General Studies Paper-2

Context: Social media and digital platforms have transformed communication by enabling mass outreach, empowering individuals, and fueling the creator economy. However, they also amplify misinformation, manipulation, and ethical dilemmas, necessitating a balanced governance framework.

Landscape of Digital Influence in India

• Widening Internet Base: As per the Internet in India Report 2024, the country has 886 million active internet users (8% YoY growth), expected to cross 900 million by 2025. Rural India leads with 488 million users, forming 55% of the total user base.
• Rise of Indic Language Users: Over 57% of urban users prefer content in regional languages, driving deeper digital penetration.
• Third-Largest Digital Economy: State of India’s Digital Economy Report 2024 places India third globally in digitalization and 12th among G20 nations for user-level digital adoption.

Power and Reach of Digital Influence

• Creator Economy: Digital creators influence over $350 billion in annual consumer spending—projected to cross $1 trillion by 2030. Platforms like YouTube, Instagram, and AI-driven short-form videos shape consumer choices.
• Brand and Market Evolution: Influencer marketing is replacing traditional ads. Live commerce, virtual gifting, and paid subscription models are reshaping revenue generation.
• Digital Politics: Platforms are central to political campaigns, shaping public narratives and voter behavior. However, they also fuel misinformation, risking electoral integrity.
• Online Activism: Movements for climate justice, gender rights, and marginalized voices are amplified via digital platforms, promoting inclusive discourse.

Challenges and Ethical Concerns

• Misinformation and Deepfakes: India is among the most vulnerable countries to misinformation (WEF Global Risks Report 2024). AI-generated content and clickbait tactics blur truth and fiction.
• Digital Divide: Marginalized groups face exclusion due to complex KYC norms and poor digital access. The Supreme Court recently upheld digital access as a fundamental right, underlining the need for inclusivity.
• Political Polarization: Unchecked digital influence can deepen societal divides and manipulate democratic discourse.
• Unregulated Influencer Marketing: Misleading endorsements, especially in health and finance, are rising without adequate disclosure or regulation.

Legal and Ethical Frameworks

Constitutional Safeguards:

• Article 19(1)(a) guarantees free speech with reasonable limits under Article 19(2).
• SC rulings assert that free speech excludes misinformation and harmful content.
• Consumer Protection Act, 2019: Holds influencers accountable for misleading promotions; mandates transparency in advertisements.

IT Act, 2000 and Intermediary Rules (2021):

• Sections 66 & 67 penalize harmful content.
• Guidelines require platforms to moderate unlawful content and ensure grievance redress.
• Advertising Standards Council of India (ASCI):
• Provides ethical codes for influencer marketing, though non-binding, with limited enforceability.

Way Forward: Responsible Digital Influence

• Transparent Content Creation: Influencers must prioritize authenticity over sensationalism, especially in health, education, and finance sectors.
• Stronger Regulation and Enforcement: Convert ASCI guidelines into binding norms. Enhance AI-based content monitoring.
• Digital Literacy and Critical Thinking: Encourage users to verify sources, question narratives, and practice responsible sharing.
• Bridging the Digital Divide: Ensure inclusive digital infrastructure and simplified access for marginalized communities.

Conclusion

• Digital influence is both a democratizing force and a source of distortion. Its ability to shape consumer behavior, public opinion, and activism must be balanced through robust regulations, ethical standards, and inclusive digital ecosystems.
• A rights-based, accountable, and transparent framework is essential to harness its transformative potential while mitigating the risks of misinformation and manipulation.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) released the Human Development Report (HDR) for 2025, highlighting India’s progress in life expectancy, education, and income levels.

• It is titled as ‘A Matter of Choice: People and Possibilities in the Age of AI’, and explores AI’s role in shaping future development.

Human Development Index: Current Status

• Iceland (HDI value of 0.972), ranked at the top of the Index, followed by Norway and Switzerland.
  • South Sudan was at the bottom at 193 with 0.388.
• India improved its HDI value from 0.676 in 2022 (133th) to 0.685 in 2023 (130th), remaining in the medium human development category.
  • India’s HDI value has increased by over 53% since 1990, growing faster than both the global and South Asian averages.
• Among India’s neighbours, China (75th), Sri Lanka (78th) and Bhutan (127th) are ranked above India, while Bangladesh (130th) is ranked at par.
  • Nepal (145th), Myanmar (149th), Pakistan (168th) are ranked below India.

