General Studies Paper 2

Context: Weather patterns, including temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather events, are critical factors in determining agricultural productivity and food security.

Changes in weather patterns can lead to crop failures, food shortages, and price hikes, which can have far-reaching impacts on the livelihoods of millions of people around the world.

For example, droughts and floods can destroy crops, leading to food shortages and price spikes, while extreme temperatures can reduce crop yields and quality. These impacts are particularly acute in developing countries, where many people depend on agriculture for their livelihoods and may lack access to alternative sources of food or income.

What is Food Security?

Food security, as defined by the United Nations’ Committee on World Food Security, means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life.

Food security is the combination of the following three elements:

• Food availability i.e., food must be available in sufficient quantities and on a consistent basis. It considers stock and production in a given area and the capacity to bring in food from elsewhere, through trade or aid.
• Food access i.e., people must be able to regularly acquire adequate quantities of food, through purchase, home production, barter, gifts, borrowing or food aid.
• Food utilization i.e., Consumed food must have a positive nutritional impact on people. It entails cooking, storage and hygiene practices, individuals’ health, water and sanitations, feeding and sharing practices within the household.

Food security is closely related to household resources, disposable income and socioeconomic status. It is also strongly interlinked with other issues, such as food prices, global environment change, water, energy and agriculture growth.

Importance of Food Security for a Nation:

• For boosting the agricultural sector.
• For having control on food prices.
• For economic growth and job creation leading to poverty reduction
• For trade opportunities
• For increased global security and stability
• For improved health and healthcare

Why there is a Need of weather proofing Food Security?

• Climate Change is a crisis aggravator and threat multiplier for the most vulnerable amongst us. Its impact on food production, livelihoods and health is expected to push an additional 600 million people into food insecurity by 2080 and increase child malnutrition.
• About 80% of the global population most at risk from crop failures and hunger from climate change are in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, where farming families are disproportionally poor and vulnerable.
• A severe drought caused by an El Nino weather pattern or climate change can push millions more people into poverty.

What are the impacts of Weather on Food Security?

Crop Yield and Production:

• Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and storms can have detrimental effects on crop yields.
• Heatwaves and droughts can reduce productivity and lead to crop failures, while excessive rainfall and floods can destroy crops and infrastructure.
• These disruptions in agricultural production can result in decreased food availability and increased prices.

Changing Growing Conditions:

• Climate Change alters the suitability of certain regions for specific crops.
• Shifts in temperature and rainfall patterns may require farmers to adapt their practices or even switch to different crops.
• This can lead to disruptions in food production and regional food imbalances.

Livestock and Fisheries:

• Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and ocean acidification affect livestock and fish production.
• Heat stress can reduce livestock productivity and increase mortality rates, while changes in water temperature and acidity can impact marine ecosystems and reduce fish populations.

Food Distribution and Access:

• Climate change can disrupt transportation and infrastructure, making it challenging to transport food from production areas to markets.
• Extreme weather events can damage roads, bridges, and ports, leading to delays and higher transportation costs.
• These disruptions can limit people’s access to food, particularly in vulnerable regions or those heavily dependent on imported food.

Price Volatility:

• Climate change-related disruptions in agricultural production can lead to increased price volatility for food commodities.
• Crop failures, reduced yields, and decreased supply can cause food prices to spike, making it difficult for vulnerable populations to afford an adequate diet.

Land Degradation and Water Scarcity:

• Climate change contributes to soil erosion, desertification, and degradation of arable land.
• Extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall and floods, can wash away topsoil, essential for agriculture, and degrade soil fertility.

Why is containing Food Inflation Crucial?

Significance:

• The food and beverages component in the Indian CPI has a weightage of 45.86 %, the highest amongst G20 countries.
• Managing this component to around 4 % is critical to taming overall inflation.

Challenges:

• Monetary and Fiscal Policy Challenges: This component of inflation cannot be managed only through monetary policy, nor even by fiscal policy.

The simple reason is that it is often triggered by external shocks, such as droughts and breakdown of supply chains — for instance, during the Covid pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine conflict.

• El Nino: The brewing El Nino is a looming danger and it’s feared that it could cause below normal rainfall, even a drought.
• Cereal Inflation: The overall cereal and products inflation is still at a very uncomfortable level, 13.7 %.
• Rice Inflation: The biggest crop of the kharif season is rice. And rice inflation (non-PDS) for April was 11.4%.
• Wheat inflation: Wheat is the most important rabi crop — is still very high at 15.5%.

• Milk Inflation: Inflation in this category in April was more than 8%. But since it has the highest weight amongst 299 commodities that comprise the CPI basket, its contribution to CPI inflation in April was almost 12%, the highest amongst all commodities.
• Fodder Price Inflation: The fodder price inflation has been very high, between 20 and 30 %, in recent months. It has further exaggerated the Milk Inflation.

