General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Union Government told the Supreme Court that criminalizing non-consensual sexual acts within marriage as ‘rape’ could disrupt conjugal relationships and destabilize the institution of marriage.

Background

• The Union government was responding to several public interest litigation petitions seeking to strike down Exception 2 of Section 375 of Indian Penal Code (IPC).
• The provision excludes non-consensual sexual intercourse by a husband with his wife, if the latter is over 15 years of age, from the definition of ‘rape’.

Arguments For Criminalising Marital Rape

• Marriage is not a license: A marriage should not be viewed as a license for a husband to forcibly rape his wife with impunity.
• Article 21 of Indian Constitution: A woman is entitled to refuse sexual relations with her husband as the right to bodily integrity and privacy is an intrinsic part of Article 21 of the Constitution.
• In the State of Karnataka v. Krishnappa, the Supreme Court held that sexual violence apart from being a dehumanizing act is an unlawful intrusion of the right to privacy and sanctity of a female.
• Article 14 of Indian Constitution: Indian women deserve to be treated equally under article 14 and an individual’s human rights do not deserve to be ignored by anyone, including by their spouse.
• Human Rights Perspective: International human rights treaties like CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women), to which India is a signatory, advocate for the criminalization of all forms of sexual violence, including within marriage.
• Global Precedent: Many countries have already criminalized marital rape, recognizing it as a form of sexual violence. India, being a progressive democracy, should align with global standards on protecting women’s rights.

Arguments Against Criminalising Marital Rape

• Destabilize marriage as an institution: It may create absolutely anarchy in families and destabilize the institution of marriage.
• Misuse of law: It may become an easy tool for harassing the husbands by misusing the law similar to the growing misuse of section 498A (harassment caused to a married woman by her husband and in-laws) of the IPC.
• Implementation issues: Criminalizing marital rape will create issues like veracity of testimony, evidences in the courts etc.
• The Ministry of Home Affairs argued that being married does not take away a woman’s right to give or refuse consent. There are other laws in place to protect a woman’s consent within marriage under Indian Penal Code (IPC).
• Section 354: Punishes assault or force used to outrage a woman’s modesty.
• Section 354A: Deals with sexual harassment.
• Section 354B: Punishes assault or force used with the intent to disrobe a woman.
• Section 498A: Addresses cruelty by a husband or his relatives.

Way Ahead

• The continuous exemption of marital rape from the purview of criminal law sustains the assumption of the wife as exclusive property of the husband.
• While protecting the institution of marriage is important, laws must also ensure that women’s autonomy and consent are upheld.
• However merely criminalizing marital rape may not stop it as “moral and social awareness” plays a vital role in stopping such an act.
• India could look to global examples where marital rape has been criminalized, and learn from their approaches to implementing the law while minimizing misuse and ensuring justice.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The government has launched the PM E-DRIVE Scheme, for faster adoption of electric vehicles

• By setting up of charging infrastructure and development of EV manufacturing ecosystem in India.

About PM E-DRIVE Scheme

• The scheme shall be implemented from October 1, 2024 to March 31, 2026.
• The EMPS-2024 (Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme) is being subsumed under the PM E-DRIVE scheme.
• Subsidy: The subsidy under the scheme for electric two-wheelers has been fixed based on battery power at Rs 5,000 per kilowatt hour but the overall incentive will not exceed Rs 10,000 in the first year.
• In the second year, it will be halved by Rs 2,500 per kilowatt hour, and the overall benefit will not exceed Rs 5,000.
• Three-wheelers, including e-rickshaws, will get a demand incentive of Rs 25,000 in the first year, which will be halved to Rs 12,500 in the second year.
• For the L5 category (cargo three-wheelers), they will get a benefit of Rs 50,000 in the first year, and for the second year, it is Rs 25,000.
• e-Vouchers: Ministry of Heavy Industries is introducing e-vouchers for EV buyers to avail demand incentives under the scheme.
• One vehicle per Aadhaar will be allowed. As soon as the vehicle is sold, e-voucher will be generated.
• The signed e-voucher will be essential for OEM (original equipment manufacturer) to claim reimbursement of demand incentives under the scheme.
• Charging Stations: The scheme addresses range anxiety of EV buyers by promoting in a big way the installation of electric vehicle public charging stations (EVPCS).
• These EVPCS shall be installed in select cities with high EV penetration and also on selected highways.

What are Electric Vehicles?

• An electric vehicle (EV) is one that operates on an electric motor, instead of an internal-combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of fuel and gases.
• Therefore, such a vehicle is seen as a possible replacement for current-generation automobiles, in order to address the issue of rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural resources, etc.

Benefits of the Electric Vehicles:

• Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are significantly more efficient than internal combustion engines, converting a higher percentage of the energy from the grid into vehicle movement.
• Lower Operating Costs: The running cost of an electric vehicle is much lower than an equivalent petrol or diesel vehicle.
• Environmental Impact: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, which helps reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
• Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: EVs decrease reliance on finite fossil fuels like oil and gas, promoting energy independence and reducing vulnerability to fluctuations in fuel prices and supply disruptions.
• Health Benefits: By reducing air pollution, EVs can have positive impacts on public health, potentially reducing the incidence of respiratory illnesses and other health problems associated with poor air quality.

