General Studies Paper-3

In News

• A recent global study has found that artificial light at night is significantly altering bird behaviour, causing many species to stay active for up to an hour longer after sunset.

What Is Light Pollution?

• Light pollution refers to the excessive or inappropriate use of artificial outdoor lighting, which disrupts natural darkness.
• It disrupts ecosystems, obscures the night sky, and affects human health and energy efficiency.

Causes

• Urbanisation: Expansion of cities leads to more streetlights, billboards, and building illumination.
• Over use: Use of artificial lighting beyond what is necessary, especially in commercial zones and residential areas.
• Increase in commercial Activity: Bright signage and lighting in malls, petrol stations, and industrial zones contribute significantly.
• Unregulated Use of LEDs: While energy-efficient, high-intensity LEDs often emit blue light, which scatters more in the atmosphere.

Impacts

• Environmental and Ecological: Nocturnal animals, migratory birds, and insects rely on natural light cycles.
  • Birds living in brightly lit areas tend to sing earlier at dawn and later at dusk, disrupting their natural rhythms and negatively impacting migration, feeding, and breeding patterns.
  • Similar effects occur in species like fireflies, whose communication suffers. Artificial lighting confuses navigation and feeding patterns.
  • Altered light exposure affects flowering and photosynthesis cycles of Plant Growth.
• Human Health: Exposure to artificial light at night suppresses melatonin production, leading to insomnia and other health issues.
  • Chronic exposure to light pollution has been linked to increased stress and reduced cognitive performance.
• Astronomy and Scientific Research: Brightening of the night sky hampers astronomical observations, especially near urban centers.
• Energy Waste: Billions of units of electricity are wasted annually due to poorly directed lighting, increasing carbon emissions.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• Light pollution is a rising issue that harms health, environment, and connection to the night sky.
• In urban planning, adopting Dark Sky-compliant lighting and enforcing zoning regulations can reduce unnecessary illumination, especially in residential and ecologically sensitive areas.
• Governments should strengthen the implementation of national lighting codes and incentivize smart lighting systems like motion sensors and timers.
• Public engagement through citizen science initiatives and integrating light pollution topics into educational curricula can raise awareness.

General Studies Paper-2/3

Context

• NITI Aayog launched two transformative initiatives, AI for Viksit Bharat Roadmap: Opportunity for Accelerated Economic Growth and NITI Frontier Tech Repository under its Frontier Tech Hub.

AI for Viksit Bharat Roadmap

• The roadmap lays out a practical action plan to translate AI’s promise into outcomes, highlighting two major levers:
  • Accelerating adoption of AI across industries to enhance productivity and efficiency;
  • Transforming R&D with generative AI to help India leapfrog into innovation-driven opportunities.
• Vision: Mainstream AI-assisted technologies across all districts to foster inclusive development and ensure India does not lag in the global tech race.

NITI Frontier Tech Repository

• The Frontier Tech Repository showcases 200+ impact stories from across India in four sectors – Agriculture, Healthcare, Education, and National Security.
• It brings to life how states and startups are deploying technology with the purpose to transform livelihoods.
• Supporting Initiatives:
  • Frontier 50 Initiative wherein NITI Aayog will support 50 Aspirational Districts / Blocks to pick use cases from the Repository and deploy those frontier technologies that have potential to accelerate saturation of services across ADP/ABP themes.
  • NITI Frontier Tech Impact Awards for States recognizing three states excelling in use of tech to improve governance, education, healthcare, livelihood etc., and supporting them to scale measurable, transformative outcomes.

How AI Can Transform Key Sectors?

• Banking and Finance: Artificial Intelligence has the potential to add $50–55 billion to India’s banking sector by 2035.
  • It can strengthen fraud detection, ensure regulatory compliance, and make back-office operations more efficient.
• Manufacturing and Industry: AI-driven automation in manufacturing is expected to generate $85–100 billion in productivity gains by 2035. Generative AI can help design innovative products and optimize factory operations.
• Pharmaceuticals and Biotech: AI has the power to transform India’s pharmaceutical industry from a generics-based market to an innovation-driven hub.
  • Generative AI and computational biology can reduce drug discovery timelines by 60–80% and lower costs by 20–30%.
• Automotive: By 2035, around 40–50% of vehicles sold in India could be software-enabled, adding $6–8 billion in value.
  • AI can also transform the auto-components industry, creating an additional $25–30 billion through faster and cheaper design processes.

Challenges

• Data fragmentation and weak privacy protections.
• Old IT systems in banks and industries.
• Shortage of AI experts in robotics, chip design, and bioinformatics.
• Slow approval processes for new drugs and technologies.
• Cybersecurity risks and ethical issues like algorithmic bias.

