General Studies Paper-2

Context: The India–UK Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations have hit fresh hurdles, primarily due to the UK’s proposed Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) or carbon tax.

Background

• The India–UK FTA negotiations were formally launched in 2022, as part of efforts to deepen economic cooperation and boost bilateral trade.
• As per data from FY 2023–24, the trade volume between the two countries reached $21.34 billion, an increase from $20.36 billion in the previous fiscal year.
• Presently, goods exported from India to the UK face an average import duty of 4.2%.
• The two sides are now aiming to conclude an FTA, a Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) and a social security agreement termed as the Double Contribution Convention Agreement (DCAA).

Key Demands of India

• India has been pushing for greater market access for its products, particularly in labour-intensive sectors such as textiles, garments, gems, and jewellery.
• India has called for liberalisation of the UK’s visa regime to allow movement of skilled professionals from Information Technology (IT), IT-enabled services (ITeS), and healthcare sectors.
• India has also demanded special provisions for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) and requested flexibility regarding carbon emission standards.

Key Demands of UK

• The United Kingdom is keen on reducing tariffs imposed by India on high-value items such as Scotch whisky, electric vehicles, chocolates, and lamb meat.
• It is also seeking market access in telecom, legal, insurance, financial services.
• The UK is pressing for a sunset clause in the proposed Bilateral Investment Treaty and greater flexibility on issues like data localisation and the recognition of its new carbon tax regulations.

CBAM and India’s Concerns

• The UK’s draft CBAM legislation, effective January 1, 2027, imposes levies on high-emission imports like cement, steel, aluminium, fertilisers, hydrogen.
• The emission calculation will follow the UK’s domestic Emissions Trading Scheme.
• Indian concern: CBAM undermines the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) in climate negotiations.

India’s Response to CBAM

• India has proposed a “Rebalancing Mechanism,” which would require the UK to compensate Indian industries for losses incurred due to the carbon tax.
• India has emphasised that its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), which is based on emission intensity rather than absolute emission levels, is more suitable for a developing economy.

Way Ahead

• To ensure that the FTA benefits are not undermined by non-tariff barriers like CBAM, India must negotiate firmly and strategically.
• India must continue to advocate for the CBDR principle and push for differential treatment in climate-related trade measures.
• Institutional mechanisms like the proposed rebalancing clause and effective dispute resolution frameworks must be built into the final agreement to protect the interests of both the parties.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has notified the Biological Diversity (Access to Biological Resources and Knowledge Associated thereto and Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits) Regulation, 2025.

• The rules are notified to streamline and regulate benefit sharing from the use of biological resources and associated knowledge.

What is Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)?

• ABS refers to the framework through which benefits arising from the use of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge are shared fairly and equitably with the communities that have conserved these resources.
• It is a principle under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• India operationalizes ABS through the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, and its recent amendment the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023.

Key Features of the 2025 Regulation

• Turnover-Based Benefit Sharing:
  • Below ₹5 crore: Exempt from benefit sharing.
  • ₹5 crore–₹50 crore: 0.2% of annual gross ex-factory sale price (excluding taxes).
  • ₹50 crore–₹250 crore: 0.4% of annual turnover.
  • Above ₹250 crore: 0.6% of annual turnover.
  • Entities with turnover above ₹1 crore must file annual statements on resource usage.
• Inclusion of Digital Sequence Information (DSI): DSI now considered part of genetic resources, closing earlier loopholes where only physical materials were covered.
  • It aligns with the outcomes from COP16 of the Convention on Biological Diversity in Cali, Colombia.
• Cultivated medicinal plants are exempted, provided they are notified by the Ministry of Environment in consultation with the AYUSH Ministry.
• High-Value Resources: For resources of high conservation/economic value (red sanders, sandalwood, agarwood and threatened species), minimum 5% of proceeds from auction/sale must be shared.
  • This can go up to 20% in case of commercial exploitation.
• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Applicants for IPR involving biodiversity must disclose the use of biological resources and share benefits accordingly.
• Distribution of Benefits: 10–15% retained by the National Biodiversity Authority.
  • Remaining benefits directed to local communities and claimants through Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs).