India’s Electric Vehicle Policy

• Aim: To facilitate smooth growth in the sector and achieve the ambitious target of having EV sales penetration of 30% of private cars, 70% of commercial cars, 40% of buses and 80% of two and three-wheelers by 2030.
• National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP): The NEMMP was launched in 2013 with the goal of achieving national fuel security by promoting hybrid and electric vehicles.
• FAME India Scheme: The Faster Adoption and Manufacture of Electric Vehicles (FAME) India scheme was launched in 2015 to promote the manufacturing and adoption of EVs.
• GST Reduction: The Indian government has reduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) on electric vehicles from 12% to 5%, making EVs more affordable for consumers.
• Charging Infrastructure: The government is working on expanding the charging infrastructure across the country to address range anxiety and encourage EV adoption.
• Incentives for Manufacturers: In addition to incentives for consumers, the government provides subsidies and incentives to manufacturers to promote domestic production of EVs and their components.
• Battery Swapping Policy: To address concerns about battery charging infrastructure and range limitations, the government is exploring the possibility of implementing battery swapping stations where EV owners can quickly exchange depleted batteries for fully charged ones.
• PLI Scheme for National Programme on Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) Battery Storage was launched in 2021 to enhance India’s manufacturing capabilities for the manufacture of ACC.

Challenges in Adoption

• High Initial Cost: The upfront cost of purchasing an electric vehicle in India is relatively high compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.
• Limited Charging Infrastructure: The availability of charging infrastructure remains a significant barrier to EV adoption in India.
• Range Anxiety: Range anxiety, or the fear of running out of battery charge before reaching a charging station, is a prevalent concern among Indian consumers considering EVs.
• Battery Technology and Supply Chain: India relies heavily on imported lithium-ion batteries, which increases costs and makes EVs vulnerable to supply chain disruptions.
• Consumer Awareness and Education: Many consumers in India lack awareness and understanding of electric vehicles, including their benefits, technology, and available models.
• Socioeconomic Factors: Socioeconomic factors such as income levels, consumer preferences, and infrastructure disparities across different regions of India influence the adoption of electric vehicles.

Way Ahead

• India has been actively seeking to secure lithium resources to meet the growing demand for lithium-ion batteries, particularly in the context of electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage.
• States like Telangana are also aspiring to become the EV manufacturing hub of India.
• India also aims to exploit lithium deposits in places like Jammu and Kashmir.
• The government has been promoting the adoption of electric vehicles to address environmental concerns and reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
• Securing a reliable supply of lithium is crucial for the development and growth of the electric vehicle industry in India.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Rising tensions between Israel and Iran are escalating concerns about a regional crisis in the Middle East and posing significant risks to India’s economic stability.

Background

• The Israel and Iran conflict has reached new heights recently with Israel’s strikes on Hezbollah’s military infrastructure in Lebanon, culminating in the killing of key Hezbollah figures.
• Hezbollah, closely aligned with Iran, retaliates on Israel, increasing the likelihood of a broader regional conflict.
• The involvement of Iran-backed Houthi rebels in Yemen further complicates the situation, particularly for global trade routes.

Implications on India

• Disruption in Trade Routes: A full-blown conflict could disrupt the crucial Red Sea shipping route, impacting global trade.
• In August 2024, Indian exports fell by 9%, largely due to the Red Sea crisis, with petroleum exports dropping by 38%.
• Indian exporters, especially in petroleum products, are facing increased shipping costs and reduced profitability, particularly in Europe, which accounts for 21% of India’s petroleum exports.
• Energy Security Risks: India relies heavily on Middle Eastern oil and gas imports, despite increased purchases from Russia. A war could disrupt key shipping routes like the Strait of Hormuz and the Red Sea.
• The Strait of Hormuz is a critical choke point for LNG from Qatar and oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Any disruption here could severely affect India’s energy flows.
• Impact on Oil Prices: A full-scale conflict would likely drive up global crude oil prices, increasing inflation in India.
• A $10 increase in oil prices could push up India’s current account deficit by 0.3% of GDP, adding pressure on the economy.
• Longer Trade Routes: Disruptions in the Suez Canal and the Red Sea have forced ships to detour around the Cape of Good Hope, increasing shipping costs by 15-20%.
• This has particularly impacted labor-intensive industries such as textiles and engineering products in India, which rely on high-volume, low-margin exports.
• Effect on India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC): The conflict could hinder the development of IMEC, a critical project aimed at enhancing connectivity and trade between India and Europe.

Silver Linings

• Neutrality of GCC Countries: Despite the conflict, major Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries like Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, and Qatar remain uninvolved, helping to keep trade with India relatively stable.
• India’s trade with GCC countries increased by 17.8% between January and July 2024. Exports to Iran also grew by 15.2% during this period.

Way Ahead

• India needs to develop alternative trade routes and strategies to mitigate the risks posed by this conflict.
• Building stronger ties with neutral players and diversifying energy imports will be crucial in maintaining economic stability during these uncertain times.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The creative economy in India, encompassing artisans, weavers, and traders, faces unique challenges despite its potential, as highlighted by the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI).