Strategic factors necessary for AI Roadmap

• Digital Infrastructure: Expansion of AI computing power, cloud services, 5G networks, and robotics test zones under the India AI Mission.
• Data Governance: Secure and consent-based data sharing, building sector-specific data grids, and strengthening AI Kosh as a national data platform.
• Skilling and Talent: AI education at school and university levels, industry certifications, AI Open University, and fellowships to bring back diaspora talent.
• Regulation: Clear ethical guidelines, audit systems, regulatory sandboxes, and alignment with international standards.

Concluding remarks

• India’s goal of 8% sustained growth requires a major boost in productivity and innovation, and AI is the key enabler.
• To achieve the goal of Viksit Bharat by 2047, the country must not only adopt AI but also lead globally in setting standards, driving innovation, and building collaborative ecosystems.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The Supreme Court has upheld the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025 while striking down few provisions and balancing state regulation with minority rights.

Key Amendments of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025

• Composition of the Central Waqf Council: The Union Minister in-charge of waqf is the ex-officio chairperson.
• Council members include:
  • Members of Parliament (MPs).
  • Persons of national eminence.
  • Retired Supreme Court/High Court judges.
  • Eminent scholars in Muslim law.
  • Removes the Muslim requirement for MPs, former judges, and eminent persons.
  • It mandates two non-Muslim members in the Council.
• Composition of Waqf Boards:
  • Empowers state governments to nominate one person from each group.
  • Non-Muslim members required: two.
  • Must include at least one member each from Shias, Sunnis, and Backward Muslim classes.
  • Requires two Muslim women members.
• Composition of Tribunals:
  • Removes the expert in Muslim law.
  • District Court judge (Chairman).
  • Joint Secretary rank officer.
• Appeals Against Tribunal Orders:
  • Act: Decisions of Tribunals are final, with no appeals allowed in courts.
  • Amendment: Allows appeals against Tribunal decisions to the High Court within 90 days.
  • Survey of Properties: The Act replaces the Survey Commissioner with the District Collector or other senior officers to oversee the survey of Waqf properties.
• Government property as waqf: It states that any government property identified as waqf will cease to be so.
  • The Collector of the area will determine ownership in case of uncertainty, if deemed a government property, he will update the revenue records.
  • Audits: Waqf institutions earning over ₹1 lakh will undergo audits by state-sponsored auditors.
  • Centralized Portal: A centralized portal will be created for automating Waqf property management, enhancing efficiency and transparency.
  • Property Dedication: Practicing Muslims (for at least five years) can dedicate property to the Waqf, restoring pre-2013 rules.
  • Women’s Inheritance: Women must receive inheritance before the Waqf declaration, with special provisions for widows, divorced women, and orphans.

Key changes SC has incorporated into the Act

• Practicing Islam: The Court’s most significant intervention concerns Section 3(r), which requires anyone creating a waqf to demonstrate they have been practising Islam for at least five years.
  • The court stayed the provision until the government frames rules for determining religious practice.
• Collector’s Power Over Waqf Properties: Section 3C empowers the district collectors to determine whether properties claimed as waqf actually belong to the government.
• Court’s ruling: Stayed provision that allowed stripping waqf status before inquiry is complete, calling it “prima facie arbitrary”.
  • Directed that waqf properties cannot be dispossessed or altered until final decision by Waqf Tribunal and any subsequent appeals.
• Representation in Waqf Administration: Its amended Act allowed up to 12 non-Muslims on the Central Waqf Council (22 members) and 7 non-Muslims on state boards (11 members).
  • The Court’s ruling has capped this at 4 (Central) and 3 (State).
  • CEOs of Waqf Boards should, “as far as possible”, be Muslims (not mandatory).
  • This balance sought transparency & inclusivity vs. minority autonomy in religious affairs.
• “Waqf by User” Deletion: Earlier law allowed declaring property as waqf based on longstanding religious use without formal documents.
• Court’s ruling: It upheld deletion, clarified that this change applies only prospectively—existing waqf-by-user properties registered before April 8, 2025, remain protected.
• Protected Monuments: The court declined to interfere with provisions declaring waqf status void for properties that are protected monuments or belong to Scheduled Tribes.

Conclusion

• A law made by Parliament carries a presumption of constitutionality unless a court strikes it down.
• While SC refused to stay the Waqf Act, it stayed certain provisions “to protect interest of all parties and balance equities during pendency”.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, the Governor of Andhra Pradesh emphasized a critical gap in the nation’s political landscape at the first national conference on parliamentary and legislative committees on the empowerment of women.

Women’s Political Participation: Current Landscape

• According to UN Women, only 27.2% of parliamentarians in single or lower houses are women, up from 11% in 1995.
• In India, women hold 14.7% of seats in Lok Sabha, but still far below the global average of 26.5% and ministerial representation is even lower, hovering around 10–11%.
• In State Assemblies, women’s representation varies widely, often falling below 10%.
  • Chhattisgarh leads with 19 women MLAs, while Himachal Pradesh has just one, and Mizoram has none.
• India is ranked at 148 among 193 countries, ranked 31st among 47 Asian countries, and fifth amongst eight SAARC countries.