Way forward:

• Use the Buffer Stocking Policy (unloading excess stocks in open market operations) more proactively:
• The rice stocks with the Food Corporation of India (FCI) are more than three times the buffer stock norms for rice. If the government wants to tame rice price inflation, it can unload rice from the Central Pool in open market operations, and easily bring down the rice inflation to around 4%.
• The wheat procurement has been sufficiently good to meet the requirements of the public distribution system (PDS) and give some room for open market operations.
• Lower Import duties on Fat: The policy instrument to use is to lower import duties on fat, which are currently at 40% and skimmed milk powder (SMP), which is at 60%.
• Indian prices of SMP and fat (butter) are much higher than the global prices, and therefore, by reducing import duties to say 10 to 15%, there would be some imports of fat and SMP.
• That could help in reining milk and milk product prices.
• Address the Challenge of Fodder Price Inflation: Cultivation of Fodder crops must be promoted through subsidy or incentive programs. It can also be addressed through initiatives like adopting suitable crop combinations and developing fodder banks.
• Be Prepared for Drought: Though IMD is yet to forecast about the Impact of El Nino, but prevention is always better than cure. Policy interventions like introducing drought-tolerant crop varieties, expanding irrigation, restricting rice exports, storing and distributing grains, expanding social protection coverage can help reduce the impact of climate.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The eighteenth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF18), held in New York from May 8-12, 2023, brought together delegates from around the world to discuss the relationship between sustainable forest management (SFM), energy, and the achievement of the United Nations-mandated Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

What are the Major Highlights of UNFF18?

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) in Tropical Region:

• In a recent development, experts have underscored the significance of practicing SFM in tropical regions. With the surge in bioenergy consumption since 2013, there has been a mounting strain on forests, making the need for sustainable sourcing of tropical timber even more crucial.
• The rise in bioenergy usage, driven by the global push for renewable energy sources, has inadvertently created additional pressure on tropical forests. As bioenergy relies on biomass, such as wood pellets and chips, as fuel, the demand for timber has intensified. This has raised concerns about the potential negative impact on forest ecosystems, biodiversity, and the overall sustainability of these regions.
• By implementing sustainable practices, such as selective logging and reforestation, the long-term health and vitality of these forests can be safeguarded.

Forest Ecosystems and Energy:

• Forestry director of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), highlighted the significant contribution of forest ecosystems to renewable energy requirements.
• Over five billion people worldwide benefit from non-timber forest products, with forests providing 55% of these renewable energy needs.

Forests and Climate Change Mitigation:

• The Emissions Gap Report’s findings underscore the immense climate mitigation potential that forests hold. Through processes such as carbon sequestration, forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing and storing substantial amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• By preserving and sustainably managing forests, nations can leverage this natural capacity to help bridge the emissions gap and achieve climate targets.
• Forests have the potential for reducing 5 gigatonnes of emissions.

Challenges and Countries Perspectives:

• India: India presented a case of a UNFF country-led initiative on long-term SFM and expressed concerns regarding wildfires and the limitations of current forest certification schemes.
• Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia highlighted the importance of preventing forest fires and urban expansion encroaching on forested areas.
• Suriname: Suriname, claiming to be the most forested and carbon-negative country, shared its experiences of economic pressures impacting its green cover and environmental policies.

The country committed to deriving 23% of its net energy from renewable sources by 2025 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2060.

• Congo and the Dominican Republic: These countries stressed their commitment to forest conservation measures and called for strategies to reduce pressures on natural forests while improving livelihoods, given their heavy reliance on fuelwood.
• Australia: Australia mentioned that some species rely on fire for germination and shared information on mechanical fuel load reduction trials. The country emphasised the need to make wood residue markets financially feasible.
• Other Perspectives: Countries like Zhimin and Satkuru suggested replacing plastic sticks with residues of compacted bamboo or sawdust to produce briquettes and pellets, offering sustainable alternatives for energy production.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• India chose to join the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) but declined the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP).

About Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

• About:
  • RCEP is a regional Free Trade Agreement between ASEAN and 6 other countries, viz. India, China, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand.
    • It was signed in November 2020 after 8 years of negotiations.
  • Although, India walked out of the negotiations. Therefore, it is now an agreement between 15 countries.
  • RCEP members constitute nearly a third of the global population and 29% of global GDP.
• Significance of India pulling out of RCEP:
• India pulled out of the RCEP negotiations, citing its negative impact on the domestic producers.
• India has said that the international groupings have many times led to de-industrialisation and an unfair competition imposed on domestic producers.
  • In a veiled reference to China, India has also said that many countries preach openness, but are not so transparent about their own policies.
• Other members have said that the doors of RCEP would be open for future participation of India.

About Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF)

• About:
  • It is aneconomic framework for enhancing US involvement in Asia.
  • It is tocounter the influence of China in the region and fill the vacuum created by not being a partner to RCEP.
  • Not a traditional trading block: 
    • The IPEF, unlike FTA, is more of a tailor-made mechanism that seeks the benefits of trade partnerships while insulating Americans from the downsides of trade liberalisation.
    • Unlike FTAs, it does not include market access commitments such as lowering tariff barriers, as the agreement is more of an administrative arrangement.
  • Stress on supply chain: 
    • IPEF manifests US’ ambitions to expand ties with key Indo-Pacific economies through robust supply chains excluding China.
  • Focus Areas: It is based on 7 strategic pillars:
    • Trade facilitation, particularly for small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
    • Standards for a digital economy and technology
    • Supply-chain resilience
    • Decarbonisation and clean energy
    • Infrastructure
    • Workers’ standards
    • Other areas of shared interest
  • ‘Menu’ based approach: 
    • The 7 pillars will have specific modules and countries would have to sign up to all of the components within a module, but do not have to participate in all modules.
    • Member countries can opt to participate in parts of the framework.