• Artisans struggle with bureaucratic hurdles like GST filing and e-way bills, exacerbated by illiteracy and lack of access to proper legal and financial support. Many are leaving their crafts, leading to a decline in traditional arts.

Creative Economy

• It encompasses economic, cultural, and social aspects that interact with technology, intellectual property, and tourism. It’s a vibrant mix of knowledge-based activities that contribute to economic growth and development.
• It is the contribution made to the economic and cultural value chain by economic activities that involve formally or informally acquired knowledge and embody a substantive amount of original ideas, skills, imagination, or social behaviours that are non-repetitive and are adaptive to technological change and mechanisation.
• According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the creative economy is seen as an evolving concept that builds on the ‘interplay between human creativity and ideas and intellectual property, knowledge and technology’.
• It is a powerful force for transformation, and is driven by human creativity and innovation. The United Nations calls it the ‘Orange Economy’.

World and Creative Economy

• Recently, the Creative Economy Outlook 2024 of UNCTAD revealed Creative Economy’s diverse impact across countries, ranging from 0.5% to 7.3% of GDP and employing between 0.5% to 12.5% of the workforce.
• Growth in Creative Services: Over the past decade, creative services’ share of all service exports rose from 12% to 19%, while creative goods’ share of all goods exports remained steady around 3% since 2002.
  • Developing countries are increasingly exporting creative goods, with their share growing from 10% in 2010 to 20% in 2022.
• The most exported creative services include software services, research and development, advertising, market research, and architecture.
• Globally, it generates annual revenues exceeding $2 trillion and provides employment for nearly 50 million people.

India and Creative Economy

• India’s creative economy — measured by the number of people working in various creative occupations — is estimated to contribute nearly 8% of the country’s employment, much higher than the corresponding share in Turkey (1%), Mexico (1.5%), South Korea (1.9%) and even Australia (2.1%).
  • Yet, according to UNCTAD, India’s creative exports are only one-tenth of those of the People’s Republic of China.
• Creative occupations pay reasonably well — 88% higher than the non-creative ones and contribute about 20% to the nation’s overall GVA.
• According to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, ‘the domestic apparel and textile industry contributes 2.3% to the country’s GDP and 12% to exports’.
  • Creative exports surged by 20% last year, crossing the $11 billion mark, and are expected to achieve ‘$250 billion textiles production and $100 billion exports by 2030’.
• Out of the top ten creative districts in India, six are non-metros — Badgam (J&K), Panipat (Haryana), Imphal (Manipur), Sant Ravi Das Nagar (Uttar Pradesh), Thane (Maharashtra), and Tirupur (Tamil Nadu) — indicating the diversity and depth of creativity across India.
  • Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities are now vibrant hubs for artistic expression.

Untapped Potential

• According to the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), ‘India’s creative economy is large, but its untapped potential is even larger’.
• Handicrafts Sector: Employing over 6.8 million people, this sector contributes significantly to India’s creative landscape.
• Handloom Sector: With more than 3.5 million employees, handloom weaving is an integral part of our heritage.
• Allied Workers: Over 2.5 million people work in related fields.
• Exports: Handicraft exports alone exceeded $1,800 million during the last financial year.

Associated Challenges

• Self-Organization and Unorganized Spaces: Many creative sectors operate in a self-organised or even unorganised manner. While they function, they do so with limitations.
• Everyday Hassles: Stakeholders in the creative economy face seemingly minor yet impactful issues. For instance:
  • GST Impact: In 2017, the introduction of the Goods & Services Tax (GST) led to a 5% tax on cotton and yarn. Weavers across the country felt the pinch as work dried up.
• Ageing Artisans: Most artisans are now elderly, and their children are either migrating to cities or opting for other professions like driving or mechanics.
• Digital Divide: India has a significant digital divide, especially between rural and urban areas. According to the latest National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) data, only 24% of rural Indian households have access to the internet, compared to a 66% penetration in cities.
  • Furthermore, 14% of rural citizens actively use the Internet, in contrast to 59% of urban adoption.

Key Initiatives

• Recently the Union Government introduced the ‘All India Initiative on Creative Economy (AIICE)’ with the aim to bring together India’s vibrant creative industries, allowing them to collaborate, innovate, and thrive in the ever-evolving landscape of the creative economy.
• National Creators Award: It recognises such impactful voices across 20+ categories and awards them.
• Zonal Cultural Centers: There are seven centres in India that promote and preserve the country’s cultural heritage that aim to:
  • Develop Indian culture in various regions
  • Promote national unity through cultural integration
  • Promote fine arts, dance, drama, music, theatre, crafts, and related forms of creative expression
• UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN): It was created to promote cooperation among cities that have identified creativity as a strategic factor for sustainable urban development.
  • It now includes 350 cities in over a hundred countries.
  • UNESCO listed Kozhikode, Gwalior, Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad, Varanasi, Jaipur, and Srinagar to the Creative Cities Network (UCCN).

Role of Emerging Technologies on the Creative Economy

Emerging technologies — such as artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and blockchain — are reshaping the working culture of artisans, weavers, and traders.