Why Is Women’s Political Participation in India Still Low?

• Parties and Political Barriers: In the 2024 elections, only 797 women contested, and just 74 won — fewer than the 78 elected in 2019. The root causes include:
  • Low ticket allocation: Parties often court women voters but fail to field adequate women candidates.
  • Patriarchal party structures: Women face stereotypes, exclusion from leadership roles, and lack of internal democracy.
  • Weak mahila wings: These exist across parties but rarely influence ticket distribution or policymaking.
• Patriarchal Social Norms & Gender Stereotypes: Deep-rooted cultural beliefs often discourage women from pursuing political careers.
  • Politics is still perceived as a male-dominated space, and women are frequently expected to prioritize domestic responsibilities over public life.
• Safety and Mobility Concerns: Women face heightened safety risks during political campaigns, especially in rural and conflict-prone areas.
  • It restricts their mobility, public engagement, and ability to build voter bases.
• Low Female Labour Force Participation: India’s female labour force participation rate has historically been low, which often correlates with limited civic and political engagement, especially among marginalized women.

Related Government Initiatives & Policy Push

• Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (2023): It reserves 33% of parliamentary seats for women. However, this reform will not take effect before the 2029 elections.
• 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments: These mandate one-third reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies.
  • It has led to over 1.4 million elected women representatives, making India a global leader in grassroots gender inclusion.
  • At the state level, 20 states have already raised local body reservations for women from 33% to 50%.
• Nari Shakti-led Development: A policy framework that integrates women’s empowerment across education, entrepreneurship, and leadership.
• National Policy for Women (2016): It emphasizes leadership development and political empowerment.
• Training and capacity-building programs for elected women representatives through institutions like the National Institute of Rural Development.
• Digital literacy and financial inclusion schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyaan (PMGDISHA), Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), Stand-Up India, and NRLM Self-Help Groups which indirectly support women’s civic engagement.

Way Forward

• Enhance Party Democracy: Promote greater transparency and internal democracy within political parties to ensure women have a fair chance at leadership roles and ticket allocation.
• Civic Education: Expand civic education and institutional reforms to dismantle the socio-economic barriers that hinder women’s entry into politics.
• Institutional Reforms: Institutionalize gender audits within political parties and election commissions to monitor and enforce gender equality in their functioning.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• A decade after the launch of the Smart Cities Mission (SCM), which aimed to transform 100 Indian cities into models of efficiency and sustainability, the floods in several Indian cities revealed the fragile infrastructure and selective beautification, instead of resilient cities.

About Smart Cities Mission (SCM)

• It was launched in June 2015 with the aim to transform 100 cities into urban models that are citizen-friendly, sustainable, and technologically advanced.
• It is designed to align with other national initiatives like AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission, Digital India, and Housing for All, ensuring integrated urban growth.
• It has delivered impressive outcomes — smart roads, Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCCs), and digital infrastructure, with over ₹1.64 lakh crore sanctioned across 8,000+ projects.

Concerns & Issues Highlighted

• Urban Pressure: According to the World Bank, India’s urban population is set to nearly double from 480 million in 2020 to 951 million by 2050.
  • Megacities like Delhi and Mumbai continue to swell, while Tier-2 cities such as Bhubaneswar, Indore, and Coimbatore emerge as new growth centres.
  • Cities, because of urban pressure, are like to face the problem like choked drainage systems due to unplanned construction; housing shortages leading to informal settlements; and transport failures under surging traffic;
• Shifted Priorities: Smart Cities Mission (SCM) invested in small islands of ‘smartness’ — digitised streetlights, refurbished flyovers, and centralised command centres, instead of building resilience.
  • Core issues like flooding, drainage, and affordable housing remained unaddressed.
  • It missed the chance to create sustainable satellite towns capable of absorbing migration, by prioritising cosmetic upgrades.
• Resilience Gap: The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) was designed to complement Smart Cities Mission (SCM) by addressing issues like water supply, sewerage, stormwater drains, and green spaces.
  • Cities still face crippling monsoon paralysis, despite higher allocations in its second phase (₹2.9 lakh crore).
  • The problem lies in slow execution along with the siloed planning — with different schemes tackling isolated issues, rarely integrated into a coherent strategy.
• Overlooking Greenfield Opportunities: Most SCM efforts focused on retrofitting existing metros, while Greenfield opportunities like building new, holistic urban centres were sidelined.
  • Industrial hubs under the National Industrial Corridor Development Programme (NICDP) leaned towards finance and industry rather than inclusive, housing-led growth.
• Structural Challenges: Cities were required to set up Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) — corporate entities led by bureaucrat or private stakeholders — to execute projects.
  • It bypassed elected municipal bodies, raising concerns about democratic accountability and citizen participation.