Significance

• Strategic importance:
  • The US-led Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) is strategically important for India.
  • It will enhance India’s economic engagement in the region.
  • The IPEF will help control the damage caused by the RCEP withdrawal as all the IPEF members save India and the US are signatories to the RCEP.
• Supply chain building:
  • Building resilient supply chains is one of the motives of the IPEF.
  • India can consider members as alternative sources for its raw materials requirements.
  • This could reduce India’s overdependence on China for these inputs.

Challenges & criticisms of IPEF

• India’s economic issues with USA:
  • India has economic issues with the U.S., e.g. about agriculture, intellectual property, labour and environment standards, and the digital economy.
  • And the Strategic partnership should not mean accepting a completely U.S. self-interest-driven economic framework that does not suit India’s current economic interests.
• Centring USA:
  • According to the early assessment by many experts, it shows that the IPEF would result in a complete stranglehold over the economic systems of the participating countries, in a manner that is to the complete advantage of the U.S.
  • The IPEF is really about developing a strategic-economic bloc — an integrated economic system centred on the U.S., and, as importantly, excluding China.
• Detrimental to domestic policies:
  • According to critics, the systemic integration caused by the IPEF’s actual long-term impact willleave little leeway for domestic policies to help a country’s own industrialisation.
    • For example., through tight supply chain integration that many elements of the IPEF contribute to.
  • Deep implications for India:
    • The IPEF can already be seen to have deep implications in 
      • Agriculture,in terms of genetically modified seeds and food,
      • Surrendering policy space for regulating Big Tech, and
      • Compromising a comparative advantage in manufacturing because of unfair labour and environment standards.
    • It will also seriously affect India’s ability to create a vibrant domestic ecosystem in emerging areas such as a digital economy and green products.
  • Digital Governance: 
    • IPEF formulation contains issues that directly conflict with India’s stated position. These are:
      • Prohibition on cross-border data flows and data localization requirements including for financial services
      • Prohibition of the levying of customs duties on digital products distributed electronically
      • Promotion of the interoperability of privacy rules and related enforcement regimes, such as the APEC Cross-Border Privacy Rule, while respecting U.S. federal and state privacy laws and regulations.
    • Huge investment demand: 
      • Though it’s stated to be beneficial for the countries in the region it would require huge investments and active participation in the implementation phase.
    • Silent on market access: 
      • The arrangement is silent on providing access to the indigenous goods and services to the markets of would be member states including U.S.

Way ahead

• India would stand to gain by being part of the supply chain initiative of the arrangement but it would need flexibility on the other initiatives.
  • The IPEF has four pillars: trade, supply chains, clean economy, and fair economy. Already fearful of a possible trap, India has joined the other three pillars but not trade.

The one clear difference is of China versus the U.S. Developing a strategic partnership with the U.S. is India’s top foreign policy priority. Its relationship with China has, meanwhile, further deteriorated.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Indigenously developed parachutes for the safe return of the capsule that will carry astronauts under the proposed Gaganyaan programme are being tested by ISRO.

• It is developed by The Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE), the Agra-based laboratory under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

What is Gaganyaan Mission?

• Gaganyaan Mission of ISRO aims to achieve human spaceflight capability by launching a crew of 3 members to Low Earth Orbit of 400 km bringing them back safely to earth, by landing in Indian sea waters.
• India will be the fourth nation to achieve this feat after Russia, USA and China.

Mission Specifics

• The uncrewed ‘G1’ mission is targeted to be launched in the last quarter of 2023 followed by the second uncrewed ‘G2’ mission in the second quarter of 2024, before the final human space flight ‘H1’ mission in the fourth quarter of 2024.
• Various tests to check Technology Preparedness Levels for safety of crew are planned. These demonstrator missions include
  • Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT),
  • Pad Abort Test (PAT) and
  • Test Vehicle (TV) flights
• LVM3 rocket of ISRO, is identified as the launch vehicle for Gaganyaan mission. Its parts are re-configured to meet human rating requirements and changed into Human Rated LVM3 (HLVM3). LVM3 consists of solid stage, liquid stage and cryogenic stage.
• HLVM3 consists of Crew Escape System (CES) powered by a set of quick acting, high burn rate solid motors which ensures that Crew Module along with crew is taken to a safe distance in case of any emergency either at launch pad or during ascent phase.
• Orbital Module (OM) that will be Orbiting Earth comprises Crew Module (CM) and Service Module (SM).
  • CM is the habitable space with Earth like environment in space for the crew. I
  • SM will be used for providing necessary support to CM while in orbit.

Importance of Gaganyaan Mission

• Progress towards a sustained and affordable exploration of the solar system and beyond.
• Advanced technology capability for undertaking human space exploration, sample return missions and scientific exploration.
• Scope for employment generation and human resource development in advanced science and R&D activities.
• It will strengthen international partnerships and global security through the sharing of challenging and peaceful goals.

Challenges

• Hostile space environment with a lack of gravity and atmosphere and danger of radiation.
• Transition from one gravity field to another affects hand-eye and head-eye coordination leading to orientation-loss, vision, muscle strength, aerobic capacity, etc.
• There are two choices for an artificial atmosphere, either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in inert gas or pure oxygen. A pure or concentrated oxygen atmosphere is toxic and has fire risk, especially in ground operations.