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is revolutionising value chains for creative content. Machine learning algorithms analyse vast datasets, allowing computers to recognize patterns and learn new actions without explicit programming.
2. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR): These immersive technologies enhance user experiences. In the creative economy, AR and VR can transform storytelling, art exhibitions, and entertainment.
3. Blockchain technology: It provides transparency, security, and traceability. In the creative economy, it can revolutionise intellectual property management, copyright, and royalty payments.

Call for Formalisation of Creative Economy

• Recognising the above challenges, some voices within the creative community advocate for formalisation. By bringing various sectors under one umbrella term, it can address their issues more effectively. It could mean:
  • Raise Awareness: Shine a spotlight on the struggles faced by artisans, weavers, and traders.
  • Advocate for Policy Changes: Push for reforms that protect their interests.
  • Foster Collaboration: Encourage cross-sectoral partnerships and knowledge exchange.
  • Preserve Heritage: Ensure that age-old crafts don’t fade away like sepia photographs.
• Creative Economy needs ‘Policy Support’, considering the unique needs of artisans, weavers, and traders; and ‘Training Programs’ to enhance skills and adapt to changing market dynamics; along with facilitating ‘better access to markets’, both domestic and international.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• To develop the creative economy to realise its full potential, Indian policymakers would like to:
  • Increase the recognition of Indian culture globally;
  • Facilitate human capital development among its youth;
  • Address the bottlenecks in the Intellectual Property (IP) framework;
  • Improve access to finance; and
  • Streamline the process of policymaking by establishing one intermediary organisation.
• India, with its vibrant creative ecosystem, is also embracing digital transformation. The adoption of emerging technologies opens avenues for content production, distribution, and monetisation.
• Cloud computing, AI, and e-commerce platforms empower Indian businesses, making them more efficient and productive. Moreover, India’s digital transformation could lead to a five-fold increase in economic value by 2025.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Given the rising levels of inequality and disparity among the States, it is important the 16th Finance Commission gives intra-State disparities as much importance as inter-State disparities.

Understanding Regional Disparities in Finance Commission Devolutions

• The Finance Commission in India plays a crucial role in distributing financial resources between the central government and the states. Its recommendations impact state finances, development, and governance.
• One critical aspect it grapples with is the balance between equity and efficiency.

Intra-State Disparities

• While inter-state disparities have received significant attention, disparities within states — often referred to as intra-state disparities—are equally important. These disparities can manifest in various ways, such as differences in income, infrastructure, and access to public services.
• It extends to institutional capacities, healthcare facilities, education, and more. As a result, a development-disparity paradigm emerges, leaving certain regions lagging behind.
• Uneven Landscape: Within a state, there’s often a stark asymmetry between the capital city and its peripheral districts. For example, Bangalore for Karnataka and Mumbai in Maharashtra etc.
  • The capital tends to hog the lion’s share of government expenditure, while the other districts remain comparatively neglected.
• These intra-state disparities can have far-reaching consequences for development, social harmony, and overall well-being.
• Addressing them becomes politically crucial, especially given the rise of neoliberalism and the institutionalisation of fiscal discipline.

Consequences

• Neglected districts breed resentment. When people feel left behind, their grievances find expression — sometimes in the form of violence.
• Districts lying along India’s red corridor, spanning states like Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha are affected by Left-wing extremism (LWE).
• These districts constitute the bottom rung of our developmental pyramid. Their sense of neglect, whether real or perceived, has fueled Maoist insurgency.

Neglected Districts

• An earlier study by the 12th Finance Commission highlighted shocking disparities in government expenditure across five Hindi-belt states and West Bengal.
• For instance, the per capita health expenditure in Arwal district was a mere ₹14, while in Patna district, it stood at ₹ Similar disparities existed across other states as well.
• Unfortunately, without effective equalisation measures, these disparities persist.

Role of Finance Commission

• It plays a crucial role in resource allocation. Traditionally, the FC has followed principles of equity, equalisation, and efficiency.
• When determining the inter-se share of individual states, equalisation—aiming to address inter-state disparities — has been a dominant factor.
• The income distance criterion, which considers how far a state’s per capita income lags behind the highest-per-capita income state, guides these transfers. But this approach doesn’t account for intra-state disparities.

Equity vs. Efficiency

• The tension between equity (fairness) and efficiency (resource optimisation) lies at the heart of Finance Commission deliberations.
• Successive Finance Commissions need to trade-off both equity and efficiency in a system that prioritises resource management efficiency over social justice.

Norm-Based Equalisation

• Over the years, the concept of ‘equalisation’ has gained prominence. The objective is to equalise basic services across states at an average level.
• The 12th Finance Commission, for instance, aimed to achieve both equity and efficiency within a framework of fiscal consolidation.
• However, critics argue that norm-based approaches sometimes fail to address regional disparities effectively.

