General Studies Paper-3

Context

• India possesses a demographic dividend, with over 65% of its population under the age of 35. This latent potential needs to be harnessed and transformed into tangible prosperity.

Role of India’s Youth: From Shram Shakti to Viksit Bharat

• Economic Transformation in the Last Decade: India has cemented its place in the global economic order, rising from the world’s 10th largest economy in 2014 to the 4th largest today.
  • At the core of this progress lies its Shram Shakti (Labour Power), driving growth through resilience and productivity.
• Job Creation and Formalisation: According to RBI-KLEMS (K: Capital, L: Labour, E: Energy, M: Materials and S: Services), while only about 2.9 crore jobs were created between 2004–2014, the following decade saw the creation of over 17 crore jobs.
  • It has been accompanied by a sharp rise in formalisation, as reflected in EPFO data, marking a structural shift in India’s labour market.
• Social Security Revolution: In 2015, just 19% of Indians were under at least one social protection scheme.
  • By 2025, this figure has risen to 64.3% — covering 94 crore beneficiaries.
  • With this, India now hosts the second-largest social security system in the world, a feat acknowledged by the International Labour Organization as one of the fastest expansions globally.
• Demographic Dividend: India stands at a demographic inflection point, with 65% of its population under 35.
  • India’s Yuva Shakti (youth power) provides a unique advantage, unlike ageing economies in the West.

Key Concerns & Challenges Facing India’s Youth

• Education & Skill Gaps:
  • Quality vs. Quantity: While enrollment rates have improved, many institutions struggle with outdated curricula and poor infrastructure.
  • Skill Mismatch: A large number of graduates lack industry-relevant skills, leading to underemployment.
  • Digital Divide: Unequal access to technology hinders learning, especially in rural and marginalized communities.
• Employment & Economic Participation:
  • Unemployment: Youth unemployment remains high, especially among educated urban populations.
  • Informal Sector Dominance: Many young workers are absorbed into low-paying, insecure jobs without benefits.
  • Job Market Absorption: The economy struggles to create enough formal jobs to match the growing youth population.
• Mental Health & Well-being:
  • Stress & Anxiety: Academic pressure, job insecurity, and social expectations contribute to rising mental health issues.
  • Limited Support Systems: Mental health services are scarce and stigmatized, especially in rural areas.
• Civic Engagement & Leadership:
  • Political Apathy: Despite being a large voting bloc, youth participation in governance and policy-making is limited.
  • Lack of Platforms: Few structured avenues exist for young people to express their views or influence decisions.
• Health & Nutrition:
  • Lifestyle Diseases: Sedentary habits and poor diets are leading to early onset of non-communicable diseases.
  • Substance Abuse: Rising addiction rates among youth are a growing concern, especially in urban centers.
• Social Inequality & Marginalization:
  • Gender Disparities: Young women face barriers in education, employment, and safety.
  • Caste & Regional Inequities: Youth from marginalized communities often lack access to opportunities and resources.

Related Government Efforts & Initiatives

• Pradhan Mantri Viksit Bharat Rozgar Yojana (PMVBRY): It was launched in the Union Budget 2024–25. It aims to create 3.5 crore jobs over two years, with an unprecedented ₹1 lakh crore outlay.
• The PMVBRY integrates lessons from Make in India, the National Manufacturing Mission, and Production-Linked Incentives, while adapting to the changing global job landscape shaped by automation and supply-chain shifts.
  • It reflects a shared responsibility of workers and employers in nation-building.
• It ensures transparency and accelerates formalisation, by linking benefits to Direct Benefit Transfer and social security enrolment.
• Special emphasis on the manufacturing sector aligns with national priorities of Aatmanirbhar Bharat (self-reliance) and global manufacturing leadership.
• Dual Focus: Workers and Employers: It reduces entry barriers for workers while mitigating hiring risks for businesses, fostering competitiveness alongside employability.
  • Part A: Direct incentives to first-time employees (up to ₹15,000 in two installments).
  • Part B: Support for employers (up to ₹3,000 per new hire per month).

Other Initiatives & Efforts

• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY): It offers industry-relevant training to youth to enhance employability and livelihood opportunities.
  • It includes certification and placement support across sectors like IT, manufacturing, and healthcare.
• National Youth Corps (NYC): It builds a cadre of disciplined and motivated youth volunteers to engage in nation-building activities.
  • Volunteers support community development, awareness campaigns, and disaster response efforts.
• Adolescence Education Programme: It aims to equip young people with age-appropriate, culturally relevant knowledge.
  • It focuses on life skills, health awareness, and responsible decision-making.
  • It is delivered through schools and youth organizations to promote holistic development.
• Assistance to National Sports Federations: It supports youth athletes through funding, infrastructure, and training.
  • It encourages participation in national and international competitions.
  • It promotes sports as a career and lifestyle among young Indians.
• Padhna Likhna Abhiyan: A literacy campaign involving youth volunteers from NCC, NSS, and NYKS.
  • Targets adult literacy and basic education in underserved communities.
  • Promotes youth-led social change through education.