Highlights of India’s HDI Progress

• Improved Life Expectancy: India’s life expectancy has risen from 58.6 years in 1990 to 72 years in 2023, marking its highest level since the index began.
  • National health programs like Ayushman Bharat, Janani Suraksha Yojana, and Poshan Abhiyaan have contributed to this growth.
• Advancements in Education: The average years of schooling have increased from 8.2 years in 1990 to 13 years in 2023.
  • Policies like the Right to Education Act, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, and National Education Policy 2020 have played a crucial role.
• Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction: India’s Gross National Income (GNI) per capita has risen over four times, from $2,167 in 1990 to $9,046 in 2023.
  • 135 million Indians escaped multidimensional poverty between 2015-16 and 2019-21.

Key Challenges & Suggestions Made in Report

• AI and Human Development: HDR 2025 argues that AI should enhance human capabilities rather than replace them.
  • It calls for bold policy decisions to ensure AI-driven growth benefits all communities.
• Widening Inequalities: Global inequalities are increasing, slowing human development progress, despite technological advancements.
  • Income inequality reduces India’s HDI by 30.7%, one of the highest losses in the region.
  • Gender disparities continue to affect education, employment, and healthcare access.
  • The report urges inclusive AI policies to bridge the gap between developed and developing nations.

• Three Key Action Areas:
  • Building a complementarity economy where humans and AI work together.
  • Driving innovation to expand human capabilities.
  • Investing in inclusive education, healthcare, and social protection systems.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Centre for Earth Sciences and Himalayan Studies (CESHS) has successfully drilled Northeast India’s first geothermal production well at Dirang in Arunachal Pradesh’s West Kameng district.

About the project

• The Dirang area is a medium-to-high enthalpy geothermal zone (~115°C), with geological features supporting efficient and low-impact drilling.
• The project involves CESHS, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Icelandic firm Geotropy ehf, and Guwahati Boring Service (GBS).
• It is supported by the Arunachal Pradesh government and India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• This marks a major step toward clean, eco-friendly energy solutions in the high-altitude region.

What is Geothermal energy?

• Geothermal energy is heat energy from the earth—geo (earth) + thermal (heat).
• Geothermal resources are reservoirs of hot water that exist or are human-made at varying temperatures and depths below the earth’s surface.
• It taps into the Earth’s subsurface heat for direct heating or electricity generation, requiring medium- to high-temperature resources typically found near tectonic activity.
• Its key advantages are low cost, reliable year-round operation, and the ability to provide steady, dispatchable power—making it increasingly valuable alongside intermittent sources like solar and wind.

Applications of Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal energy serves multiple purposes, including heating and cooling buildings with heat pumps, generating electricity with power plants, and directly heating structures through direct-use applications.
• Geothermal energy can be used for fruit, nut, and meat drying, space heating, and controlled-atmosphere storage—key to improving agriculture and living conditions in high-altitude areas.

Concerns

• Geothermal energy can cause minor earthquakes in seismically active areas due to high-pressure water injection
• Drilling and resource exploration require significant investment, making the cost a barrier.
• Viable geothermal sites are often concentrated in specific regions with active tectonic activity.
• It can pose risks such as land subsidence, water use conflicts, and the release of trace gases if not properly managed.

Suggestions and Way Ahead

• The successful drilling in Northeast marks a major milestone in India’s quest for sustainable energy.
• Geothermal energy can play a vital role in a low-carbon, resilient energy future.
• But it needs continued research, technological innovation, and supportive policies to unlock its full potential
• Public and private sector collaboration will be essential in lowering costs, improving drilling techniques, and integrating geothermal more broadly into energy systems.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India’s Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 protects indigenous communities’ rights, recognizing the rights of indigenous communities and forest dwellers, unlike global conservation policies that restrict human access to protected areas.

About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

• It is officially known as the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
• It aims to correct historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities by recognizing their land and resource rights.
• It ensures that Scheduled Tribes (STs) and other traditional forest dwellers can legally access and manage forest resources while contributing to biodiversity conservation.
• It impacts an estimated 150 million forest-dwelling people, 40 million hectares of land, and 1,70,000 villages.