Smart Cities Mission and Flood Management

• Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework (CSCAF): It was launched by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
  • It evaluates cities on their readiness to tackle climate change, including flood risks, through indicators like water management, urban planning, and biodiversity.
  • It includes:
• Stormwater monitoring via Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems;
• Area-based development projects that include green infrastructure and permeable surfaces;
• Knowledge products and case studies documenting scalable flood mitigation strategies

Way Forward

• Creating, Not Retrofitting: India’s urban policy needs to pivot from retrofitting to creating, and to build new, resilient, and affordable cities that attract both people and investment, like Shenzhen.
  • Progress should be measured by ease of living, affordability, and governance.
• Fiscal Incentives for Growth: To make new cities viable, governments could adopt fiscal innovations:
  • Lower property taxes and stamp duties in early years;
  • Streamlined approvals for housing and business;
  • Incentives for sustainable construction;
• Realigning Smart Cities Mission (SCM) with India’s Evolving Urban Challenges:
  • Re-centering citizen participation in planning and monitoring;
  • Expanding pan-city solutions beyond digital dashboards to include climate adaptation, affordable housing, and inclusive mobility;
  • Strengthening municipal capacity and integrating SPVs with local governance;
  • Prioritizing sustainability through nature-based solutions and green infrastructure;
  • Ensuring equitable development that reaches beyond central business districts and elite zones;

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The number of pending cases in the Supreme Court of India has surged to an all-time high, raising serious concerns about the efficiency, accessibility, and credibility of the judicial system.

Current Caseload

• According to the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG), the Supreme Court of India is witnessing an unprecedented rise in case pendency, with 88,492 matters currently awaiting disposal, that includes 69,605 civil cases and 18,887 criminal cases.
• It has grown by over 35% in the past five years, despite digitization efforts and structural reforms.

Causes of Pendency of Cases

• Low Disposal of Cases: In August 2025 alone, the court registered 7,080 new cases, while managing to dispose of 5,667 cases, reflecting a disposal rate of 80.04%.
  • From January to August 2025, the Supreme Court saw 52,630 cases filed, with 46,309 disposed of, marking an annual disposal rate of nearly 88%.
• Limited Working Days: With court holidays and restricted working hours, the number of sittings remains insufficient to tackle the growing docket.
• Procedural Complexity: Lengthy procedures, adjournments, and appeals slow down the pace of justice.
• Low Judge-to-Population Ratio: India has one of the lowest judge-to-population ratios globally — about 21 judges per million people, far below the recommended 50.
• Overuse of Special Leave Petitions (SLPs): Article 136 allows the Supreme Court to hear appeals in exceptional cases.
  • However, SLPs are filed indiscriminately, clogging the docket with matters that could be resolved in lower courts.
• Government Litigation Overload: The government is the largest litigant, responsible for nearly 50% of pending cases, many of which are deemed frivolous or repetitive.
• Inadequate Infrastructure and Technology Adoption: Many courts lack robust case management systems, despite digitization efforts.
  • Limited use of AI and e-courts hampers scheduling, tracking, and efficient disposal.
• Legacy Cases and Long-Term Backlog: Thousands of cases have been pending for over a decade, some even dating back 30+ years.
  • Lack of prioritization and bundling of similar cases contributes to stagnation.
• Lack of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR): Mediation and arbitration are underutilized, even though they could reduce the burden on courts significantly.

Implications for Justice and Governance

• Erosion of Public Trust: Citizens lose faith in the judiciary when justice is delayed, especially in cases involving human rights, corruption, and constitutional interpretation.
• Economic Impact: Commercial disputes stuck in litigation deter investment and slow economic growth.
• Social Injustice: Vulnerable groups suffer disproportionately, as delays in criminal trials and civil disputes prolong uncertainty and hardship.
• Prison Overcrowding: According to the Indian Justice Report, 2025, over half of Indian jails are overcrowded and around 76% of prison inmates are under trials.