Way Forward: Towards Viksit Bharat 2047

• Employment is not just an economic indicator — it is the essence of nation-building.
• Pradhan Mantri Viksit Bharat Rozgar Yojana (PMVBRY) is a national commitment to dignity in work and equality of opportunity.
• It lays the foundation for Viksit Bharat by 2047, by enabling every youth to access meaningful employment.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping met on the sidelines of the SCO summit in Tianjin.

Key Outcomes of SCO Summit

• High-level Engagements: Both leaders met and welcomed the positive momentum in their ties.
  • Reaffirmed they are development partners, not rivals; differences must not turn into disputes.
• Border Issues: Leaders noted successful border disengagement in 2024 and maintenance of peace since then.
• People-to-People Ties: Agreed to expand exchanges through direct flights, visa facilitation.
  • Building on the Kailash Manasarovar Yatra resumption and tourist visas.
• Economic & Trade Cooperation: Recognized their economies’ role in stabilizing world trade.
• Multilateral Engagements: PM supported China’s SCO Presidency and Tianjin Summit.
  • Invited President Xi to India’s BRICS Summit 2026.

India-China Relations

• 2025 marks 75 Years of India-China diplomatic ties.
• Historical Tensions:
  • Strained since the 1962 Sino-Indian war, deepened by recent clashes and mistrust.
  • 2020: Post Galwan Valley clashes, India restricted Chinese investments, banned Chinese apps (e.g., TikTok), and halted flights to China.
• Trade Relations: China was India’s second-largest trading partner in FY2024–25. Out of total bilateral trade worth US$131.84 billion, India’s trade deficit increased to US$99.2bn.
• Ongoing Mechanisms: Despite tensions, mechanisms like the Special Representatives (SR) and Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) have been in place to address the boundary issue.
• Recent Developments:
  • 2024 Disengagement: India and China announced successful disengagement in eastern Ladakh.
  • 2024 BRICS Meeting: PM Modi and President Xi Jinping emphasized “mutual trust, mutual respect, and mutual sensitivity.”

Areas of Concern

• Ongoing Border Tensions:
  • The unresolved border dispute spans over 2,000 miles, marked by frequent clashes.
  • Incidents in Doklam (2017), Galwan Valley (2020), and northeastern states (Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh).
• Military Infrastructure: Both countries have heavily fortified their border with roads, railways, and airstrips for rapid troop mobilization.
• Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): India has expressed reservations about China’s Belt and Road Initiative, especially regarding the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which passes through the territory of India.
• Trade imbalance: While politically desirable, reducing trade dependence is complicated by China’s economic influence and India’s need for foreign investment.
• China’s growing presence in the Neighbouring Region:
  • Sri Lanka: China’s presence at Hambantota Port and investments in an oil refinery raise concerns in India.
  • Nepal: China’s investments in infrastructure (e.g., Pokhara airport) challenge India’s strategic position.
  • Bangladesh: China’s growing influence, including loan agreements, threatens India’s regional influence.
  • Myanmar: China’s deepening ties with Myanmar, including the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor, strengthen its presence in India’s backyard.

Way Ahead

• The Tianjin meeting reflects measured progress in restoring stability along the LAC since the 2020 Galwan clash.
• As India and China look to build mutual trust, sustained dialogue will be essential to better align India’s and China’s intentions vis-à-vis the Asian security order.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Recently, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) released its ‘Road Accidents in India 2023‘ report following a Supreme Court’s direction after several delays.

Key Findings of Report

• Surge in Road Crashes & Death: Road accidents in India grew 4.2% year-on-year in 2023, reaching 480,583 cases. These accidents claimed 172,890 lives – the highest ever recorded.
  • The number of deaths rose 2.6% compared to 2022, while 462,825 people were injured – a 4.4% increase.
• Surge in Fatal Accidents: Fatal road accidents increased from 1,55,781 in 2022 to 1,60,509 in 2023, marking a 3.04% growth.
  • These accounted for 33.4% of all accidents, with a fatal accident defined as one causing two or more deaths.
• Who’s Most at Risk?
  • Young Adults (18–45 years): Accounted for 66.4% of fatalities;
  • Working Age Group (18–60 years): Made up 83.4% of total deaths;
  • Two-Wheeler Users: Represented 44.8% of all fatalities;
  • Pedestrians: Nearly 20% of deaths;
  • Children: Over 9,489 lives lost in 2023 alone;

Key Causes of Road Accidents

• Overspeeding (68%): The leading cause of fatalities. Driving beyond speed limits reduces reaction time and increases impact severity.
• Driving on the Wrong Side (5.5%): Includes wrong-way driving on one-ways or overtaking from the left. Often leads to head-on collisions.
• Distracted Driving: Use of mobile phones, eating, or adjusting controls while driving contributes significantly to crashes.
• Drunk Driving: Alcohol impairs judgment, reflexes, and coordination, making it a persistent risk factor.
• Poor Road Conditions: Potholes, unmarked speed breakers, and lack of signage increase accident likelihood, especially in rural areas.
• Vehicle Defects: Brake failure, tire bursts, and other mechanical issues can trigger loss of control.
• Weather and Visibility: Fog, rain, and low light conditions reduce visibility and traction, leading to more accidents.
• Neglecting Safety Gear: Not wearing helmets or seatbelts drastically increases the risk of fatal injuries.