Types of Forest Rights (FRA, 2006)

• Individual Forest Rights (IFR): Individuals and families have the right to cultivation for livelihood and habitation on forest land.
• Community Forest Rights (CFR): Communities have access to traditional community resources and minor forest products such as bamboo, honey, wood oil, and mahua.
• It includes grazing and fishing rights, access to water bodies in forests, habitat rights for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), and access to traditional seasonal resources for pastoral and nomadic communities.
• Community Forest Resource Rights (CFRR): It goes one step beyond CFR as it offers management rights of the forest to the gram sabha instead of the forest department.

Other Key Provisions of the Forest Rights Act (2006)

• Evidence-Based Claims: It provides a framework for recording and verifying forest rights through Gram Sabhas (village councils).
• It accepts traditional knowledge and oral evidence for claim validation.
• Responsibilities of Forest Dwellers: It encourages sustainable use of forest resources while ensuring ecological balance.
• Protection Against Eviction: It prevents forced displacement of forest dwellers without proper legal procedures.
• It ensures rehabilitation and compensation in case of relocation.

Key Concerns & Challenges

• Bureaucratic Resistance and Exclusion: Many forest officials oppose FRA provisions, fearing loss of control over forest lands.
• Forest bureaucracy often rejects claims, leading to mass evictions despite legal protections.
• Legal Battles and Evictions: The Supreme Court, in 2019, ordered the eviction of rejected claimants, affecting 17 lakh tribal families, though protests led to a temporary hold on the order.
• Conflicts with Conservation Policies: India’s protected-area model under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 has led to large-scale displacement of forest communities.
• Conservation laws often criminalize traditional forest use, disregarding community-led biodiversity protection.
• Slow Recognition of CFRs: Estimates suggest 30 million hectares of forest land could be vested as CFRs, benefiting 200 million people, but progress has been slow.
• As of October 2023, only 2.3 million land titles have been granted, while 4.5 million claims remain unresolved.

Global Efforts for Forest Conservation

• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), introduced at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, is the largest international agreement, with 196 countries as signatories, guiding conservation laws worldwide.
• India, recognized as one of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, has developed legal instruments and governance systems to align with the CBD’s objectives.
• UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007): It was passed to address discrimination against Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs), the declaration affirms their right to maintain and strengthen their institutions, cultures, and traditions.
• Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF): It was adopted at COP-15 in 2022, that promotes the equitable representation of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) in conservation efforts.
• It includes the ‘30 by 30’ target, aiming to protect 30% of the world’s land and marine areas by 2030 while ensuring IPLC participation.

How the FRA Differs from Global Conservation Laws?

• Community-Led Conservation: Unlike laws that displace indigenous peoples, the FRA acknowledges their historical role in protecting forests.
• Studies show that traditional governance systems used by indigenous groups help preserve ecosystems more effectively than state-controlled conservation.
• Legal Recognition of Forest Dwellers: The FRA grants land and resource rights to Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
• It overrides colonial-era laws that declared forests as state-owned land, disregarding indigenous claims.
• Balancing Conservation and Livelihoods: The FRA allows communities to harvest minor forest produce, ensuring economic sustainability while preserving ecosystems.
• Global conservation models often criminalize indigenous practices, leading to forced evictions.

India’s Legal Instruments for Conservation

• Biological Diversity Act (BDA), 2002: It supports documentation and protection of traditional knowledge related to biodiversity. It establishes a three-tier institutional system:
• National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) at the central level.
• State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) at the state level.
• Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at the local level.
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and Project Tiger, 1973: It introduced the protected area model, creating national parks, sanctuaries, and tiger reserves.
• As of February 2025, India has 1,134 protected areas and 58 tiger reserves.
• Scheduled and Tribal Areas: Articles 244 & 244A of Indian Constitution acknowledges the distinct status of Adivasis and other tribal groups, while it does not officially use the term ‘indigenous peoples’.
• Tribal and Forest Rights: The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA), 1996 empowers Gram Sabhas (village councils) in tribal regions with decision-making authority.
• India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAPs): India’s updated NBSAPs outline 23 key conservation goals for 2023, including biodiversity protection and IPLC rights recognition.
• It relies on existing institutional frameworks, limiting the scope for more decentralized, community-led approaches.

Conclusion

• India’s Forest Rights Act sets a global precedent for inclusive conservation, ensuring that indigenous communities remain stewards of biodiversity.
• Strengthening its implementation can further protect both forests and livelihoods, making India’s approach a model for sustainable conservation worldwide.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The India–UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations have hit fresh hurdles, primarily due to the UK’s proposed Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) or carbon tax.