Rural and Urban Local Bodies

• In the three-tier system of governance in India, the weakest link has always been the last tier of the Rural and Urban Local Bodies.
• There are about 250,000 and 5,000 Rural and Urban Local Bodies respectively in India, which are institutions of political participation and governance at the grassroots level.
• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments legitimise their authority and mandated the constitution of the State Finance Commission (SFC) by every State to recommend devolution of State resources to the local bodies, just as the Union Finance Commision recommends devolution of Central resources to the States.
  • However, these local bodies are beset with many structural weaknesses due to lack of capacity, skill and resources.
• Most States have now constituted their SFCs, but in the absence of relevant data on income and other backwardness parameters, there is no equalisation criteria in the transfers recommended by them.

Way Forward: A Call for Intra-State Equity

• Given the rising levels of inequality and disparity, it’s high time that intra-state disparities receive as much attention as their inter-state counterparts.
  • The 16th Finance Commission should consider mechanisms to address these gaps within states.
• It needs to consider allocating resources not just based on income distance but also with an eye toward levelling the playing field within states.
• Understanding and addressing both inter-state and intra-state disparities are essential for effective finance commission devolutions.
• Balancing equity and efficiency remain a delicate task—one that requires thoughtful policy design and a keen awareness of regional nuances.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The recent tragic deaths of two young female workers underscore the importance of addressing workplace stress and toxicity. These incidents highlight the urgent need to create an environment that prioritises employee well-being.

About the Women Workforce in India

• The participation of women in the workforce is a critical indicator of a nation’s economic health and social progress.
• In India, the female labour force has been a subject of extensive research and policy discussions.
• According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO), the estimated Worker Population Ratio (WPR) for women aged 15 years and above was 28.7% in 2019-20.
• However, the latest PLFS report shows an increasing trend in the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) for women, which was 32.8% in 2021-22.
  • However, this rate is still lower than the global average of 47% and significantly lower than countries like China, which has a female LFPR of 60%. It remains lower than some of its neighbours in South Asia such as Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.

Opportunities For Women in the Job Market

• The career opportunities for women in India are on the rise.
• India’s female labour force participation rate has been on a downtrend, declining from 32.0% in 2005 to 19.2% as of 2021.
  • However, the potential for women in the job market in India is immense and largely untapped.
• Emerging Opportunities: The gig and platform economy offers flexibility and freelancing jobs. Women form a very large proportion of this segment.
• Sectors with Potential: According to United Nations Women estimates, women make up a significant proportion of all healthcare workers and more than 80% of nurses and midwives.
  • Women also form a significant proportion of the workforce in the education sector in India, especially in primary education and early childhood care.
• The Role of Education: As women with higher education and professional qualifications in India tend to participate more in the labour market, it is argued by experts that greater women’s education will raise their participation rate in the labour market.

Analysing Key Concerns

• Health Concerns: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a significant concern, with India being the world’s largest contributor to CVD deaths in the 15-49 age group since 1997.
  • Hypertension, often linked to stress, remains a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in India.
• Shifts in Employment Patterns: NSSO reveals interesting trends. While agriculture still employs 44% of the workforce, it contributes only 16% to Gross Value Added (GVA).
  • In contrast, services, which employ 31% of the total workforce, provide over 54% of the GVA.
  • This gradual shift from agriculture to services is positive. It reflects rural workers seeking opportunities beyond traditional farming, leading to a more diversified economy.
• Skill Development Gap: India’s formal skilled workforce constitutes a mere 4.69% of the total workforce.
  • In comparison, China stands at 24%, the US at 52%, and Germany at 75%.
  • Bridging this gap requires robust skill development initiatives. The ‘Skill India’ mission aims to enhance vocational training and make our workforce globally competitive.
• Gender Equality and Inclusion: Empowering women in the workforce remains critical. Gender disparities persist, affecting pay, representation in leadership roles, and work-life balance.
  • Companies must actively promote diversity, inclusivity, and equal opportunities for all.
• Technology and Automation: The Fourth Industrial Revolution brings both opportunities and challenges. Automation may displace certain jobs but create new ones.
  • Upskilling and reskilling are essential to prepare the workforce for the digital age.
• Informal Sector and Social Security: A significant portion of India’s workforce operates in the informal sector. Ensuring social security benefits for these workers is crucial.
  • Policies should address issues like gig economy workers, contract labour, and access to healthcare.

Other Challenges

• Societal Norms and Expectations: The root cause of many challenges faced by women in the job market is the patriarchal society, where men are considered to be the breadwinners and women are expected to be the homemakers.
  • Patriarchy: The root cause of low women’s participation in the labour market in India is patriarchy, a social system marked by the supremacy of the father/man in the family, community, and society.
  • This societal construct often discourages women from entering the labour market and confines them to low productivity and inferior kind of work.
• Lack of Equal Opportunities: Women often face a lack of equal opportunities in the job market. It includes limited access to higher-paying jobs and leadership roles.
  • The gender pay gap is another significant issue, with women globally being paid about 20% less than men.
• Career Gap and Rejoining the Workforce: Women often find it difficult to overcome career gaps and rejoin the workforce.
  • This is particularly true for women who take a break from their careers for reasons such as childbirth or caregiving.
• Barriers in Leadership: Women face significant barriers in attaining leadership positions.
  • These barriers can be attributed to unconscious gender stereotypes and biases that often favour men for leadership roles.
• Work-Life Balance: Achieving a work-life balance is another major challenge for women.
  • Women often carry the burden of being a caregiver, which leads to concerns around work-life balance.