Key Efforts for Road Safety in India

• Road Safety as a Fundamental Right: The right to safe road travel is an essential component of the right to life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
• Bharat New Car Assessment Programme (Bharat NCAP): It provides safety ratings for passenger cars, empowering consumers to make informed decisions.
• Vehicle Scrapping Policy: The government has implemented a vehicle scrapping policy, with 44 Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities operational across 15 states, to remove unsafe vehicles from roads.
• Electronic Enforcement Mechanisms: Speed cameras, CCTV surveillance, and automated traffic enforcement systems have been deployed to improve compliance with road safety regulations.
• Emergency Care Initiatives: The Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019 introduced a cashless treatment scheme for accident victims during the golden hour, ensuring timely medical intervention.
• Targeted Interventions of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH):
  • Rectification of over 5,000 black spots on highways;
  • Mandatory road safety audits to assess risk areas;
  • Stricter vehicle safety norms, including airbags and anti-lock braking systems;
  • Electronic enforcement mechanisms such as speed cameras and CCTV surveillance to improve compliance;
  • District-wide driving training and vehicle fitness centers to reduce accidents caused by unskilled driving;

Global Efforts

• Brasilia Declaration (2015): It defined the urgent measures needed to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’s ambitious target (Target 3.6) to halve road traffic deaths by the end of this decade.
• United Nations Decade of Action for Road Safety (2021–2030): It aims to halve deaths related to road accidents by 2030.
  • It aligns with the Stockholm Declaration (2020).
• World Bank Report (2020): It estimates that an additional $109 billion are required over the next decade to achieve a 50% reduction in road crash fatalities.

Key Committees & Policy Frameworks

• Sundar Committee on Road Safety and Traffic Management (2005):
  • It recommended the creation of a National Road Safety Policy, approved by the Union Cabinet in 2010.
  • It also proposed the establishment of a National Road Safety Board to oversee safety regulations and enforcement.
  • National Road Safety Council (NRSC): As an advisory body under MoRTH, to provide recommendations on policy measures, enforcement strategies, and infrastructure improvements.
• Working Group on Road Safety Education:
  • It focuses on driver training, public awareness campaigns, and school-level road safety education.
  • It advocates for stronger enforcement of traffic laws and integration of road safety into school curricula.
  • Supreme Court’s Committee on Road Safety: District Road Safety Committees for each district in the State, in accordance with The Motor Vehicle Act, 1988.
• It focuses on 4Es viz Engineering, Education, Enforcement & Emergency.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: At the 15th India–Japan Annual Summit (2025), both nations adopted a “Joint Vision for the Next Decade” along with multiple agreements covering economic, security, technological, and cultural cooperation.

• Japan also announced an investment target of 10 trillion yen (₹5.5 lakh crore) in India over the next 10 years.

Key Outcomes of the Summit

• Joint Vision for the Next Decade: Framework across eight pillars: economic partnership, economic security, mobility, innovation, defence, environment, multilateral cooperation, and cultural exchanges.
• Security & Defence Cooperation: Adoption of a Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation, intensifying strategic ties.
  • Launch of economic security initiatives to safeguard supply chains, technology, and minerals.
  • Expanded defence exercises: Dharma Guardian (Army), Shinyuu Maitri (Air Force), JIMEX (Navy).
  • Logistics support under the Acquisition & Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA) has been strengthened.
• Mobility & Human Resource Exchange:
  • Action Plan for Human Resource Exchange enables two-way mobility for 500,000 people in 5 years.
  • 50,000 Indian workers targeted for placement in Japan under the Next-Generation Mobility Partnership.
• Technology & Digital Cooperation:
  • Launch of India-Japan Digital Partnership 2.0, covering AI, semiconductors, quantum computing, and cybersecurity.
  • Joint R&D through India-Japan AI Initiative boosts tech innovation.
• Sustainability & Environment:
  • Cooperation under the Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM)—aimed at low-carbon technology and clean energy adoption.
  • Sustainable Fuel Initiative promotes clean hydrogen and ammonia.
  • Collaboration on wastewater management and renewable energy deployment.
• Space & Minerals:
  • Joint Lunar Polar Exploration Mission brings together ISRO and JAXA for moon exploration.
  • MoU signed for critical mineral resource cooperation.
• Cultural & People-to-People Ties:
  • Programs boost cultural exchanges, tourism, and education.
  • City–prefecture level partnerships deepen subnational ties.

Significance of India–Japan Relations

• Strategic Convergence: The partnership addresses shared concerns about assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific, aligning with the Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) strategy.
• Economic Ties: Japan is the 5th largest investor in India and key partner in infrastructure projects like the Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor and Bullet Train.
  • Industrial Competitiveness Partnership builds resilient supply chains.
• Global Governance: Both countries advocate for UNSC reform, are Quad and G20 members, and support reformed multilateralism.
• Defence Cooperation: Regular joint exercises enhance interoperability, strengthening India’s Indo-Pacific role.