Background

• The India–UK FTA negotiations were formally launched in 2022, as part of efforts to deepen economic cooperation and boost bilateral trade.
• As per data from FY 2023–24, the trade volume between the two countries reached $21.34 billion, an increase from $20.36 billion in the previous fiscal year.
• Presently, goods exported from India to the UK face an average import duty of 4.2%.
• The two sides are now aiming to conclude an FTA, a Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) and a social security agreement termed as the Double Contribution Convention Agreement (DCAA).

Key Demands of India

• India has been pushing for greater market access for its products, particularly in labour-intensive sectors such as textiles, garments, gems, and jewellery.
• India has called for liberalisation of the UK’s visa regime to allow movement of skilled professionals from Information Technology (IT), IT-enabled services (ITeS), and healthcare sectors.
• India has also demanded special provisions for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) and requested flexibility regarding carbon emission standards.

Key Demands of UK

• The United Kingdom is keen on reducing tariffs imposed by India on high-value items such as Scotch whisky, electric vehicles, chocolates, and lamb meat.
• It is also seeking market access in telecom, legal, insurance, financial services.
• The UK is pressing for a sunset clause in the proposed Bilateral Investment Treaty and greater flexibility on issues like data localisation and the recognition of its new carbon tax regulations.

CBAM and India’s Concerns

• The UK’s draft CBAM legislation, effective January 1, 2027, imposes levies on high-emission imports like cement, steel, aluminium, fertilisers, hydrogen.
• The emission calculation will follow the UK’s domestic Emissions Trading Scheme.
• Indian concern: CBAM undermines the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) in climate negotiations.

India’s Response to CBAM

• India has proposed a “Rebalancing Mechanism,” which would require the UK to compensate Indian industries for losses incurred due to the carbon tax.
• India has emphasised that its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), which is based on emission intensity rather than absolute emission levels, is more suitable for a developing economy.

Way Ahead

• To ensure that the FTA benefits are not undermined by non-tariff barriers like CBAM, India must negotiate firmly and strategically.
• India must continue to advocate for the CBDR principle and push for differential treatment in climate-related trade measures.
• Institutional mechanisms like the proposed rebalancing clause and effective dispute resolution frameworks must be built into the final agreement to protect the interests of both the parties.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has notified the Biological Diversity (Access to Biological Resources and Knowledge Associated thereto and Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits) Regulation, 2025.

• The rules are notified to streamline and regulate benefit sharing from the use of biological resources and associated knowledge.

What is Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)?

• ABS refers to the framework through which benefits arising from the use of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge are shared fairly and equitably with the communities that have conserved these resources.
• It is a principle under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• India operationalizes ABS through the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, and its recent amendment the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023.

Key Features of the 2025 Regulation

• Turnover-Based Benefit Sharing:
  • Below ₹5 crore: Exempt from benefit sharing.
  • ₹5 crore–₹50 crore: 0.2% of annual gross ex-factory sale price (excluding taxes).
  • ₹50 crore–₹250 crore: 0.4% of annual turnover.
  • Above ₹250 crore: 0.6% of annual turnover.
  • Entities with turnover above ₹1 crore must file annual statements on resource usage.
• Inclusion of Digital Sequence Information (DSI): DSI now considered part of genetic resources, closing earlier loopholes where only physical materials were covered.
  • It aligns with the outcomes from COP16 of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Cali, Colombia.
• Cultivated medicinal plants are exempted, provided they are notified by the Ministry of Environment in consultation with the AYUSH Ministry.
• High-Value Resources: For resources of high conservation/economic value (red sanders, sandalwood, agarwood and threatened species), minimum 5% of proceeds from auction/sale must be shared.
  • This can go up to 20% in case of commercial exploitation.
• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Applicants for IPR involving biodiversity must disclose the use of biological resources and share benefits accordingly.
• Distribution of Benefits: 10–15% retained by the National Biodiversity Authority.
  • Remaining benefits directed to local communities and claimants through Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs).

Significance of the New Regulation

• Addresses regulatory gaps: It includes DSI which was previously excluded under the 2014 guidelines.
• Transparency: Clear slabs promote predictability for industries like pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and biotechnology.
• Supports cultivation: Encourages cultivation of medicinal plants over extraction from wild sources.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: World Solar Day, as observed on 3rd May, highlighted the transformative potential of solar energy, particularly in agriculture.