Key Suggestions

UN Women’s Enabling Environment Guidelines

• The UN recognises the significance of fostering an inclusive and respectful work environment. UN Women has developed the ‘Enabling Environment Guidelines for the United Nations System’, which focuses on three key areas:
• Workplace Flexibility: Flexible working arrangements allow employees to balance their professional and personal lives effectively. Whether it’s remote work, flexible hours, or job-sharing, these practices enhance efficiency, reduce absenteeism, and promote overall well-being.
• By accommodating diverse needs, organisations can create a more harmonious workplace.
• Family-Friendly Policies: Family-friendly policies benefit everyone, not just women. They address the changing expectations of both men and women, recognizing that caregiving responsibilities extend beyond gender boundaries.
  • Equal parental leave, support for childcare, and family-friendly work practices contribute to a healthier work-life balance.
• Standards of Conduct: Creating a safe and respectful environment is essential. Organisations must actively combat discrimination, harassment, and bias. These standards apply to all staff—from junior employees to senior leadership.
  • By adhering to principles of equality and non-discrimination, organisations can foster a culture where everyone has equal access to opportunities.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• Women’s participation in the labour market can increase at all levels mainly by reducing their burden of unpaid domestic work and care, that can be achieved by reducing the drudgery/strain of work or improving productivity of women’s work; by providing infrastructural support to reduce the burden of their work; by shifting a part of unpaid work to the mainstream economy.
  • It is believed that when women’s participation rate, which is one of the lowest in Asia, increases, it will bring prosperity to the Indian economy.

With concerted efforts and targeted strategies along with a change in attitudes, women can take advantage of these new labour market opportunities. Access to higher education, skill training, and digital technology are the three great enablers in helping India reap the potential of its female labour force.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Supreme Court questioned the effectiveness of the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in controlling air pollution caused by stubble burning in North India.

Background

• Recently the air quality in Delhi slipped into the ‘poor’ category, signaling the imminent arrival of North India’s bad air season.
• The Supreme court criticized the CAQM for non-compliance with its mandate, saying the commission has vast powers, such as closing down polluting industries, but hasn’t fully used them.
  • Also, no specific committee had been formed to address stubble burning, which is a major cause of pollution.

Reason for higher pollution level in winters

• Seasonal Impact: As the monsoon ends, weather conditions like temperature inversion (where warm air traps cooler air near the surface) prevent pollutants from dispersing, causing hazardous pollution levels.
• Sources of Pollution: Pollution in Delhi comes from many sources, such as:
  • Biomass burning for cooking in rural areas.
  • Trash burning and vehicular emissions in cities.
  • Industrial pollution.
  • Stubble burning in nearby states like Haryana and Punjab.
  • Firecrackers during festivals like Diwali.

Concerns with the existing solutions

• Smog Towers: These structures reduce pollution only in a small area and require electricity, which might lead to more emissions.
• Water Guns: These have limited impact on overall air quality.
• Odd-Even Road Sharing: While it reduces traffic temporarily, the long-term effect is minimal.
• Cloud Seeding: This method uses chemicals, such as silver iodide, to create artificial rain, but it can have environmental risks.
  • Water vapor that would naturally fall elsewhere is manipulated, which could cause droughts in other regions.
  • Additionally, chemicals used can accumulate in soil and water, potentially harming ecosystems.

Way Ahead

• Better Coordination: Agencies responsible for transportation, industry, agriculture, and urban planning need to work together.
• The problem of stubble burning requires cooperation between farmers, policymakers, and regulators across state borders.
• Capacity Building: Policymakers, researchers, regulators, and industries should collaborate and critically evaluate solutions that are truly in the public interest.
• Comprehensive Air Quality Monitoring: While cities like Delhi get most of the attention, pollution is also a serious problem in rural and industrial areas. Air quality monitoring should cover all regions.
• Address root cause: Solutions like cloud seeding and smog towers serve as superficial actions. Real solutions need to address the root causes of pollution rather than offer temporary relief.

Concluding remarks

• The scale of the problem demands long-term solutions, but the response has often been characterized by short-term, optics-driven measures.
• India needs a multi-decadal, multi-sectoral effort grounded in scientific thinking and committed to sustained, collaborative action.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Antonio Guterres highlighted the threat of sea level rise to Pacific countries like Tonga, with severe global impacts on coastal communities.

Key Highlights

• Rate of Sea Level Rise: Global sea levels have risen over 20 cm since 1880, faster than any time in the last 3,000 years. The rate of rise has accelerated, with 2023 recording the highest sea levels.
• Unequal Rise: Sea levels are not rising equally across the globe; parts of the southwestern Pacific have seen rates nearly double the global average since 1993.
• Depending on climate action, sea levels could rise 38 cm by 2100 if global warming is limited to 1.5°C, or up to 56 cm with 2.7°C warming. Extreme cases predict up to 2 meters by 2100.

Causes of Sea Level Rise:

• Global warming caused by fossil fuel emissions.
• Thermal expansion as oceans heat up.
• Melting ice sheets and glaciers, particularly in Antarctica and Greenland.
• Groundwater pumping also contributes to rising sea levels.