Way Forward

• Expand defence ties with maritime tech co-development.
• Upgrade CEPA to boost bilateral trade.
• Scale up hydrogen, ammonia, and renewable energy collaboration.
• Align skilling initiatives to match India’s workforce with Japan’s demographic needs.
• Promote resilient supply chains, digital infrastructure, and climate leadership in the Global South.
• This summit sharpens Indo-Japanese cooperation for regional stability, shared economic growth, and sustainable progress over the coming decade.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Recently, two Indian ‘aquanauts’ travelled deep into the Atlantic Ocean as part of preparations for the upcoming Samudrayaan Project, under which India aims to send three humans to depths of 6,000 metres by 2027.

About the Samudrayaan Project

• It is a flagship initiative under India’s Deep Ocean Mission, approved by the Cabinet in 2021 with a budget of ₹4,077 crore over five years. Key objectives include:
• Harness India’s 11,098 km-long coastline through a blue economy strategy.
• Explore untapped deep-sea minerals, fuels, and biodiversity resources.
• Protect and secure undersea telecommunication cables, vital for global connectivity.
• Place India among an elite group of nations — including the US, Russia, China, Japan, and France — with deep-sea human exploration capability.
• It operates as part of the Deep Ocean Mission under the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
• India is set to join an elite group of nations capable of manned deep-sea exploration, alongside the United States, Russia, China, Japan, and France with the launch of the Samudrayaan Project.

Matsya-6000: India’s Deep-Sea Submersible

• India’s aquanauts aim to travel in the Matsya-6000, a made-in-India titanium submersible, and designed like a large fish, developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
• Capacity: 3 humans for 12 hours, emergency endurance up to 96 hours.
• Initial Tests: Steel sphere dives up to 500 metres (wet test off Chennai, February).

Key Challenges

• Vessel Development: Precise thickness of titanium alloy sphere is required, and even 0.2 mm deviation in thickness risks collapse.
  • Fabrication involves electron beam welding, with ISRO assisting in the process.
• Life Support Systems: Oxygen regulation and carbon dioxide scrubbing are critical.
  • Equipped with re-breather oxygen systems for emergencies, recycling exhaled air.
• Aquanaut Health: High physical fitness is essential, and limited food and water intake.
• Communication: Radio waves fail underwater, requiring acoustic telephones.
  • India developed its own system, though initial tests struggled with temperature and salinity effects. Later trials in the open ocean confirmed functionality.

Looking Ahead

• The Samudrayaan Project represents a leap forward for India’s blue economy ambitions and scientific innovation.
• India could soon stand alongside global leaders in deep-sea human exploration, unlocking vast resources while strengthening strategic and technological self-reliance with the successful deployment of Matsya-6000.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe) has facilitated the transfer of five technologies developed by ISRO to five Indian companies.

About

• The transfers are aimed at driving commercialisation, strengthening self-reliance, reducing imports, and enabling wider applications of space technologies in sectors such as automotive, biomedical, and industrial manufacturing.

Technologies Transferred

• For Biomedical Use: The Low-Temperature Co-Fired Ceramic (LTCC) Multi-Chip Module, developed by the Space Application Centre (SAC), enables the integration of multiple semiconductor chips into a single, compact module.
  • This has been acquired for RT-PCR kits requiring high-volume production.
• For solar panel bonding: The RTV Silicone Single-Part Adhesive (SILCEM R9), developed by Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), is a room-temperature curable adhesive.
  • It has been acquired for solar panel bonding.
• For industrial use: Another three technologies are transferred to three organisations for industrial use.

India’s share in the Space Industry

• India’s space economy stands at $8 billion, contributing 2-3% of the global space economy, and this is expected to rise to 8% by 2030 and further to 15% by the year 2047.
• With over 400 private space companies, India ranks fifth globally in the number of space companies.

Private players in the Space Industry

• The number of space startups in India increased to nearly 200 in 2024 from just one in 2022.
• The funding received by these start-ups reached a total of $124.7 Mn in 2023 from $67.2 Mn in 2021.
• Skyroot has launched India’s first privately built rocket, Vikram-S, into space, with plans to revolutionise satellite launches.

Regulation of the Private sector in the Space industry in India

• National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe): It is an autonomous and single window nodal agency in the Department of Space for the promotion, encouragement, and regulation of space activities of both government and private entities.
• NewSpace India Ltd (NSIL): Acts as the commercial arm of the Department of Space:
  • Commercialises space technologies developed by ISRO.
  • Manufactures and procures space assets.
• Serves both government and private sector clients on commercial terms.

Significance of the privatisation of the space sector

• Cost Reduction: Profit motive drives private companies to reduce costs in space missions and satellite launches.
• Competition & Innovation: Privatisation introduces competition, enhancing efficiency and fostering innovation.
• Commercialisation: Private players enable space applications in sectors like agriculture, disaster management, urban planning, navigation, and communication.
• Autonomy: Greater decision-making autonomy allows private companies to take on new projects more swiftly.
• Employment & Self-reliance: Privatisation generates jobs, supports modern technology adoption, and helps make the space sector self-reliant.

Challenges

• High Investment Costs: Space technology requires heavy investment, potentially leading to monopolisation by wealthy corporations.
• Specialised Expertise: Building and operating space tech demands specialised technical skills and resources.
• Protecting intellectual property rights (IPR): Safeguarding intellectual property rights is essential to encourage innovation and investment.
• International Competition: Indian private space companies face strong competition from established players like SpaceX and Blue Origin globally.

