater against recharge, has dropped from 61.6%in 2020 to 60.08% in 2022, according to the report on the National Compilation of Dynamic Ground Water Resources in India.

Groundwater Depletion in Northwest India:

• Agricultural practices in N-W India heavily depend on groundwater withdrawal due to limited monsoon rain.
• Data from the CGWB reveals alarming levels of groundwater exploitation:
  • Punjab: 76% of groundwater blocks are ‘over exploited.’
  • Chandigarh: 64% of groundwater blocks are ‘over exploited.’
  • Delhi: Approximately 50% of groundwater blocks are ‘over exploited.’

Issues Associated:

• Unregulated Pumping: Several states affected by depletion of groundwater provide free or heavily subsidized power (including solar pumps) for pumping groundwater for irrigated agriculture. This enables overexploitation and depletion of scarce groundwater resources.
• Preference to Water-Intensive Crops: The minimum support price for wheat and rice creates highly skewed incentive structures in favor of wheat and paddy, which are water intensive crops and depend heavily on ground water for their growth. This makes groundwater a heavenly resource for their farming.
• Saline Water Intrusion: In coastal areas, excessive groundwater pumping can cause saline water intrusion. As fresh groundwater is depleted, seawater infiltrates into the aquifers, making the water unsuitable for various uses and adversely impacting agriculture and ecosystems.
• Ecological Impacts: Groundwater depletion affects ecosystems by altering the flow of water in rivers, lakes, and wetlands. This disrupts the natural balance, harming aquatic life and biodiversity. It also affects the availability of water for plants and animals dependent on groundwater sources.

What are the Government Initiatives Related to Groundwater Conservation?

• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
• Jal Shakti Abhiyan- Catch the Rain Campaign
• Atal Bhujal Yojana
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

Way Forward

• Crop Diversification and Efficient Irrigation: There is a need to promote crop diversification and shift to more water-efficient irrigation techniques like drip irrigation and sprinkler systems.
• River Catchment Management: Creation of green corridors, rainwater harvesting zones , mapping of channels for potential recharge zones to store floodwater and artificial groundwater recharge structures in the urban areas (where groundwater is five-six meters below the surface), will subsequently contribute to reducing groundwater depletion.
• Technology and Monitoring: Leverage technology for real-time monitoring of groundwater levels, such as remote sensing, iot devices, and data analytics can help in informed decision-making and enable prompt action to mitigate groundwater depletion.
• Wastewater Recycling and Reuse: There is a need to encourage the use of treated wastewater for non-potable purposes like industrial processes to reduce the reliance on freshwater sources and alleviate the pressure on groundwater extraction.