Reform Measures

• Differentiated Case Management (DCM): It was adopted by the Supreme Court under Unclogging the Docket Initiative, focused on identifying and fast-tracking short, infructuous, and old cases—those that had become irrelevant or remained unlisted for years.
  • It resulted in a disposal rate of 104%, setting a new benchmark for judicial efficiency.
• Arrears Committees and Monitoring Mechanisms: The Supreme Court has constituted Arrears Committees to formulate strategies for reducing backlog.
  • These committees monitor compliance with guidelines from the Malimath Committee Report, which recommends stricter timelines and procedural discipline.
• Increasing Judicial Capacity and Workdays: Recommendations from the Malimath Committee and Law Commission Reports include:
  • Increasing the number of working days for the Supreme Court;
  • Reducing vacation periods by 10–21 days;
  • Filling judicial vacancies promptly to ease workload.
• Legislative and Procedural Reforms:
  • Arbitration and Conciliation Act (2015 & 2019): Introduced timelines for dispute resolution;
  • Commercial Courts Act (2018): Mandated pre-institution mediation;
  • Negotiable Instruments Act (2018): Allowed summary trials for cheque bounce cases;
• Proposal to Split the Supreme Court: The Tenth and Eleventh Law Commissions proposed dividing the Supreme Court into:
  • A Constitutional Division for fundamental rights and constitutional matters;
  • A Legal Division for routine appeals.
• E-Courts and Digital Tools: The Supreme Court has expanded e-filing, virtual hearings, and Electronic Case Management Tools (ECMTs).
  • These platforms help judges and lawyers track case status, access documents, and reduce procedural delays.
• National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG): It offers transparency and analytics but needs stronger integration with case management systems.
• Government’s Prompt Action: Recent months have seen the government approve Collegium recommendations swiftly, often within 48 hours.
• Summer Recess Turned into Working Days: Chief Justice BR Gavai converted the traditional summer vacation into ‘partial working days’.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• India’s pursuit of technological independence has become a strategic imperative, as digital sovereignty increasingly aligns with national security.

Need for Technological Autonomy in India

• Technological autonomy refers to a nation’s capacity to innovate, manufacture, and maintain critical technologies without excessive reliance on foreign entities.
  • It encompasses sectors like defense, healthcare, energy, digital infrastructure, and advanced manufacturing.
• The strategic autonomy in foreign policy is increasingly intertwined with technological independence.
  • Dependence on imported semiconductors, defense equipment, and digital platforms poses risks to national security, as current global dynamics and geopolitics are shaped more by cyber warfare, software, and drones.
  • Indigenous capabilities in these areas are essential to ensure sovereign decision-making and reduce vulnerability to external pressures.

India’s Developmental Journey in Technological Autonomy

• Foundations of a Scientific Nation:
  • The First Five-Year Plan (1951) laid the groundwork for agricultural reform, infrastructure development, and scientific research.
  • Institutions like CSIR (1942), Department of Atomic Energy (1954), DRDO (1958), Department of Space (1972) were established to drive indigenous research and innovation across critical sectors.
  • India enshrined the development of a scientific temper in its Constitution (in 1976), affirming that inquiry, rationality, and humanism were civic duties — a visionary move that continues to shape its scientific ethos.
• Agriculture and Food Security: India’s Green and White Revolutions in the 1960s and 1970s transformed it from a food-deficient nation to one of self-sufficiency.
  • High-yielding crop varieties, mechanization, and indigenous pesticide development — led by CSIR and ICAR — enabled India to permanently reduce its dependence on food imports.
• Space and Strategic Technologies: ISRO’s rise from humble beginnings to launching missions like Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan reflects India’s commitment to space autonomy.
  • The Pokhran nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998 marked milestones in strategic self-reliance, leading to the declaration of National Technology Day on May 11th.
• Health and Innovation: India’s pharmaceutical sector, bolstered by public R&D and private enterprise, now supplies affordable medicines globally.
  • India developed indigenous vaccines and digital platforms like CoWIN, showcasing its ability to respond swiftly and independently to global crises.

Current Government Initiatives

• Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF): It was established as an apex body through the ANRF Act, 2023.
  • It is designed to provide high-level strategic direction for research, innovation, and entrepreneurship across a wide range of fields in India.
• Space Reforms (ISRO + IN-SPACe) encourage private sector participation in space technologies.
• National Initiative on Developing and Harnessing Innovations (NIDHI): To foster a robust innovation-driven entrepreneurial ecosystem.
• SUPRA (Scientific and Useful Profound Research Advancement) Scheme: It supports individual researchers and groups in India for fundamental research with long-term impact.
• TARE (Teachers Associateship for Research Excellence) scheme: It facilitates faculty mobility from State and private institutions to central research centers for hands-on research experience.
• Indian Science, Technology, and Engineering facilities Map (I-STEM): It provides researchers, startups, and academic institutions across India with transparent access to publicly funded scientific equipment and R&D facilities.
• Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan emphasizes indigenization in defense, electronics, and space technology.
• Digital India Programme focuses on digital infrastructure, services, and literacy.
• National Education Policy 2020 stresses research and innovation ecosystems through NRF (National Research Foundation).
• Semiconductor Mission (2021) promotes domestic chip manufacturing to reduce dependency on East Asian suppliers.