Steps Taken by the Government

• Space Sector Reforms (2020): The Government allowed private sector participation, defining the roles of IN-SPACe, ISRO, and NSIL.
• Space Vision 2047: Aims for Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) by 2035 and an Indian Moon landing by 2040.
  • Gaganyaan programme has entered its final phase, with the first human spaceflight now scheduled for the first quarter of 2027.
  • Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) first module by 2028.
  • Next Generation Satellite Launch Vehicle (NGLV) by 2032.
  • Chandrayaan-4 by 2027, to collect moon samples and demonstrate return technology.
  • Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM) by 2028, to study Venus.
• Indian Space Policy, 2023: Ensures a level playing field for Non-Government Entities (NGEs) in space activities.
• Venture Capital Fund: 1000 crore fund for space startups under IN-SPACe over the next 5 years.
• SpaceTech Innovation Network (SpIN): SpIN is a one-of-its-kind public-private collaboration for start-ups and SMEs in the space industry.
  • Under the amended FDI policy,100% FDI is allowed in the space sector.
  • Up to 74% (Automatic route) for satellite-related activities; beyond that, government route.
  • Up to 49% (Automatic route) for launch vehicles and spaceports; beyond that, government route.
• 100% (Automatic route) for manufacturing components and sub-systems for satellites and ground/user segments.

Way Ahead

• Private entities are now actively involved in crucial aspects of research, manufacturing, and fabrication of rockets and satellites, fostering a vibrant ecosystem of innovation. It is expected to integrate Indian companies into global value chains.
• With this, companies will be able to set up their manufacturing facilities within the country, duly encouraging ‘Make In India (MII)’ and ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiatives of the Government.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• India’s power sector is grappling with technical and administrative hurdles, compounded by macroeconomic constraints that could shape the nation’s economic trajectory.

About Power Sector of India

• Installed Capacity and Energy Mix: As of mid-2025, India’s total installed power capacity has reached 476 GW, with non-fossil fuel sources contributing 49% of this mix. It includes:
  • Thermal (Coal, Gas, Diesel): 240 GW; ~50.5 %
  • Solar: 110.9 GW; ~23.3%
  • Wind: 51.3GW; ~10.8%
  • Hydro: 46.9GW; ~9.8%
  • Nuclear: 8.8GW; ~1.8%
• Surge in Renewable Energy: Installed renewable capacity tripled — from 76 GW to over 226 GW between 2014 and 2025.
  • Solar power alone grew more than 39-fold, and wind energy continues to expand, especially in onshore installations.
  • India’s target of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 is ambitious but achievable, with over 176 GW of renewable projects under implementation.
• Demand and Future Projection: India’s electricity demand is growing at 7–9% annually, with peak demand rising even faster.

How India’s Power Sector Impacting the Economy?

• GDP Growth and Industrial Expansion: Reliable power supply is essential for manufacturing, services, and emerging tech like data centers and electric vehicles.
  • Industrial and commercial power demand rose by over 3× and 4.5× respectively between 2001 and 2022, reflecting modernization across sectors.
• Employment and Investment: The sector supports millions of jobs across generation, transmission, distribution, and renewables.
  • Infrastructure investments — like ₹6.4 lakh crore in transmission and distribution projects under the National Infrastructure Pipeline—stimulate local economies and create skilled employment.
• Rural Development and Electrification: Universal household electrification has unlocked latent demand in rural areas, improving productivity, education, and healthcare outcomes.
  • Over 2.8 crore households were connected to the grid under schemes like Saubhagya and DDUGJY.
• Energy Security and Trade: India now exports electricity worth over USD 1.5 billion annually, with plans for undersea transmission links to the Middle East.
  • Diversification into renewables enhances energy independence and reduces import bills for coal and gas.
• Climate and Sustainability Goals: India’s commitment to 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 supports its pledge to reduce carbon intensity by 45%.
  • Transitioning to clean energy reduces long-term environmental costs and aligns with global climate finance opportunities.

Major Challenges in India’s Power Sector

• Electricity as a Hidden Tax on Manufacturing: Indian firms effectively pay twice the efficient cost of power, imposing a ‘100% tax’ on production.
  • Half of this stems from distribution inefficiencies, while the other half arises from cross-subsidisation, where industries and commercial users subsidize households and agriculture.
  • Large firms escape this burden through captive power or negotiation, and Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) limit their ability to expand, create jobs, and compete globally.
• Subsidies Shift from Agriculture to Households: Electricity subsidies consume about 1.2–1.3% of GDP.
  • Earlier, agriculture was the main beneficiary, but now households account for nearly half, and parity is approaching.
  • Between 70–85% of subsidies flow to middle-class and rich households.
• Global Stakes: China is rapidly becoming an ‘electro-state’, electrifying its economy with renewables and positioning itself to dominate future industries like AI, electric vehicles, and data centers.
  • If India fails to reform its power sector, it risks falling behind in this global race.