Other ISRO Missions

Way Forward

• The next step after this mission will focus towards achieving capability for a sustained human presence in space.
• India could look forward to establishing a Space Station which will be a platform for conducting scientific and industrial research in myriad areas of fundamental, applied and engineering sciences.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Recently, Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber, the President-Designate of COP28 has called upon the oil and gas industry to phase out methane emissions by 2030, as Methane have emerged as a critical concern in the fight against climate change. And align with comprehensive net-zero emission plans by or before 2050.

The significance of inclusivity and the active involvement of developing nations in climate action and the energy transition, as well as the adoption of technologies for climate mitigation, was strongly emphasized.

COP28, or the 28th United Nations Climate Change conference is scheduled to be held between November 30 and December 12 in the UAE.

What is Methane?

• Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon, consisting of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4).
• It is flammable and is used as a fuel worldwide.
• Methane is powerful greenhouse gas.
• Methane has more than 80 times the warming power of carbon dioxide over the first 20 years of its lifetime in the atmosphere.
• It has a shorter lifespan in the atmosphere compared to carbon dioxide.
• The common sources of methane are oil and natural gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, and wastes.

Impact:

More Global Warming Potential:

• The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports that fossil fuel operations generate over one-third of all methane emissions from human activity.
• It is nearly 80-85 times more potent than carbon dioxide in terms of its global warming capacity.
• This makes it a critical target for reducing global warming more quickly while simultaneously working to reduce other greenhouse gases.
• Methane is responsible for around 30% of the rise in global temperatures since the Industrial Revolution.

Promotes Generation of Tropospheric Ozone:

• Increasing emissions are driving a rise in tropospheric ozone air pollution, which causes more than one million premature deaths annually.

What is the Role of Hydrocarbons in Energy Transition from Methane?

• Transition Role: Hydrocarbons can play a transitional role during the shift to new energy systems by providing a reliable and readily available source of energy.
• Bridge Fuel: They can serve as a bridge fuel between high-carbon fossil fuels and cleaner alternatives, helping to meet energy demand while reducing carbon emissions.
• Energy System Stability: Hydrocarbons contribute to maintaining energy system stability during the initial phases of integrating intermittent renewable energy sources.
• Existing Infrastructure: The infrastructure for extracting, processing, and distributing hydrocarbons is already established, allowing for a smoother transition to new energy systems.
• Carbon Intensity Reduction: Efforts should focus on minimizing the carbon footprint of hydrocarbons by implementing cleaner technologies and practices throughout the production and consumption processes.

How can Developing Nations be Included in the Energy Transition?

• Increase Financial Support: Provide increased climate finance to developing nations to facilitate their transition to clean energy sources and technologies.
• Technology Transfer: Facilitate the transfer of clean energy technologies from developed countries to developing nations, ensuring access to affordable and efficient solutions.
• Capacity Building: Invest in training programs and knowledge-sharing initiatives to build the capacity of developing nations in implementing and managing clean energy projects.
• Policy Support: Assist developing countries in developing and implementing supportive policies and regulations that encourage the adoption of renewable energy and energy-efficient practices.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Foster collaborations between public and private sectors to leverage resources, expertise, and innovation in supporting the energy transition of developing nations.

What is the Role of Climate Technologies in Climate Mitigation?

Renewable Energy Technologies:

• Climate technologies encompass a wide range of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power.
• These technologies enable the generation of clean and sustainable energy, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering carbon emissions.

Energy Efficiency Technologies:

• Climate technologies focus on enhancing energy efficiency in various sectors, including buildings, transportation, and industries.
• Building technologies such as smart meters, energy-efficient appliances, and insulation that improve energy performance.
• Batteries and energy storage enable the integration of variable renewables and provide backup power for grid stability and reliability.
• These technologies aim to reduce energy consumption and minimize wastage, leading to significant emissions reductions.

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS):

• CCUS technologies capture carbon dioxide emissions from power plants and industrial facilities, preventing them from being released into the atmosphere.
• The captured carbon is then stored underground or utilized in other applications, effectively reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Sustainable Transportation Technologies:

• Climate technologies promote the development and adoption of low-carbon transportation solutions such as electric vehicles (EVs), hydrogen fuel cells, and advanced biofuels.
• These technologies help reduce emissions from the transportation sector, which is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.

Circular Economy Technologies:

• Optimizes resource use and minimizes waste by designing products and systems that can be reused, repaired, recycled, or biodegraded.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The ultra-fast speed of 5G indeed holds the promise of revolutionary changes in communication and Internet consumption. The country is estimated to have over 150 million 5G users by the end of 2024 – a tiny fraction of the current 1.2 billion mobile phone users. This number will expand significantly once the 5G network is progressively deployed in tier-2 and tier-3 geographies. Along with the spread, the cybersecurity challenges in the 5G age will also increase many folds.

What is 5G Technology?

• Every few years, a new generation of mobile communications takes shape and is described as 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G networks, and so on. Each of these new generations brings higher data transfer speeds and lower latency rates.
• The high speed and low latency of 5G will enable the connected devices to communicate in real-time, offering better and more reliable performance. This will benefit household purposes (such as lol-enabled smart homes) and the industrial sector (for example, smart factories and automated manufacturing). According to one study, by 2035, 5G will enable USD 13.2 trillion of global economic output and support 22.3 million jobs.
• 5G will subsequently impact edtech, autonomous and robotic systems, telemedicine and precision agriculture.

What are the geopolitical fights associated with 5G technology?