About the Agriphotovoltaics

• Agriphotovoltaics (APVs) offer a dual solution for food and energy production by integrating solar panels with farming.
• It maximizes land-use efficiency, allowing crops to grow beneath elevated solar panels while generating electricity.
• Origins of Agriphotovoltaics:
  • It was first proposed by German scientists Adolf Goetzberger and Armin Zastrow in 1981.
  • The concept involves elevating solar modules to allow sunlight to reach crops while harnessing solar power.

Benefits for Farmers

• APVs create microclimatic conditions that reduce water evaporation and protect crops from extreme heat, improving agricultural resilience.
• Farmers can sell excess solar power back to the grid at a predetermined feed-in tariff, ensuring stable revenue streams.

APV Success Stories in India

• Najafgarh, Delhi Pilot Project: A farmer leased his land to a solar company for ₹1 lakh per acre annually, securing stable income.
  • If farmers cultivate shade-loving crops like potatoes, tomatoes, and turmeric, their income could rise to ₹5 lakh per acre, a sixfold increase over traditional farming.

Scaling Agriphotovoltaics Through Policy Support

• Incorporating APVs in PM-KUSUM: India currently lacks a designated agrivoltaics policy, but revising the PM-KUSUM agricultural solarisation program to include APVs could accelerate adoption.
  • Grid-connected solar power plants under PM-KUSUM should implement dual-use models, allowing simultaneous crop cultivation and solar generation.
• Financial Incentives for Farmers: Expanding credit guarantees and subsidies for APV installations will help smallholder farmers (own less than 2 hectares of land) adopt solar farming.
  • Increasing feed-in tariffs (FiTs) for solar power generated on agricultural land could improve investment viability.
• Capacity-Building and Technical Training: Government-backed programs should train farmers in APV management, helping them integrate solar energy into traditional farming practices.

Challenges and Future Prospects

• Limited To Pilot Projects: APVs are limited to pilot projects by research institutes and private developers.
  • Expanding APVs requires policy support, financial incentives, and awareness campaigns to encourage adoption.
• Infrastructure and Investment Needs: Farmers need access to financing for APV installations.
  • Government subsidies and public-private partnerships could accelerate adoption.
• Policy Support for APVs: India’s solar energy policies should integrate APVs into national agricultural strategies.
  • Expanding research and pilot programs will help refine APV models for different climates and crops.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: In India, the effectiveness of parliamentary oversight has often been questioned, while the Constitution provides a robust framework for legislative scrutiny.

• Strengthening this mechanism is essential for transparency, accountability, and good governance.

About the Parliamentary Oversight in India

• It is a fundamental aspect of India’s democratic framework, ensuring that the executive remains accountable to the legislature.
• Parliament plays a crucial role in monitoring government actions, policies, and expenditures through various mechanisms such as Question Hour, Parliamentary Committees, and Budget Scrutiny.

Key Mechanisms of Parliamentary Oversight 

• Parliamentary Oversight:
  • Article 107: Defines the legislative process, including the introduction and passage of bills.
  • Article 108: Provides for joint sittings of both Houses to resolve legislative deadlocks.
  • Article 111: Grants the President the power to assent or return bills for reconsideration.
• Question Hour and Zero Hour:
  • Question Hour allows MPs to directly question Ministers on government policies and decisions.
  • Zero Hour provides an opportunity for MPs to raise urgent matters without prior notice.
• Committee System for Legislative Review:
  • Standing Committees: These analyze bills in detail before they are debated in Parliament.
  • Public Accounts Committee (PAC): It scrutinizes government spending and audits reports.
  • Estimates Committee: It examines budget allocations and efficiency of government programs.
• Budgetary Scrutiny:
  • Article 112: Mandates the presentation of the Annual Financial Statement (Union Budget).
  • Article 113: Requires Parliamentary approval for government expenditure.
  • Article 117: Ensures that Money Bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha with the President’s recommendation.

Challenges in Parliamentary Oversight

• Diminishing Role of Question Hour: Question Hour, a critical tool for government accountability, has seen frequent disruptions, reducing its effectiveness.
  • In the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24), Question Hour functioned for only 60% of its scheduled time in the Lok Sabha and 52% in the Rajya Sabha.
• Limited Influence of Parliamentary Committees: Department-related Standing Committees (DRSCs) generate detailed reports, but their findings often do not influence legislation or executive action.
  • Committee consultations engage a small group of stakeholders, raising concerns about diversity and breadth of input.
• Executive Dominance in Budgetary Affairs: Union Finance Ministry crafts the Budget with minimal parliamentary involvement, reducing legislators to mere approvers rather than active participants.
  • The Rajya Sabha has no substantive role in Budget discussions, despite its democratic credentials.