Challenges Ahead

• Low R&D spending: India invests ~0.7% of GDP in research, far below global leaders like South Korea (>4%).
• Technology gaps: Dependence continues in semiconductors, advanced materials, and medical equipment.
• Software Sovereignty: India currently lacks a home-grown operating system, database, or foundational software it can fully trust.
• Skilled workforce: A mismatch exists between education and rapidly evolving technological needs.
• Global competition: Rapid advances in AI, quantum computing, and biotechnology demand accelerated efforts.
• Roadmap: Towards a Mission for Technological Independence
• Enhance R&D funding through public-private partnerships.
• Strengthen academia-industry collaboration for translational research.
• Promote indigenous startups in frontier technologies with incentives.
• Data localization and cybersecurity frameworks to ensure digital sovereignty.
• Regional technology clusters for semiconductor fabs, biotech hubs, and AI labs.
• International collaboration with self-reliance – engages globally but prioritize indigenous capacity building.
• Ensure financial sustainability through models that are self-supporting, rather than entirely dependent on government or corporate funding.

Conclusion

• India has the talent, expertise, and resources to achieve technological sovereignty, but it needs the collective will.
• Technological independence demands a national mission, same as political independence requires unity and persistence, one that combines open-source innovation, strategic investment, and a self-sustaining ecosystem.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Recent disasters across Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Jammu & Kashmir suggest that the real accelerant is man-made disruption, while global warming certainly exacerbates environmental stress.

Fragility of the Himalayan Ecosystem

• The Himalayan ecosystem is inherently fragile due to its young geological age, steep slopes, and dynamic weather systems. It features:
  • High seismic activity due to tectonic movements;
  • Rapid erosion and landslides triggered by deforestation and slope destabilization;
  • ISRO reports that glacial lakes in the Himalayas have expanded significantly over the past three decades, with some growing by over 170%—a direct consequence of warming and land-use changes, increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs);
• The IPCC reports confirm that the Himalayas are among the most climate-sensitive regions.
• According to the State of Environment Report by MoEFCC (2021), over 30% of Himalayan glaciers have retreated in the last five decades.
• The National Disaster Management Authority’s SACHET Portal highlights the increasing frequency of landslides, flash floods, and avalanches in Himalayan states.
  • These disasters are often worsened by poor planning and lack of early warning systems.

Recent Devastation

• In August, Punjab faced its worst floods since 1988 as the Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi rivers overflowed, submerging villages.
  • Several people died across Himalayan states due to torrential rains, while Dharali village in Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand, was wiped out by a landslide-triggered deluge.
  • These disasters echo past Himalayan tragedies — the Kedarnath floods (2013) and the Chamoli disaster (2021) — each treated as an ‘unprecedented act of nature’.
• Between 2017 and 2022, over 1,550 lives were lost and more than 12,000 homes damaged in Himachal Pradesh alone due to floods and landslides.

Man-Made Disruptions: Development vs. Ecology

• Unplanned Development: Widespread infrastructure projects, especially hydropower plants, highways, and tunnels, are being built without adequate environmental or disaster impact assessments.
• Deforestation and Land Use Change: Expanding agriculture, urbanization, and hydropower projects cause large-scale deforestation.
  • Forest Survey of India reports highlight that forest cover in some Himalayan states is shrinking due to unregulated construction.
• Hydropower & Infrastructure Development: The push for dams, tunnels, and highways has destabilized slopes.
  • Himachal Pradesh currently has 180 operational hydropower plants, with hundreds more in the pipeline. Uttarakhand has 40 plants running and 87 under planning.
  • These projects, combined with road-widening and tunnel construction, use heavy machinery that destabilizes slopes and amplifies disaster risks.
  • Projects under the Char Dham Pariyojana and rampant tunneling in Uttarakhand increase landslide risks.
• Tourism Pressure: Mass tourism in fragile alpine regions, especially around Himachal, Sikkim, and Uttarakhand, strains local ecosystems.
  • Solid waste, road expansion, and unregulated resorts accelerate degradation.
• Sand Mining & Riverbed Exploitation: Excessive mining of Himalayan rivers reduces water flow, increases flood risk, and disrupts aquatic biodiversity.

Strengthening the Himalayan Ecosystem

• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE): A key mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), it promotes research, policy formulation, and capacity building to sustain ecological resilience.
• National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS): It supports research and pilot projects across themes like water resource management, biodiversity conservation, climate-resilient infrastructure, and waste handling.
  • It aligns with national priorities like ‘Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE)’ and global goals such as the SDGs.

Judicial Intervention & Observation

• Recently, the Supreme Court of India warned that Himachal Pradesh risked disappearing ‘from the map of India’ if reckless development continued.
  • It said that the tunnels along the Chandigarh–Manali highway became ‘death traps’ during rains.
• In September, visuals of tree logs floating in floods prompted Justice B.R. Gavai to warn against sacrificing forests and lives for unchecked development.