Impact of Rising Seas:

• Every 2.5 cm of sea rise can result in 2.5 meters of lost beachfront, increased storm surge, and high tides.
• Each centimeter exposes an additional 6 million people to coastal flooding.
• Exceeding 1.5°C warming could lead to irreversible melting of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, significantly raising sea levels.

Vulnerable Regions:

• Low-lying islands (e.g., Fiji, Maldives, Tuvalu) face existential threats. Coastal cities, river deltas, and areas in tropical Asia (Bangladesh, India, China) are also highly vulnerable.
• Global Impact: Nearly 40% of the world’s population lives near coastlines, with major cities like Cairo, Mumbai, Lagos, and London at risk of severe impacts.

Measures

• Reducing emissions to prevent further rise.
• Adaptation strategies such as sea walls, storm surge barriers, and flood-resistant infrastructure.
• Nature-based solutions like regenerating mangroves and preventing coastal erosion.
• Relocating villages in low-lying areas or building floating cities in places like the Maldives and Tuvalu.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India and the Republic of Uzbekistan signed a Bilateral Investment Treaty in Tashkent.

About

• The signing of the BIT reflects both nations’ shared commitment towards enhancing economic cooperation and creating a more robust and resilient investment environment.
• The BIT is expected to pave the way for increased bilateral investments, benefiting businesses and economies in both countries.
• It will increase the comfort level and boost the confidence of investors by assuring a minimum standard of treatment and non-discrimination, while providing for an independent forum for dispute settlement through arbitration.

Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)

• A BIT is a reciprocal agreement between two countries to provide protection to investments made by nationals and companies of one country in the other. It aims to create a favourable investment climate and promote economic cooperation between the signatory nations.
• India’s BIT Framework: India adopted a new Model BIT in 2015, replacing the earlier version from 1993. The new text serves as the template for negotiating future BITs and the investment chapters of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and Economic Partnership Agreements.

Key Features of India’s Model BIT (2015)

• National Treatment: Foreign investors are to be treated equally and fairly, similar to domestic investors, in all matters except in specific sectors where exceptions are mentioned.
• Protection from Expropriation: Limits the ability of the host country to expropriate (take over) foreign investments except for public purposes, in a non-discriminatory manner, and with adequate compensation.
• Fair and Equitable Treatment: Ensures fair treatment of foreign investors, but does not automatically guarantee broader rights like those found in older treaties.
• Full Protection and Security: Investments by foreign investors will be given full protection and security, consistent with the laws of the host country.
• Dispute Settlement: Exhaustion of Local Remedies: Investors must first attempt to resolve disputes within the legal framework of the host country, and only after exhausting all local remedies can they initiate international arbitration.
• Non-Discriminatory Treatment: Ensures protection from discrimination, particularly with respect to domestic investors, and guarantees Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) treatment.

India -Uzbekistan Relations

Historical Ties:

• India and Uzbekistan have centuries-old ties dating back to the time of the Silk Road, where cultural, religious, and trade exchanges flourished.
• The shared heritage between the two nations is evident in the cultural and historical similarities, including influences from Persian and Mughal eras.
• India’s relationship with Uzbekistan grew stronger after the latter’s independence following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Political Relations:

• Strategic Partnership: India and Uzbekistan elevated their relationship to a Strategic Partnership during Uzbek President Shavkat Mirziyoyev’s visit to India in 2018.
• Regular High-Level Visits: Both countries regularly engage in high-level visits to deepen political, economic, and strategic ties. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Mirziyoyev have met on several occasions, underlining the importance of the bilateral partnership.
• Multilateral Engagement: India and Uzbekistan collaborate in various multilateral forums, including the United Nations, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the India-Central Asia Dialogue.

Economic and Trade Relations:

• Trade: India-Uzbekistan trade has witnessed growth over the years, though the potential remains largely untapped. The main exports from India include pharmaceuticals, machinery, electronic products, and textiles, while Uzbekistan exports items like fruits, fertilizers, and raw materials.
• Bilateral Trade Agreement: Both nations have a Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) in place, which protects and promotes investments. They are also working on finalizing a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) to enhance trade relations.
• Pharmaceuticals: Indian pharmaceutical companies have a significant presence in Uzbekistan, and there have been ongoing efforts to enhance this partnership further. India supplies about 25% of Uzbekistan’s pharmaceutical needs. Information Technology: Uzbekistan is increasingly seeking India’s expertise in Information Technology and digital governance.

Defense Cooperation:

• Military Exercises: India and Uzbekistan regularly engage in joint military exercises such as DUSTLIK, aimed at enhancing counter-terrorism cooperation.
• Defense Training: India provides military training to Uzbek armed forces through its various institutions, enhancing capacity-building efforts.
• Security Cooperation: Both nations cooperate on counterterrorism, anti-radicalization, and intelligence-sharing, particularly in the context of growing security concerns in Afghanistan and Central Asia.