Significance of the New Regulation

• Addresses regulatory gaps: It includes DSI which was previously excluded under the 2014 guidelines.
• Transparency: Clear slabs promote predictability for industries like pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and biotechnology.
• Supports cultivation: Encourages cultivation of medicinal plants over extraction from wild sources.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: World Solar Day, as observed on 3rd May, highlighted the transformative potential of solar energy, particularly in agriculture.

About the Agriphotovoltaics

• Agriphotovoltaics (APVs) offer a dual solution for food and energy production by integrating solar panels with farming.
• It maximizes land-use efficiency, allowing crops to grow beneath elevated solar panels while generating electricity.
• Origins of Agriphotovoltaics:
  • It was first proposed by German scientists Adolf Goetzberger and Armin Zastrow in 1981.
  • The concept involves elevating solar modules to allow sunlight to reach crops while harnessing solar power.

Benefits for Farmers

• APVs create microclimatic conditions that reduce water evaporation and protect crops from extreme heat, improving agricultural resilience.
• Farmers can sell excess solar power back to the grid at a predetermined feed-in tariff, ensuring stable revenue streams.

APV Success Stories in India

• Najafgarh, Delhi Pilot Project: A farmer leased his land to a solar company for ₹1 lakh per acre annually, securing stable income.
  • If farmers cultivate shade-loving crops like potatoes, tomatoes, and turmeric, their income could rise to ₹5 lakh per acre, a sixfold increase over traditional farming.

Scaling Agriphotovoltaics Through Policy Support

• Incorporating APVs in PM-KUSUM: India currently lacks a designated agrivoltaics policy, but revising the PM-KUSUM agricultural solarisation program to include APVs could accelerate adoption.
  • Grid-connected solar power plants under PM-KUSUM should implement dual-use models, allowing simultaneous crop cultivation and solar generation.
• Financial Incentives for Farmers: Expanding credit guarantees and subsidies for APV installations will help smallholder farmers (own less than 2 hectares of land) adopt solar farming.
  • Increasing feed-in tariffs (FiTs) for solar power generated on agricultural land could improve investment viability.
• Capacity-Building and Technical Training: Government-backed programs should train farmers in APV management, helping them integrate solar energy into traditional farming practices.

Challenges and Future Prospects

• Limited To Pilot Projects: APVs are limited to pilot projects by research institutes and private developers.
  • Expanding APVs requires policy support, financial incentives, and awareness campaigns to encourage adoption.
• Infrastructure and Investment Needs: Farmers need access to financing for APV installations.
  • Government subsidies and public-private partnerships could accelerate adoption.
• Policy Support for APVs: India’s solar energy policies should integrate APVs into national agricultural strategies.
  • Expanding research and pilot programs will help refine APV models for different climates and crops.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: In India, the effectiveness of parliamentary oversight has often been questioned, while the Constitution provides a robust framework for legislative scrutiny.

• Strengthening this mechanism is essential for transparency, accountability, and good governance.

About the Parliamentary Oversight in India

• It is a fundamental aspect of India’s democratic framework, ensuring that the executive remains accountable to the legislature.
• Parliament plays a crucial role in monitoring government actions, policies, and expenditures through various mechanisms such as Question Hour, Parliamentary Committees, and Budget Scrutiny.

Key Mechanisms of Parliamentary Oversight 

• Parliamentary Oversight:
  • Article 107: Defines the legislative process, including the introduction and passage of bills.
  • Article 108: Provides for joint sittings of both Houses to resolve legislative deadlocks.
  • Article 111: Grants the President the power to assent or return bills for reconsideration.
• Question Hour and Zero Hour:
  • Question Hour allows MPs to directly question Ministers on government policies and decisions.
  • Zero Hour provides an opportunity for MPs to raise urgent matters without prior notice.
• Committee System for Legislative Review:
  • Standing Committees: These analyze bills in detail before they are debated in Parliament.
  • Public Accounts Committee (PAC): It scrutinizes government spending and audits reports.
  • Estimates Committee: It examines budget allocations and efficiency of government programs.
• Budgetary Scrutiny:
  • Article 112: Mandates the presentation of the Annual Financial Statement (Union Budget).
  • Article 113: Requires Parliamentary approval for government expenditure.
  • Article 117: Ensures that Money Bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha with the President’s recommendation.