Other Challenges in India’s Power Sector

• Distribution and Grid Challenges: Distribution Companies (DISCOM) have accumulated losses exceeding ₹6.77 lakh crore by 2022–23.
  • DISCOMs suffer from inefficiency, political interference, and chronic bailouts.
• High Aggregate Technical & Commercial (AT&C) Losses: National average AT&C losses hover around 25%, compared to 6–7% in developed countries.
  • These losses stem from outdated infrastructure, theft, and poor metering.
• Fuel Shortages and Supply Gaps: Coal remains a dominant energy source, but domestic production hasn’t kept pace with demand.
  • It leads to underutilization of generation capacity and increased reliance on imports.
• Tariff Distortions: Electricity tariffs are often politically manipulated, with cross-subsidies burdening industrial users.
  • Delays in tariff revisions and differential pricing structures discourage investment and efficiency.
• Low Capacity Utilization: Despite increased installed capacity, actual generation lags due to fuel shortages and unviable Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs).
• Regulatory and Policy Fragmentation: Overlapping jurisdictions between central and state governments complicate reforms.
  • Implementation of progressive policies like open access and subsidy targeting remains uneven.
• Renewable Integration Challenges: While India has committed to 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030, grid modernization and storage solutions lag behind.
  • Balancing intermittent renewable sources with base-load demand is still a technical hurdle.

Key Policies and Reforms in India’s Power Sector

• Electricity Act, 2003: Introduced competition, open access, and consumer protection.
  • Enabled license-free generation and distribution, power trading, and mandatory metering.
  • Established State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) and promoted rural electrification.
• National Electricity Policy (NEP) & Tariff Policy: It laid the foundation for affordable, reliable electricity for all.
  • Tariff Policy (2006, revised in 2016) emphasized cost-reflective tariffs, renewable integration, and efficiency.
• Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY): Focused on rural electrification and feeder separation for agricultural and non-agricultural loads.
  • Strengthened sub-transmission and distribution infrastructure in villages.
• SAUBHAGYA Scheme: It aims to achieve universal household electrification.
  • Over 2.8 crore households were connected to the grid, improving rural productivity and welfare
• Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY): Aimed at financial turnaround of state-owned distribution companies (DISCOMs).
  • Focused on reducing AT&C losses, improving billing efficiency, and eliminating the gap between cost and revenue.
• National Power Portal: Centralized data and analytics for generation, transmission, and consumption.
• One Nation, One Grid: Unified national grid enables seamless power flow across regions.
  • Enhances reliability, efficiency, and market integration.
• Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme (RDSS): Launched to modernize DISCOMs with smart meters, feeder automation, and loss reduction targets.
  • Linked financial support to performance metrics.

Way Forward: Toward an Electricity Revolution

• Breaking the Cycle of Inefficiency:
  • Radical simplification of electricity tariffs, based only on technical factors.
  • Elimination of cross-subsidies, ensuring users pay only efficient costs.
  • Targeted subsidies for genuinely poor households, ending benefits for the rich.
  • Shared transition costs between the Centre and states to finance reforms.
  • Orderly exits for unviable discoms to increase reform pressure.
• India’s power distribution remains one of the last monopolistic bastions of the public sector. Telecommunications reform in the 1990s sparked the IT revolution; similar competitive reforms in electricity could unleash a new wave of productivity and growth.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• India has nearly 63 million people with disabilities (NFHS-5), yet their representation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education remains marginal.
• Despite progressive legislations such as the Right to Education Act (2009) and the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act (2016), systemic barriers hinder inclusion. This contradicts global norms like the UNCRPD (2006) and SDG-4 on inclusive education.

Why Inclusivity in STEM Matters?

• Equity & Potential: Empirical evidence shows disabled students perform at par with peers when given opportunities.
• Innovation Driver: Disability awareness has historically spurred innovation — e.g., optometry for vision correction, Graham Bell’s telephony experiments.
• National Progress: Inclusive STEM supports Digital India, AI, space research, and aspirations for Viksit Bharat 2047.

Barriers to STEM Access

• Policy vs. Practice Gap: India’s National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 envisions inclusive education for all. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016mandates a 4% reservation in government and aided higher education institutions for students with disabilities.
  • Most institutions fail to meet this quota, and even when they do, it’s often not applied departmentally—especially in STEM fields.
• Infrastructure Gaps: Campuses lack accessible classrooms, laboratories, and hostels.
  • Many older institutions have no lifts, ramps, or accessible toilets.
  • The National Building Code (2016) is seldom enforced in new constructions.
• Academic Exclusion: Laboratories are designed with fixed-height benches and inaccessible equipment.
  • Experiments and pedagogy are not adapted for students with visual or mobility impairments.
  • As a result, students with disabilities are systematically discouraged from pursuing STEM.
• Attitudinal bias: STEM disciplines are often deemed ‘unsuitable’ for disabled students.
• Horizontal quotas: Admissions are not tailored to their needs, reducing their chances of entry.
• Lack of assistive technology: Tools that could bridge the gap are either unavailable or underutilized.

Related Government Initiatives

• Scholarship Schemes under the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) offer financial aid for tuition, devices, and maintenance.
• Inclusive Teaching Modules by NCERT and CIET promote awareness and capacity-building among educators.
• Digital Technology for Children With Special Needs, a CIET-NCERT training program, equips educators to use ICT tools for inclusive classrooms.
• Vocational and Remedial Support is provided through initiatives like the Deendayal Divyangjan Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS).
• CBSE’s National Teachers’ Conference 2025 encourages innovative teaching strategies for diverse learners, including those with disabilities.