• Commercial motives: Leading tech-powered nations have strived to attain the ‘first mover’ advantage in 5G technology. So, major world telecom leaders may have taken the lead in developing 5G technology. For instance, Chinese telecom companies have been aggressively penetrating new markets by commercialising the technology and offering it at cheaper rates.
• The Chinese threat: There are apprehensions that China might weaponise 5G technology by coercing the Chinese telecom companies to share their consumer data with the government or even force them to shut down 5G networks in times of geopolitical tumult.
• Various instances and allegations of Chinese telecom companies engaging in cyber espionage in many countries have only reinforced these concerns. For example, the Australian government report on Papua New Guinea’s National Cyber Security Centre built by China said that the project had multiple cybersecurity issues, which exposed confidential government data.
• The US counter on China: The United States has spearheaded a campaign to counter the Chinese telecom companies’ dominance in the 5G market. For instance, the US government has designated Huawei and ZTE as national security threats and also banned the sale and import of new communications equipment from five other Chinese companies. Further, the US has also persuaded its allies not to use Chinese equipment in their domestic 5G networks.
• Democratic states and authoritarian regime fight: There have been efforts to bring together like-minded and leading democratic states to jointly tackle the tech challenge posed by authoritarian regimes such as China and Russia. For example,
• The idea of D-10: The former UK Prime Minister floated the idea of D-10, a coalition of ten democracies, to create an alternative supply chain for 5G and other emerging technologies.
• The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, or the Quad has pledged to advance interoperability and security and work on 5G supplier diversification and Open RAN technology.

On the other hand, authoritarian regimes are pursuing emerging technologies beyond 5G.

What are the potential cybersecurity challenges in the 5G?

• With 5G there will be an increased tendency among threat actors to target critical national infrastructure.
• 5G will play in a crucial role in national development and economic growth. So, it can undoubtedly be regarded as a critical infrastructure. Hence, 5G communication networks will represent a valuable target for cyberattacks, including sabotage.
• Threat actors will exploit several vulnerabilities of the 5G network and ecosystem. Such as,

1. Due to the complexity of technology, there are many moving parts in the 5G ecosystem. This raises uncertainty about the resilience of each of those parts. For instance. If some systems in the network are not fully patched, they can potentially act as the weakest link in cyber defence.
2. Due to the higher speeds and enhanced capacity, 5G requires more access points and network edges, where the local network or device connects with the internet. This shifts much of the core network functions closer to the end user, making it challenging to enforce the requisite security compliance and ensure trusted third-party vendors.
3. There are mixed types of networks — 5G systems with legacy systems such as 4G. This also exposes the 5G network to the vulnerabilities of previous-generation networks.
4. Unlike 4G, 5G have a much smaller area of coverage. Hence, they require several smaller antennas and base’ stations. This can allow precise location tracking of mobile phone or internet users inside and outside, thereby increasing privacy risks.
5. The 5G network will bring about a wider proliferation of loT-enabled devices. According to one estimate, by 2025, there will be approximately 27 billion connected loT devices. This magnifies the threat canvas, as these devices will offer new malware and botnet distribution vectors.

• These will bring increased avenues for attacks such as Distributed Denial-of-Service attacks or Man-in-the-Middle attacks. For example, in 2016, the Mirai botnet exploited unsecured loT devices’ vulnerabilities to disrupt the functioning of thousands of routers, security cameras, and digital video recorders.

1. 5G inherits the vulnerability from previous generation protocols, i.e., threat actors can get hold of the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

• By seizing the IMSI, threat actors can intercept mobile traffic in a defined area to monitor an individual user’s activity, including tracking location and intercepting calls.

What needs to be done to limit the cybersecurity challenges in the 5G?

• 5G will require an enhanced focus on the security of the connections, devices, and applications.
• Explore next-generation technologies: Leading tech companies and global partnerships have already started exploring next-generation technologies. For instance, The Quad countries have announced plans to collaborate on space-based 6G to ensure that security-by-design and best cybersecurity practices are incorporated as the technology takes shape.

China is also formulating plans to advance research and innovation in 6G technologies.

• Formulate a cyber resilience plan: 5G technology and network are not secure by design. So, countries adopting 5G, including India, must have a dedicated cyber resilience plan in place.
• Constant update of policies: the cyber and information-security policies of the 5G network ecosystem must adopt adequate security protocols. This will need constant updating and upgrading since threat actors continue exploiting emerging vulnerabilities.
• Enhance awareness of end-user: End users’ cyber hygiene — their understanding of safe practices in cyberspace — can help them better tackle the threats and protect themselves. So, the government should take steps to increase awareness among end user.

General Studies Paper 3

• Government recently undertook two significant measures to curb tax evasion and increase compliance under the Goods and Services Tax (GST) regime:
  • Lowering the threshold for businesses to generatee-invoice for business-to-business (B2B) transactions, from Rs 10 crore to Rs 5 crore, and
  • Rolleing out the automated return scrutiny module for GST returns in a backend application for central tax officers.