Pathways for Sustainable Development

• Development With Context: Developmental projects need to undergo lifecycle, disaster, and social impact assessments before approval, alongside genuine public consultations.
• Eco-sensitive Zoning: Limiting construction on fragile slopes.
• Community-based Tourism Models with waste management systems.
• Hydropower Alternatives: Prioritize micro-hydel projects over mega dams.
• Climate-resilient Infrastructure: Incorporate seismic safety and green design.
• Strengthened Early Warning Systems for landslides, GLOFs, and flash floods.
• Strict land-use planning to prevent unsafe construction.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• The 48th Annual Conference on Oceans Law & Policy (COLP48) was held under the theme “Developing World Approaches to Ocean Governance: Perspectives from the Indian Ocean Rim”.

About 48th Annual Conference on Oceans Law & Policy (COLP48)

• This is the first time in the nearly five-decade history of COLP that the conference is being hosted in the Indian subcontinent.
• The conference is organised by the Stockton Center for International Law, U.S. Naval War College and the Gujarat Maritime University, with support from the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• Organizer: Traditionally organized by the Center for Oceans Law & Policy at the University of Virginia School of Law (USA).
• Objective: To promote dialogue on legal and policy issues related to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), maritime boundaries, freedom of navigation, and sustainable use of marine resources.
• Participants: Government officials, representatives from international organizations (like IMO, ISA, ITLOS), naval/maritime experts, energy and shipping industry leaders, and scholars.

India outlined the five priority areas for ocean governance from a developing world perspective:

• Ensuring livelihood and food security through sustainable fisheries and agriculture.
• Deepening regional cooperation rooted in South-South solidarity among Indian Ocean Rim nations.
• Integrating traditional knowledge and participatory governance with modern science.
• Promoting climate resilience and ecosystem-based approaches to safeguard biodiversity.
• Mobilising innovative finance and building capacity for ocean research, technology, and governance.

Indian Ocean Region

• The Indian Ocean covers approximately one-fifth of the total ocean area of the world.
• The Indian Ocean is bounded by Iran, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh to the north; the Malay Peninsula, the Sunda Islands of Indonesia, and Australia to the east; the Southern Ocean to the south; and Africa and the Arabian Peninsula to the west.

Significance of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)

• Geostrategic Importance: The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean, linking the Middle East, Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
  • It is home to crucial maritime chokepoints — Strait of Hormuz, Bab-el-Mandeb, Malacca Strait, Lombok Strait — which together handle a bulk of global energy and trade flows.
  • The IOR acts as a bridge between the East and the West, making it a central theatre for power competition among India, China, the U.S., and other major players.
• Economic Significance: The region carries nearly 50% of global container traffic and 80% of seaborne oil trade.
  • It is a hub of blue economy activities: shipping, fisheries, seabed mining, and tourism.
• Energy Security: The IOR is the lifeline of global energy flows: oil and gas from West Asia transit to East Asia via its sea lanes.
  • Countries like India, China, Japan, and South Korea are energy-import dependent, making stability of the IOR vital.

Why has the focus on IOR been increased recently?

• Rise of New Economies: India and China’s emergence has revived trade networks in IOR and the region is becoming a new economic growth centre.
• Maritime Security Threats: Piracy (especially near Somalia) threatened global shipping lanes and led to increased efforts to secure Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs).
• Indo-Pacific Construct: The Indo-Pacific combines the Indian and Pacific Oceans into one strategic theatre and highlights the centrality of IOR in shaping new global maritime order.
  • This geographical reimagination enhances IOR’s visibility in global diplomacy and security.
• Implications for Global Order: Control over the IOR can shape:
  • Trade flows (especially oil & gas),
  • Strategic maritime chokepoints (like the Strait of Hormuz, Malacca, Bab el-Mandeb),
  • Military posturing and base logistics.

Challenges in IOR

• Expansion of Chinese Naval Power in IOR: Increased naval vessel deployments in the region in terms of both number and duration.
• Maritime Domain Awareness Activities: Deployment of Chinese research and survey vessels to gather sensitive oceanographic and marine data under the guise of scientific research.
  • Piracy hotspots near the Horn of Africa and in the Malacca Strait threaten shipping.
  • Terrorism, arms smuggling, and trafficking networks exploit porous maritime borders.
• Strategic Port Development Near India: China is actively involved in developing ports and infrastructure in littoral states of the IOR, including those close to India’s maritime boundaries.
  • The objective aligns with China’s long-term goal of becoming a maritime power.

India’s Strategic Responses

• Diplomatic and Security Leadership: India positions itself as first responder in disasters.
• India is a preferred security partner in HADR (Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief), Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA), and development.
• Launch of MAHASAGAR (Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth for All in the Region) reflects India’s strategic rebranding in the IOR.
• India earlier resisted external major powers’ presence, but now embraces partnerships with like-minded countries.
• Naval Modernisation and Indigenous Development: India is modernising naval capabilities:
• Commissioning indigenous warships (e.g., INS Vikrant, INS Visakhapatnam).
• Boosting maritime domain awareness and power projection.
• This strengthens India’s force posture and maritime deterrence in the IOR.
• India’s Response and Regional Diplomacy: India is working with regional partners to raise awareness about the long-term implications of Chinese infrastructure projects.
  • Emphasize the risks to internal and regional security from China’s military use of these assets.
  • India on Militarisation of the IOR: India asserts that Militarisation of the Indian Ocean Region is not desirable and will adversely impact security in the Indian Ocean and the wider Indo-Pacific.
• This reflects India’s stance against military usage of Chinese-funded infrastructure in the IOR.