What Needs to Change

• Accessibility Audits and Investments: Higher Educational Institutes (HEIs) need to conduct regular accessibility audits to identify barriers and invest in infrastructure upgrades.
  • These measures should be seen not as expenses but as essential steps toward inclusivity.
• Technology and Innovation: With modern technology, inclusive STEM education is possible:
  • Speech-activated equipment for mobility-impaired students.
  • AI and sensor-based interfaces to convert visual data into audio or vice versa.
  • Flexible lab designs to accommodate diverse learners.
• Sensitisation and Training: Administrators, faculty, and students require sensitisation programmes to overcome biases and encourage inclusivity.
  • Policies need to be implemented in both letter and spirit, ensuring that opportunities are genuinely accessible.

Way Forward: Inclusive Innovation

• To truly democratize STEM education, India needs to:
  • Invest in accessible infrastructure across campuses;
  • Train faculty in inclusive pedagogy and universal design;
  • Deploy assistive technologies tailored to STEM learning;
  • Ensure departmental-level implementation of disability quotas;
  • Foster a culture of respect and representation in scientific communities.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• In an era of global economic uncertainty and rising protectionism, like the recent U.S. hike on Indian steel and chemical products, India’s tourism sector stands out as a resilient, inclusive, and tariff-proof engine of growth.

About Tourism Sector in India

• Current Statistics (2023–24): India’s tourism sector has rebounded strongly post-pandemic, with both domestic and international travel showing impressive growth:
  • Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs):52 million (2023), up 47.89% from 2022;
  • Non-Resident Indian (NRI) Arrivals: 9.38 million (2023), up 18.9% from 2022;
  • Domestic Tourist Visits (DTVs): Domestic visitor spending ₹14.64 trillion (2023), up 15% from 2019;
  • Foreign Exchange Earnings (FEEs): ₹2.3 lakh crore (2023), up 31.5% from 2022;
• GDP Contribution: About 5% to India’s GDP (Global average of 10%); Countries like Spain and the UAE earn around 12% of GDP from tourism;
• Global Ranking: India ranks 39th in the Travel & Tourism Development Index (World Economic Forum) 2024; Strong performance in:
  • Price Competitiveness: 18th;
  • Air Transport Infrastructure: 26th;
  • Ground & Port Infrastructure: 25th;

Tourism’s Transformative Potential

• Tourism Vision @2047: 100 million foreign tourists by 2047; Focus on adventure, wellness, heritage, and niche tourism segments;
  • Raising tourism’s share of GDP from 5% to 10% over the next decade could:
  • Add $516 billion annually to the economy;
  • Create 40 million new jobs;
  • Boost foreign exchange earnings to $130–140 billion;
• India currently has 1,80,000 branded hotel rooms and 1.5 million unbranded ones. Both categories need to triple to meet demand and keep prices competitive.

Why Is Tourism Tariff-Proof?

• Contrast with Tariff-Vulnerable Sectors: Key sectors like steel, chemicals, telecom equipment, and medical devices are vulnerable to tariffs that can reduce competitiveness, shrink export volumes, and lead to job losses.
• However, tourism, by contrast, is insulated from these risks.
• No Border Duties: When a foreign tourist visits India, they spend money on hotels, food, transport, and experiences—all within India.
  • There are no import/export tariffs involved, making tourism immune to global trade wars or protectionist policies.
• Direct Foreign Exchange Earnings: In 2024, India earned $28 billion (₹2.45 lakh crore) in foreign exchange from inbound tourism.
  • It is not subject to customs duties, unlike goods exports which can be taxed or restricted by other countries.
• Economic & Strategic Value: Tourism supports millions of jobs across urban and rural India.
  • It has one of the highest economic multipliers—every rupee spent by a tourist flows through multiple sectors like transport, crafts, and hospitality.

Related Efforts & Initiatives

• Budgetary Provision: ₹2,541 crore for tourism development (FY 2025–26) for infrastructure, skill development, travel facilitation, and heritage conservation.
• Swadesh Darshan Scheme: Integrated development of theme-based tourist circuits, like Buddhist Circuit, Coastal Circuit, Desert Circuit.
  • Financial assistance to states/UTs for infrastructure and amenities.
  • Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual, Heritage Augmentation Drive (PRASHAD) Scheme: Development ofpilgrimage sites and spiritual destinations.
  • To enhance religious tourism and visitor experience.
• E-Visa Expansion: It is available under 7 sub-categories including e-Tourist Visa; e-Medical Visa; and e-Ayush Visa.
  • It has 5-year multiple entry, 1-year multiple entry, 1-month double entry options.
• Incredible India Tourist Facilitator Certification: Online training platform to create a pool of certified tourist guides.
• Capacity Building for Service Providers (CBSP): Training programs for hospitality and tourism workers. It aims to improve service standards and employability.
• MUDRA Loans for Homestays: Financial support for individuals to start or upgrade homestay businesses.
  • Performance-Linked Incentives to States: Rewards for effective destination management, cleanliness, and marketing.
• Heal in India Initiative: It promotes India as a global medical tourism hub. It includes visa facilitation, private sector collaboration, and upgraded healthcare infrastructure.