Challenges in Parliamentary Oversight

• Diminishing Role of Question Hour: Question Hour, a critical tool for government accountability, has seen frequent disruptions, reducing its effectiveness.
  • In the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24), Question Hour functioned for only 60% of its scheduled time in the Lok Sabha and 52% in the Rajya Sabha.
• Limited Influence of Parliamentary Committees: Department-related Standing Committees (DRSCs) generate detailed reports, but their findings often do not influence legislation or executive action.
  • Committee consultations engage a small group of stakeholders, raising concerns about diversity and breadth of input.
• Executive Dominance in Budgetary Affairs: Union Finance Ministry crafts the Budget with minimal parliamentary involvement, reducing legislators to mere approvers rather than active participants.
  • The Rajya Sabha has no substantive role in Budget discussions, despite its democratic credentials.

Success Stories in Parliamentary Oversight

• Financial and Infrastructure Reforms:
  • The Standing Committee on Railways recommended waiving dividend payments by Indian Railways in 2015 to improve its financial health, which was implemented in 2016.
  • The Committee on Public Undertakings addressed delays in NHAI-managed highway projects, recommending that projects commence only after acquiring 80% of land and necessary clearances.
• Policy and Legislative Amendments:
  • The Standing Committee on Transport influenced amendments to the Motor Vehicles Bill (2017), removing caps on third-party insurance and establishing a National Road Safety Board.
  • The Estimates Committee advised increasing domestic uranium production, reducing India’s dependency on imports.
• Accountability and Corruption Exposures: The PAC exposed critical delays, opaque appointments, and corrupt practices during the Commonwealth Games in 2010.
  • On average, the PAC has made 180 recommendations every year in the past eight years, out of which 80% were accepted by the government.

Recommendations for Strengthening Oversight

• Revitalizing Question Hour: Ensuring uninterrupted sessions and systematic scrutiny of government policies.
  • Encouraging MPs to focus on cross-ministerial issues rather than isolated queries.
• Enhancing Committee Effectiveness: Increasing stakeholder engagement in committee discussions.
  • Ensuring that committee recommendations are debated on the floor of Parliament.
• Reforming Budgetary Oversight: Establishing a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) to provide independent analysis of financial policies.
  • Allowing pre-Budget discussions to enhance legislative input.
• Post-Legislative Scrutiny: Laws need to be systematically reviewed after passage to assess whether they achieve their intended impact.
  • India can adopt a model similar to the United Kingdom, where government departments submit reviews of major laws within three to five years, examined by parliamentary committees.
• Institutional Strengthening: Committee reports should be made accessible through translations, visual explainers, and videos, ensuring greater public understanding.
  • Committees require dedicated research and technical support, moving beyond administrative assistance.
• Technology-Driven Oversight: Leveraging Artificial Intelligence and data analytics, Parliament can help members swiftly track policy trends, flag irregularities, and frame evidence-based questions.

Conclusion

• As former Vice-President K.R. Narayanan noted, the purpose of legislative oversight is not to weaken the administration but to strengthen it, ensuring meaningful parliamentary support for governance.
• Strengthening oversight mechanisms means honoring the mandate given by citizens—ensuring the government remains transparent, accountable, and truly ‘of the people, by the people, and for the people’.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: NITI Aayog released a report on improving Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) competitiveness in India.

India’s MSME sector

• It is a key driver of India’s industrial economy, with 5.93 crore registered enterprises employing over 25 crore people.
• In 2023-24, MSME-related products contributed 45.73% to India’s total exports.
• In recent years, the MSME sector has displayed remarkable resilience, with its share in the country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) increasing from 27.3% in 2020-21 to 29.6% in 2021-22 and 30.1% in 2022-23, highlighting its growing role in national economic output.
• The Union Budget 2025-26 includes measures to strengthen the MSME sector, such as enhanced credit access, support for first-time entrepreneurs, and promotion of labour-intensive industries.
• The classification criteria for MSMEs have been revised, increasing investment and turnover limits by 2.5 times and 2 times, respectively. This is expected to boost efficiency, technological adoption, and employment generation.