Cultural Relations:

• Cultural Exchanges: India and Uzbekistan have vibrant cultural exchanges that focus on arts, music, dance, and yoga. Hindi is also widely taught in Uzbekistan, and Bollywood is extremely popular.
• People-to-People Ties: There is growing interest among the Uzbek population in India’s traditional medicine systems like Ayurveda and Yoga. Uzbekistan regularly participates in cultural festivals in India, and vice versa.

Connectivity and Transportation:

• Chabahar Port: India, Uzbekistan, and Iran are working on utilizing Chabahar Port to enhance connectivity with Afghanistan and Central Asia, bypassing Pakistan. This would open up opportunities for trade and economic engagement between India and Uzbekistan.
• International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC): Uzbekistan has shown interest in the INSTC, a project that aims to reduce the time and cost of transporting goods between India and Central Asia.

Energy and Renewable Resources:

• Energy Cooperation: Uzbekistan is rich in natural resources, and India has expressed interest in developing energy partnerships in areas like natural gas and renewable energy.
• Nuclear Cooperation: Both countries signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement for peaceful purposes, focusing on the exchange of knowledge and technology in nuclear energy.

India’s Developmental Assistance:

• Lines of Credit: India has extended various lines of credit to Uzbekistan to help fund infrastructure projects like road construction, water treatment plants, and renewable energy projects.
• Capacity Building Programs: Through the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program, India provides training and capacity-building assistance to Uzbek professionals in various sectors, such as health, agriculture, and IT.

Challenges

• Geopolitical Concerns: Afghanistan’s instability remains a concern for both India and Uzbekistan, particularly after the Taliban takeover. Both nations are working to address common security challenges.
• Trade Barriers: Despite the growing relationship, bilateral trade remains below potential due to connectivity issues, regulatory barriers, and lack of direct transportation links.

Recent Developments

• India-Central Asia Summit: India hosted the India-Central Asia Summit in January 2022, where both nations reiterated their commitment to strengthen ties, especially in trade, security, and energy sectors.
• Afghanistan Issue: India and Uzbekistan have expressed common concerns over terrorism emanating from Afghanistan and the importance of ensuring that Afghan territory is not used for terrorism

General Studies Paper-1

Context: Heavy rainfall in northern India has caused widespread flooding, landslides, that damage basic infrastructures and food supplies can be tackled using the innovative concept of sponge cities.

Urban Flooding in India

• Urban flooding occurs when built-up areas — such as cities and towns — experience inundation due to heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or other sources of water runoff.
• Unlike rural floods, which typically affect flat or low-lying regions, urban flooding is a man-made disaster exacerbated by factors like unplanned urbanisation and inadequate drainage systems.
• As our cities grow, they alter natural processes, replacing permeable land surfaces with concrete and asphalt, which limits the ground’s ability to absorb rainwater.
• Consequently, surface runoff overwhelms drainage systems, leading to disruptions, property damage, and even loss of life.

Causes of Urban Flooding in India

• Unplanned Urbanisation: Rapid urban growth often occurs in low-lying areas due to rising land prices and limited availability in city centres.
• Unfortunately, these developments often encroach upon lakes, wetlands, and riverbeds, reducing the capacity of natural drains and exacerbating flooding.
• Impervious Surfaces: Roads, buildings, and other impervious structures prevent rainwater from seeping into the ground.
• As cities expand, the natural ability of soil to absorb water diminishes, leading to increased surface runoff.
• Ground Subsidence: The weight of heavy buildings and excessive groundwater extraction can cause ground subsidence, making urban areas more susceptible to flooding.

Sponge Cities: A Nature-Based Solution

• The concept of ‘sponge cities’ originated in China and has gained attention worldwide. These cities prioritise flood management by emphasising green infrastructure over traditional grey infrastructure (pipes and pumps).
• Green Infrastructure: Instead of relying solely on concrete drainage systems, sponge cities incorporate natural elements like plants, trees, wetlands, and permeable pavements. These act as ‘sponges’ by absorbing rainwater, slowing down its flow, and purifying it.

Working

• Permeability: Sponge cities prioritise permeable surfaces. Instead of vast concrete jungles, they incorporate green spaces, parks, and porous pavements. These surfaces allow rainwater to infiltrate the ground, replenishing aquifers and reducing surface runoff.
• Storage and Retention: These cities store rainwater strategically. They create retention ponds, wetlands, and underground storage tanks to capture excess water during heavy rainfall. By doing so, they prevent sudden floods downstream.
• Natural Drainage: Sponge cities restore natural drainage systems. They revive rivers, streams, and wetlands, allowing water to flow naturally. This approach mimics nature’s hydrological cycle, preventing urban floods.

Benefits

• Flood Reduction: By retaining and gradually releasing rainwater, sponge cities prevent flash floods.
• Ecological Biodiversity: Urban parks, green spaces, and wetlands improve biodiversity and provide habitats for wildlife.
• Heat Island Mitigation: Vegetation helps cool urban areas, reducing the heat island effect.
• Water Scarcity Alleviation: Capturing rainwater contributes to water availability during dry spells.

Conclusion

• As India faces the dual challenges of rapid urbanisation and climate change, adopting sponge city principles could be transformative.

By blending nature with urban design, sponge cities can create resilient, sustainable cities that effectively manage water, reduce flooding, and enhance overall livability.