More about the news

• The ‘Automated return scrutiny module’:
  • This will enable the officers to scrutinise GST returns of centre-administered taxpayers selected on the basis of data analytics and risks identified by the system.
    • Discrepancies on account of risks associated with a return will be displayed to the tax officers.
    • They will interact with the taxpayers through the GSTN common portal for communication of discrepancies noticed in returns and subsequent action in form of either issuance of an order of acceptance of reply or issuance of show cause notice or initiation of audit/investigation.
  • The automated return scrutiny module has already commenced with the scrutiny of GST returns for FY 2019-20, with the requisite data already with the tax officers.
• Changes changes for e-invoicing:
  • At present, businesses with turnover of Rs 10 crore and above are required to generate e-invoice for all B2B transactions.
  • 37th meeting of GST Council:
    • The GST Council in its37th meeting in September 2019 had approved the standard of e-invoice with the primary objective to enable interoperability across the entire GST ecosystem.
      • Under this, a phased implementation was proposed to ensure a common standard for all invoices, that is, an e-invoice generated by one software should be capable of being read by any other software and through machine readability, an invoice can then be uniformly interpreted.
    • New compliance:
      • The government now has lowered the threshold for businesses to generate e-invoice for business-to-business (B2B) transactions to Rs 5 crore from Rs 10 crore under GST.
        • The changes will come into effect from August 1.

Significance

• Amid rising instances of GST frauds and cases of fake invoices, these changes are expected to broaden the compliance mandate for more businesses, especially small and medium enterprises
• The measures are also expected to help boost the GST revenue collections.
• With a uniform invoicing system, the tax authorities are able to pre-populate the return and reduce the reconciliation issues.

Challenges

• While the reduction in the e-invoicing threshold is seen as an important factor for boosting GST revenue collections and checking frauds, it will also increase compliance requirements for smaller businesses.
  • Industry needs to ensure that any vendor supplying goods or services and crossing the threshold turnover of Rs 5 crore is necessarily issuing an e-invoice from August 2023 to avoid any dispute with respect to availability of input tax credit.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Karnataka Legislative Assembly elections’ results were released recently. There were allegations that Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) from South Africa were being used for voting.

Production of EVMs in India

• EVMs were first used in 70-Paravur Assembly Constituency of Kerala in 1982.
• EVMs are produced indigenously by 2 PSUs Bharat Electronics Ltd., Bengaluru and Electronics Corporation of India Ltd., Hyderabad.
• India does not use any EVMs produced abroad.
• After the introduction of EVM machines in elections of India, many countries used EVM machines made in India in their elections, like Bhutan, Nepal and Namibia.

What parts make up an EVM?

• EVM has two parts – a ‘control unit’ and a ‘balloting unit’– connected by a 5-metre cable. 
• The balloting unit is in the voting compartment into which the voter enters to cast the vote by pressing the button against the name and symbol of the candidate of her choice and the control unit is with the EC-appointed polling officer.
• The control unit has been termed the EVM’s ‘brain’, as the balloting unit is turned on only after the polling officer presses the ‘Ballot’ button on it and the vote is then cast. The control unit is with theElection Commission selected polling officer.
• The Software Programme Codeis written in-house, by these two PSUs, not outsourced, and subjected to security procedures at factory level to maintain the highest levels of integrity.
• The programme is converted into machine code and only then given to the chip manufacturer abroad because we don’t have the capability of producing semi-conductor microchips within the country.

Concerns of using electronic voting machines

• No certification: No nationally or internationally recognised institutions or governments have certified the EVMs as cent per cent accurate.
• Vulnerability to malware: Many software programmers have claimed that the electronic voting machines are vulnerable to malicious programmingand if it gets affected then any hacker can hack the machine and can tamper the vote counts easily.
• Loss of data: The biggest change with technology is that no matter how much data it records, a single virus can destroy the entire data storage.
• Not suitable to Humid places: The highly humid area and those areas which receive frequent rainfall are not suitable for casting votes using electronic voting machines. As machines are prone to damage due to high humidity level, thus usage of electronic voting machines is not advisable in such areas.
• Manufacturing: Most of the electronic voting machines used in the country were foreign manufactured which means the secret codes that control the electronic voting machines are in foreign hands and they can be used to influence the election results.
• Fake votes:Most of the electronic voting machines used in the country do not have any mechanism by which the voter can verify their identity before casting the vote due to which fake voters can cast numerous fake votes.

Advantages of Electronic Voting machines

• Right to vote: The right to vote is the supreme right of democracy which is being executed through the EVMs.
• Many developed countries have adopted ballot paper:It is the constitutional duty and the responsibility of the Election Commission and the Central government to introduce such a transparent system of voting and counting in the elections which can be evaluated by the public, the voters, themselves.
  • Despite this fact, by conducting polling using the machines in India, which is the biggest democracy in the world, the constitutional right to vote is being violated.
• Difficult for the hackers to hack:In most of the advanced versions of electronic voting machines, there are no external communication paths which make it difficult for the hackers to hack the machine and tamper the count numbers.
• Electronic voting machines are cost effective and economical: In the paper ballot, the amount of raw material used is higher. It directly impacts the environment as paper ballots use papers to cast votes.
• Time savers:one can count the votes in a few minutes which make life easier for the election officers on duty. In a paper ballot, the vote counting process is quite tedious and time-consuming.
• Electronic voting machines are quite effective against bogus votes: Electronic voting machines are programmed to capture a maximum of five votes in a minute. Due to which a single vote cannot cast fake votes.
• Electronic voting machines are easier to carry and transport from one place to another without any hassle:One single machine can record several votes captured through that machine.