Strategic Pathways for Growth

• Develop World-Class Destinations: The Union Budget’s plan to develop 50 destinations in partnership with states is a strong start.
  • Each state needs at least one world-class hub combining infrastructure, sustainability, and branding.
• Streamline Travel Facilitation: Simplified e-visas, shorter immigration queues, and seamless arrivals are essential.
  • With Indian airlines expanding by 1,000 aircraft, connectivity can be leveraged to attract more visitors.
• Leverage Digital Storytelling: The future lies in content-led promotion. By partnering with influencers and global platforms, India can amplify its presence through AI-enabled curation and digital campaigns.
• Unlock Private Investment: Including tourism infrastructure in the Harmonised Master List can catalyse PPP investments in hotels, ropeways, wayside amenities, and convention centres.
• Strengthen Domestic Tourism: The Dekho Apna Desh campaign can be scaled into a national movement.
• With 86% of revenues already from domestic tourism, making interstate travel more affordable will enhance cultural exchange and economic redistribution.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• India has registered 56.75 lakh electric vehicles by February 2025, reflecting the rapid adoption of clean mobility.

About

• Electric two-wheeler (e-2W) sales hit 11.49 lakh units, up 21% from the previous year’s 9.48 lakh.
• The Government of India has set a vision to achieve 30% EV penetration by 2030, aligning with the global EV30@30 initiative.
• India has set its sights on an ambitious green horizon, aiming to slash projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030.
• India also aims to cut the economy’s carbon intensity to below 45% by 2030 and ultimately transform into a net-zero nation by 2070.

What are Electric Vehicles?

• An electric vehicle (EV) operates on an electric motor, instead of an internal-combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of fuel and gases.
• Therefore, such a vehicle is seen as a possible replacement for current-generation automobiles in order to address the issue of rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural resources, etc.

Challenges in Adoption

• High Initial Cost: The upfront cost of purchasing an electric vehicle in India is relatively high compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.
• This cost includes not only the vehicle itself but also the cost of batteries.
• Limited Charging Infrastructure: The availability of charging infrastructure remains a significant barrier to EV adoption in India.
• Range Anxiety: Range anxiety, or the fear of running out of battery charge before reaching a charging station, is a prevalent concern among Indian consumers considering EVs.
• Battery Technology and Supply Chain: India relies heavily on imported lithium-ion batteries, which increases costs and makes EVs vulnerable to supply chain disruptions.
• Consumer Awareness and Education: Many consumers in India lack awareness and understanding of electric vehicles, including their benefits, technology, and available models.

Government Initiatives

• National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (2020) and FAME-I: NEMMP was brought into effect to accelerate the adoption and production of electric vehicles (EVs).
• As part of this mission, the FAME India Scheme (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) was implemented from 2015 to 2019 to encourage the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles.
• FAME II (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles) — Phase II: Launched in 2019, the scheme focuses on increasing EV adoption, expanding the e-bus network, and strengthening the charging infrastructure.
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme for Automobile and Auto Component Industry in India (PLI-Auto): Launched in 2021, the scheme aims to boost domestic manufacturing of Advanced Automotive Technologies (AAT).
• Major players like Tata Motors and Mahindra & Mahindra have stepped up with significant EV production investments.
• A key mandate is that companies must ensure at least 50% domestic value addition (DVA) to qualify for incentives.
• PM E-Drive: The scheme was launched in 2024 and is being implemented until 2028.
• The key objective is to speed up the transition to electric vehicles by offering upfront incentives for EV purchases and encouraging the development of charging infrastructure.
• Scheme for Promotion of Manufacturing of Electric Passenger Cars in India 2024 (SPMEPCI): To draw global automakers to invest, the scheme grants approved applicants a five-year window to import Completely Built-in Units (CBUs) of electric four-wheelers (e-4W) valued at a minimum CIF (Cost, Insurance, and Freight) of USD 35,000 at a significantly reduced customs duty of 15%.
• India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI): NITI Aayog unveiled the India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI) in 2025. It is designed to track, measure, and compare how States and Union Territories are progressing on their electric mobility ambitions.
• Based on these results, regions are ranked as frontrunners with thriving ecosystems; Delhi, Maharashtra, and Chandigarh are leading as ‘Frontrunners’ in the recent IEMI score.

Suggestions by NITI Aayog

• Moving from incentives to Mandates: Announce a clear policy, with target timelines, for Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) adoption.
  • Design a progressively more stringent plan for mandating the production and purchase of EVs and disincentivising the continued use/production of ICE vehicles.
• Saturation instead of thin distribution: Design and start a saturation program to support 5 cities over 5 years.
  • Have entities in the States to manage this program.
  • Scale up to 20 cities and then to 100 cities.
• Enable financing for e-Buses and e-Trucks: Create a pooled fund with contributions from the public budget and multilateral institutions.
  • Design and launch an appropriate scheme to channel the funds.
• Scale up research for new battery technologies: Set up an academia-industry-government partnership for accelerating research on new battery chemistries.