Success Stories in Parliamentary Oversight

• Financial and Infrastructure Reforms:
  • The Standing Committee on Railways recommended waiving dividend payments by Indian Railways in 2015 to improve its financial health, which was implemented in 2016.
  • The Committee on Public Undertakings addressed delays in NHAI-managed highway projects, recommending that projects commence only after acquiring 80% of land and necessary clearances.
• Policy and Legislative Amendments:
  • The Standing Committee on Transport influenced amendments to the Motor Vehicles Bill (2017), removing caps on third-party insurance and establishing a National Road Safety Board.
  • The Estimates Committee advised increasing domestic uranium production, reducing India’s dependency on imports.
• Accountability and Corruption Exposures: The PAC exposed critical delays, opaque appointments, and corrupt practices during the Commonwealth Games in 2010.
  • On average, the PAC has made 180 recommendations every year in the past eight years, out of which 80% were accepted by the government.

Recommendations for Strengthening Oversight

• Revitalizing Question Hour: Ensuring uninterrupted sessions and systematic scrutiny of government policies.
  • Encouraging MPs to focus on cross-ministerial issues rather than isolated queries.
• Enhancing Committee Effectiveness: Increasing stakeholder engagement in committee discussions.
  • Ensuring that committee recommendations are debated on the floor of Parliament.
• Reforming Budgetary Oversight: Establishing a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) to provide independent analysis of financial policies.
  • Allowing pre-Budget discussions to enhance legislative input.
• Post-Legislative Scrutiny: Laws need to be systematically reviewed after passage to assess whether they achieve their intended impact.
  • India can adopt a model similar to the United Kingdom, where government departments submit reviews of major laws within three to five years, examined by parliamentary committees.
• Institutional Strengthening: Committee reports should be made accessible through translations, visual explainers, and videos, ensuring greater public understanding.
  • Committees require dedicated research and technical support, moving beyond administrative assistance.
• Technology-Driven Oversight: Leveraging Artificial Intelligence and data analytics, Parliament can help members swiftly track policy trends, flag irregularities, and frame evidence-based questions.

Conclusion

• As former Vice-President K.R. Narayanan noted, the purpose of legislative oversight is not to weaken the administration but to strengthen it, ensuring meaningful parliamentary support for governance.
• Strengthening oversight mechanisms means honoring the mandate given by citizens—ensuring the government remains transparent, accountable, and truly ‘of the people, by the people, and for the people’.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: NITI Aayog released a report on improving Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) competitiveness in India.

India’s MSME sector

• It is a key driver of India’s industrial economy, with 5.93 crore registered enterprises employing over 25 crore people.
• In 2023-24, MSME-related products contributed 45.73% to India’s total exports.
• In recent years, the MSME sector has displayed remarkable resilience, with its share in the country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) increasing from 27.3% in 2020-21 to 29.6% in 2021-22 and 30.1% in 2022-23, highlighting its growing role in national economic output.
• The Union Budget 2025-26 includes measures to strengthen the MSME sector, such as enhanced credit access, support for first-time entrepreneurs, and promotion of labour-intensive industries.
• The classification criteria for MSMEs have been revised, increasing investment and turnover limits by 2.5 times and 2 times, respectively. This is expected to boost efficiency, technological adoption, and employment generation.

Challenges Highlighted in recent report

• Although, between 2020 and 2024, MSME access to formal credit improved (micro and small enterprises from 14% to 20%, medium enterprises from 4% to 9%), however, 81% of MSME credit demand remains unmet, with an estimated ₹80 lakh crore gap.
• Credit Guarantee Fund (CGTMSE) has expanded but still faces limitations.
• Many MSME workers lack formal vocational or technical training, hindering productivity and scalability.
• A significant portion of MSMEs also underinvests in research and development, quality improvement, and innovation.
• MSMEs face challenges in adopting modern technologies due to unreliable electricity, weak internet connectivity, and high implementation costs.
• State government schemes supporting technological advancements are often inaccessible due to low awareness.
• Despite several MSME support policies, their effectiveness is limited by low awareness and poor implementation.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• India’s MSMEs can become a key driver of sustainable economic growth by focusing on targeted interventions, building stronger institutional collaborations and enhancing global competitiveness.
• The report calls for enhanced support for MSMEs through digital marketing training, partnerships with logistics providers and creating platforms for direct market linkages, especially in regions with high growth potential, such as India’s northeastern and eastern belts.
• It calls for a robust, adaptive and cluster-based policy framework at the state level that fosters innovation, enhances competitiveness and enables MSMEs to drive inclusive economic transformation.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, India Justice Report (IJR) 2025 was released by Tata Trusts in collaboration with other organisations, underscores how delays, overcrowding, and lack of accountability have made justice inaccessible for millions of citizens.