Voter verifiable paper audit trail (VVPAT)

• Voter verifiable paper audit trail (VVPAT) or verified paper record (VPR)is a method of providing feedback to voters using a ballot-less voting system.
• A VVPATis intended as an independent verification system for voting machines designed to allow voters to verify that their vote was cast correctly, to detect possible election fraud or malfunction, and to provide a means to audit the stored electronic results.
• It contains the name of the candidate (for whom vote has been cast) and symbol of the party/individual candidate.
• The VVPAT offers some fundamental differences as a paper, rather than electronic recording medium when storing votes.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: This year, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) released the Indian Space Policy 2023 that had been in the works for some years.

• The policy has been welcomed as a progression towards India’s entry in a New Space age. However, it needs to be followed up with suitable legislation, accompanied by clear rules and regulations.
• Until the early 1990s, India’s space industry and space economy were defined by ISRO. Private sector involvement was limited to building to ISRO designs and specifications.
• The Indian Space Policy 2023 unveils the government’s plan to let private enterprises carry out end-to-end activities – from launching satellites and rockets into space to operating Earth stations.

What were India’s Past Quests to Reform in its Space Sector?

• The First Satellite Communication Policy: It was introduced in 1997, with guidelines for foreign direct investment (FDI) in the satellite industry that were further liberalised but never generated much enthusiasm.
• Remote Sensing Data Policy: It was introduced in 2001, which was amended in 2011; in 2016, it was replaced by a National Geospatial Policy that has been further liberalised in 2022.
• Draft Space Activities Bill: It was brought out in 2017, which went through a long consultative process and lapsed in 2019 with the outgoing Lok Sabha.

The government was expected to introduce a new Bill by 2021, but it appears to have contented itself with the new policy statement released by ISRO.

Why there is a Need to Introduce Private Players into Space Sector?

• India Lags far behind in Space Economy: The global space economy is currently valued at about USD 360 billion. Despite being one among a few spacefaring nations in the world, India accounts for only about 2% of the space economy.
• Harnessing the Full Potential of India’s Space Sector: Today, while ISRO’s budget is approximately USD1.6 billion, India’s space economy is over USD9.6 billion. Broadband, OTT and 5G promise a double-digit annual growth in satellite-based services.
• It is estimated that with an enabling environment, the Indian space industry could grow to USD 60 billion by 2030, directly creating more than two lakh jobs.
• Private Sector has revolutionised the Space Sector: Companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic have revolutionized the space sector by reducing costs and turnaround time while In India however, players within the private space industry have been limited to being vendors or suppliers to the government’s space program.
• Enhancing Security: The security and defence agencies spend nearly a billion dollars annually to procure earth observation data and imagery from foreign sources. This much reliance on foreign entities can put India’s security at stakes.
• Bringing Aatmanirbharta in Space Sector: Today, more than half the transponders beaming TV signals into Indian homes are hosted on foreign satellites, resulting in an annual outflow of over half a billion dollars.
• Promoting Entrepreneurship in Space Sector: There is a need to promote private sector activity in all high technology areas including space, to fully unlock the potential of India’s youth and entrepreneurs.
• To realize this vision, it is necessary to enable private entities within the Indian space sector to establish themselves as independent players capable of end-to-end space activities.
• Making Space Industry at par with Global Industry: Promoting the private sector will enable the Indian space program to remain cost competitive within the global space market, and thus create several jobs in the space and other related sectors.

What is in Indian Space Policy 2023?

Vision: The ‘Vision’ is to “enable, encourage and develop a flourishing commercial presence in space” that suggests an acceptance that the private sector is a critical stakeholder in the entire value chain of the space economy.

Key Highlights:

The policy creates four distinct, but related entities, that will facilitate greater private sector participation in activities that have usually been the traditional domain of the ISRO.

InSPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre): It will be a single window clearance and authorisation agency for space launches, establishing launch pads, buying and selling satellites, and disseminating high-resolution data among other things.

• It will also share technologies, products, processes and best practices with NGEs (non-government entities and this will include private companies) and government companies.
• IN-SPACe will create a “stable and predictable regulatory framework” that will ensure a level playing field for the NGEs.
• It will act as a promoter by setting up industry clusters and as the regulator, issue guidelines on liability issues.
• New Space India Limited (NSIL): It will be responsible for commercialising space technologies and platforms created through public expenditure, as well as, manufacturing, leasing, or procuring space components, technologies, platforms and other assets from the private or public sector.
• Department of Space: It will provide overall policy guidelines and be the nodal department for implementing space technologies and, among other things, co-ordinate international cooperation and coordination in the area of global space governance and programmes in consultation with the Ministry of External Affairs.
• It will also create an appropriate mechanism to resolve disputes arising out of space activity.
• Rationalising the role of ISRO: It states that ISRO will “transition out of the existing practice of being present in the manufacturing of operational space systems.
• Hereafter, mature systems shall be transferred to industries for commercial usage. ISRO shall focus on R&D in advanced technology, proving newer systems and realisation of space objects for meeting national prerogatives”.
• ISRO will share technologies, products, processes and best practices with other government and non-government companies.
• This will make ISRO use its all its strength on cutting edge research and development and long-term projects such as Chandrayaan and Gaganyaan.