Conclusion

• For India, the IOR is not merely a neighbourhood but a strategic imperative central to its national security, economic growth, and global leadership ambitions.
• Initiatives such as Act East Policy, Indo-Pacific Vision, and Blue Economy strategy reinforce India’s centrality in the IOR.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• With less than 1% share in global shipbuilding currently, India is on course to be among the world’s top five countries in this arena by 2047.

About Shipbuilding

• Shipbuilding refers to the construction, repair, and maintenance of vessels used for transportation, defense, and trade.
• Shipbuilding is carried out in specialised facilities called shipyards, which are equipped to handle large-scale projects and complex assembly processes.
• Asia-Pacific was the largest region in the ship building and repairing market, accounting for 49% or $118.12 billion of the total in 2023.
• It was followed by Western Europe, North America and then the other regions.
• Currently, India holds only 0.06% of the global shipbuilding market, a stark contrast to the dominance of China, South Korea, and Japan, which collectively control 85% of the industry.

India’s Maritime Sector

• It currently contributes 4% to India’s GDP and just 1% of global tonnage, the vision is to raise its share to 12% of national GDP.
• India has a clear goal of ranking among the top 10 maritime nations by 2030 and among the top 5 by 2047 from the current position of 16th.
• Indian seafarers already represent 12% of the global workforce.
• India has a goal to expand this to around 25%, making shipbuilding and repair central to this transformation.
• The maritime sector handles 95% of India’s trade by volume, underscoring its pivotal role in the economy
• Cargo management at Indian ports rose by 4.45% in FY24, reaching 819.22 million tonnes.

Factors Favouring India’s growth of shipbuilding industry in India

• Strategic location: India’s extensive coastline and proximity to major shipping routes provide a natural advantage for shipyards, helping reduce transportation costs and turnaround times.
• Competitive labour costs: India offers a competitive edge with lower labour costs compared to other shipbuilding nations, making it an attractive option for international clients.
• Focus on niche segments: Indian shipyards are specialising in categories like offshore support vessels, dredgers, and ferries, targeting specific market demands.
• Government support: Policy initiatives such as the Scheme for Financial Assistance to Shipyards in India (SFAS) and a focus on enhancing indigenous shipbuilding capabilities are driving growth in the shipbuilding sector.

Challenges

• Infrastructure Gaps: Inadequate port infrastructure and outdated facilities at some ports, limiting capacity and efficiency.
• Congestion: High traffic volumes at major ports leading to delays, increased turnaround times, and reduced productivity.
• Environmental Concerns: Pollution and sustainability issues, including emissions from ships and port operations.
• Logistics Bottlenecks: Inefficient transport connectivity between ports, roads, and railways, impacting smooth cargo movement.
• Global Competition: Rising competition from other global maritime hubs, necessitates continuous investment and modernization.

Government Initiatives

• Sagarmala Programme: Focuses on leveraging India’s coastline and of navigable waterways.
• Supports port infrastructure, coastal development, and connectivity.
• Financial aid for projects like coastal berths, rail/road connectivity, fish harbours, and cruise terminals.
• Maritime India Vision 2030 (MIV 2030): Aiming for India to become a top 10 shipbuilding nation by 2030 and create a world-class, efficient, and sustainable maritime ecosystem.
  • Includes 150+ initiatives across ten key maritime sectors.
• Inland Waterways Development: 26 new national waterways identified by the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI).
  • Provides alternative, sustainable transport, easing road/rail congestion.
• Green Tug Transition Program (GTTP): Aims to replace fuel-based harbour tugs with eco-friendly, sustainable fuel-powered tugs.
  • Transition to be completed by 2040 across major ports.
• Sagarmanthan Dialogue: An annual maritime strategic dialogue to position India as a global center for maritime conversations.
• Maritime Development Fund: ₹25,000 crore fund for long-term financing to modernize ports and shipping infrastructure, encouraging private investment.
• Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Policy (SBFAP 2.0): Aimed at providing direct financial subsidies to Indian shipyards to help Indian shipyards compete with global giants.
• The Cruise Bharat Mission: It was launched in 2024, aims to develop 100 river cruise terminals, 10 sea cruise terminals, and five marinas, while doubling passenger numbers by 2029.
  • The Indian Ports Act, 2025, replaced an old 1908 law, created a Maritime State Development Council for better national planning, gave more power to state maritime boards to manage smaller ports, and set up a way to resolve disputes at the state level.