About the India Justice Report (IJR)

• It is a national periodic assessment that evaluates the capacity of India’s justice system across four key pillars—police, judiciary, prisons, and legal aid.
• It ranks states based on their performance in these areas, using metrics such as human resources, infrastructure, budgets, workload, and diversity.

Key Highlights from the India Justice Report 2025

• Judicial Backlog and Vacancies: Pending cases have exceeded five crore, with high courts and district courts facing vacancy rates of 33% and 21%, respectively.
• 15 judges per 10 lakh population; Law Commission (1987) suggested 50 judges per 10 lakh population.
• Judges in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala have workloads exceeding 4,000 cases per judge.
• Policing and Rural Neglect: The police-to-population ratio stands at 155 personnel per 100,000 people, below the sanctioned strength of 197.

Rural police stations have declined, affecting law enforcement accessibility.

• 83% of police stations have at least one CCTV camera, but Jharkhand has below 50% coverage.
• Women in police forces are largely concentrated in constabulary roles, limiting leadership representation.
• Prison Overcrowding: Several prisons operate at over 250% occupancy rates between 2020 and 2022, with Uttar Pradesh alone having 18 such prisons, worsening conditions for inmates.
• 76% of prisoners are undertrials, with Delhi exceeding 90%.
• Legal Aid Accessibility: Per capita spending on legal aid remains low at ₹46, limiting access for marginalized communities.
• The number of paralegal volunteers has dropped by 38% since 2019.
• Diversity and Representation: Karnataka is the only state to meet SC, ST, and OBC quotas in both the police and judiciary.
• At the current pace, Jharkhand will take 206 years to achieve 33% women personnel in police, while Andhra Pradesh will take just 3 years.

States-Level Findings

• Large States (population above 10 million): Karnataka once again takes top position and Andhra climbs to second from fifth.
• Telangana, eleventh in 2019, has retained its third position.
• Chhattisgarh records the highest rise in police training spend and 100% case clearance rates at High Court and district levels.
• Every police station has a women’s help desk.
• Small States (population up to 10 million): Sikkim retains its 1st rank among small states and is the only one to meet the 33% women judges benchmark in High Courts.
• All small states register 1 in every 3 district court judges; Goa (70%) and Meghalaya (61%) lead.
• All small states have 80%+ police stations with at least one CCTV.

Implications for the Common Citizen 

• Fear of approaching law enforcement due to inefficiencies and bias.
• Distrust in the judiciary, as cases take years to resolve.
• Normalization of custodial violence, with little accountability for human rights violations.

Key Recommendations Made in Report

• Fill Vacancies & Reduce Backlog: Expedite the appointment of judges to address vacancies in high courts and district courts.
  • Implement measures to tackle the five-crore pending cases, including the use of technology-driven solutions like e-courts.
  • Improve Police-to-Population Ratio & Enhance Rural Policing: To address the decline in rural police stations to ensure equitable law enforcement.
• Reduce Overcrowding & Focus on Undertrials: Expand prison infrastructure and promote alternatives to incarceration, such as community service and bail reforms.
  • Increase Funding: Raise per capita spending on legal aid, currently at ₹46, to improve accessibility for marginalized communities.
• Strengthen Paralegal Networks: Rebuild the paralegal volunteer base, which has declined by 38% since 2019.
• Diversity and Representation: Ensure representation of SC, ST, OBC, and women in police, judiciary, and legal aid systems.
• Technology and Innovation: Integrate forensic science and alternative dispute resolution mechanisms to improve efficiency.
• Adopt E-Governance: Expand the use of digital tools for case management and public access to justice services.

Conclusion

• The India Justice Report 2025 exposes critical flaws in India’s justice system, emphasizing the urgent need for judicial reforms, police restructuring, and improved legal aid accessibility.
• Without systemic changes, justice will remain elusive for the common citizen.