Private Sector’s Role:

• The NGEs (this includes the private sector) are “allowed to undertake end-to-end activities in the space sector through establishment and operation of space objects, ground-based assets and related services, such as communication, remote sensing, navigation, etc.”.
• Satellites could be self-owned, procured or leased; communication services could be over India or outside; and remote sensing data could be disseminated in India or abroad.
• NGEs can design and operate launch vehicles for space transportation and establish their own infrastructure.
• NGEs can now make filings with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and engage in commercial recovery of asteroid resources.
• In short, the entire gamut of space activities is now open to the private sector. Security agencies can task NGEs for procuring tailor-made solutions to address specific requirements.

What are the Gaps in the Policy?

• The policy sets out an ambitious role for IN-SPACe but provides no time frame for the necessary steps ahead.
• Neither is there an indicative timeline for ISRO’s transitioning out of its current practices nor is there a schedule for IN-SPACe to create the regulatory framework.
• The policy framework envisaged will need clear rules and regulations pertaining to FDI and licensing, government procurement to sustain the new space start-ups, liability in case of violations and an appellate framework for dispute settlement.
• IN-SPACe is a regulatory body but doesn’t have legislative authority.
• IN-SPACe is expected to authorise space activities for all, both government and non-government entities. Currently, its position is ambiguous as it functions under the purview of the Department of Space.

What Should be Done to Fill these Gaps?

• The Space Policy 2023 is a forward-looking document reflecting good intentions and a vision. But it is not enough. What is urgently needed is a time frame to provide the necessary legal framework to translate this vision into reality, to successfully launch India into the Second Space Age
• The government should bring a bill that grants statutory status to IN SPACe and also sets out time limits for both ISRO and IN SPACe. The bill should also address the ambiguity related to Foreign Investment, government support for new space startups.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: India’s strategic autonomy and policy of non-alignment have evolved into a multi-alignment approach.

About India’s multi-alignment stand

• Origin of India’s non-alignment stand:
  • There has been a progressive evolution in Indian thinking on forming and joining regional economic and security groupings, since the days New Delhi declared itself as “Non-Aligned” in the 1950s.
  • India, thereafter, remained a leading player in the “Non-Aligned Movement” (NAM).
    • The 120 members of NAM professed that they would not get drawn into “Great Power” rivalries between the US and USSR.
  • India’s current multi-alignment stand:
    • With Russia:
      • The disintegration of the Soviet Union in the 1990s led to new groupings and alliances.
      • But we are now happily in a position where we are partners, in different ways, with all major global power centres. Economics and economic integration play a far more central role as bridges of cooperation today.
    • USA & QUAD:
      • India finds itself linked with the US and Japan far more closely than in the past, in a world order which is becoming more China-centric than in the past.
      • This has been the rationale of Quadrilateral Security Dialogue or QUAD, comprising Australia, India, Japan and the US.
    • West Asia:
      • The most notable decision taken in recent days was after the first summit meeting of the recently established I2U2 grouping, comprising India, Israel, the US and the UAE.
        • This was the first time when India and the US partnered two West Asian countries to focus cooperation on use of water resources, food security, health, transportation and space.
      • Southeast Asian Nations:
        • While India has an free trade agreement (FTA) with ASEAN, New Delhi has chosen, for understandable reasons, not to join the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), containing 15 East Asian and Pacific nations, including ASEAN members, Australia, New Zealand and China.
      • Eurasia:
        • India holds membership of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), which is a permanent intergovernmental international organisation of Eurasian Nations with a secretariat in Beijing.

Problem with India’s multi-alignment stand

• No condemnation for violations of international law:
  • India has refused to condemn violations of international law, as in the case of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine or the February 2021 coup in Myanmar(New Delhi abstained from United Nations General Assembly and Security Council resolutions).
    • This may be understandable as India has often taken an evasive position on conflicts that involve its traditional allies.
  • However, critics are not unreasonable in arguing that this ambiguity does not behave a nation aspiring to become a permanent member of the UNSC, which implies a commitment to speak as a global voice against territorial aggression and rights violations similar to what Russia has unleashed on Ukraine.
• Not in the position to play the role of a mediator:
  • A pursuit of ‘multi-alignment’ may have given New Delhi some diplomatic space in the ongoing war in Ukraine. However, it may not be sufficient for India to try to play the role of a mediator between Russia and Ukraine.
• Lowest ranker:
  • The latest State of Southeast Asia Survey has shown that India ranks the second lowest (at only 1 percent) among ASEAN and nine middle powers in its leadership in maintaining a rules-based order and upholding international law.
• Not party to newly formed mechanisms:
  • What often gets overlooked is how India has steered clear from US-led regional security mechanisms like AUKUS and 5-Eyes.

Way ahead

• Rising middle power:
  • Despite all the problems, the diplomatic success of India as a rising middle power has not gone unnoticed.
    • It would have been unthinkable barely a decade ago to envisage a situation where India receives UAE finances and Israeli technology, geared to US involvement, for stepping up agricultural production for its western neighbours.
  • Rise in trust levels:
    • Furthermore, India has enjoyed a significant increase in trust levels this year at 25.7 per cent compared to only 16.6 percent last year.
      • Among those who trust India, there is a significant increase among those who felt that India’s military power is an asset for global peace and security.
    • Potential of balancing & assume a greater role:
      • As India’s influence increases, it can assume a greater role as a bridging power and play a moderating role in the Quad, G7, BRICS and the SCO.
        • Considering its presidency for the G20 and the SCO, 2023 will indeed be the year to see how India does its balancing act.