Challenges Highlighted in recent report

• Although, between 2020 and 2024, MSME access to formal credit improved (micro and small enterprises from 14% to 20%, medium enterprises from 4% to 9%), however, 81% of MSME credit demand remains unmet, with an estimated ₹80 lakh crore gap.
• Credit Guarantee Fund (CGTMSE) has expanded but still faces limitations.
• Many MSME workers lack formal vocational or technical training, hindering productivity and scalability.
• A significant portion of MSMEs also underinvests in research and development, quality improvement, and innovation.
• MSMEs face challenges in adopting modern technologies due to unreliable electricity, weak internet connectivity, and high implementation costs.
• State government schemes supporting technological advancements are often inaccessible due to low awareness.
• Despite several MSME support policies, their effectiveness is limited by low awareness and poor implementation.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• India’s MSMEs can become a key driver of sustainable economic growth by focusing on targeted interventions, building stronger institutional collaborations and enhancing global competitiveness.
• The report calls for enhanced support for MSMEs through digital marketing training, partnerships with logistics providers and creating platforms for direct market linkages, especially in regions with high growth potential, such as India’s northeastern and eastern belts.
• It calls for a robust, adaptive and cluster-based policy framework at the state level that fosters innovation, enhances competitiveness and enables MSMEs to drive inclusive economic transformation.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, India Justice Report (IJR) 2025 was released by Tata Trusts in collaboration with other organisations, underscores how delays, overcrowding, and lack of accountability have made justice inaccessible for millions of citizens.

About the India Justice Report (IJR)

• It is a national periodic assessment that evaluates the capacity of India’s justice system across four key pillars—police, judiciary, prisons, and legal aid.
• It ranks states based on their performance in these areas, using metrics such as human resources, infrastructure, budgets, workload, and diversity.

Key Highlights from the India Justice Report 2025

• Judicial Backlog and Vacancies: Pending cases have exceeded five crore, with high courts and district courts facing vacancy rates of 33% and 21%, respectively.
• 15 judges per 10 lakh population; Law Commission (1987) suggested 50 judges per 10 lakh population.
• Judges in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Kerala have workloads exceeding 4,000 cases per judge.
• Policing and Rural Neglect: The police-to-population ratio stands at 155 personnel per 100,000 people, below the sanctioned strength of 197.

Rural police stations have declined, affecting law enforcement accessibility.

• 83% of police stations have at least one CCTV camera, but Jharkhand has below 50% coverage.
• Women in police forces are largely concentrated in constabulary roles, limiting leadership representation.
• Prison Overcrowding: Several prisons operate at over 250% occupancy rates between 2020 and 2022, with Uttar Pradesh alone having 18 such prisons, worsening conditions for inmates.
• 76% of prisoners are undertrials, with Delhi exceeding 90%.
• Legal Aid Accessibility: Per capita spending on legal aid remains low at ₹46, limiting access for marginalized communities.
• The number of paralegal volunteers has dropped by 38% since 2019.
• Diversity and Representation: Karnataka is the only state to meet SC, ST, and OBC quotas in both the police and judiciary.
• At the current pace, Jharkhand will take 206 years to achieve 33% women personnel in police, while Andhra Pradesh will take just 3 years.

States-Level Findings

• Large States (population above 10 million): Karnataka once again takes top position and Andhra climbs to second from fifth.
• Telangana, eleventh in 2019, has retained its third position.
• Chhattisgarh records the highest rise in police training spend and 100% case clearance rates at High Court and district levels.
• Every police station has a women’s help desk.
• Small States (population up to 10 million): Sikkim retains its 1st rank among small states and is the only one to meet the 33% women judges benchmark in High Courts.
• All small states register 1 in every 3 district court judges; Goa (70%) and Meghalaya (61%) lead.
• All small states have 80%+ police stations with at least one CCTV.

Implications for the Common Citizen 

• Fear of approaching law enforcement due to inefficiencies and bias.
• Distrust in the judiciary, as cases take years to resolve.
• Normalization of custodial violence, with little accountability for human rights violations.

Key Recommendations Made in Report

• Fill Vacancies & Reduce Backlog: Expedite the appointment of judges to address vacancies in high courts and district courts.
  • Implement measures to tackle the five-crore pending cases, including the use of technology-driven solutions like e-courts.
  • Improve Police-to-Population Ratio & Enhance Rural Policing: To address the decline in rural police stations to ensure equitable law enforcement.
• Reduce Overcrowding & Focus on Undertrials: Expand prison infrastructure and promote alternatives to incarceration, such as community service and bail reforms.
  • Increase Funding: Raise per capita spending on legal aid, currently at ₹46, to improve accessibility for marginalized communities.
• Strengthen Paralegal Networks: Rebuild the paralegal volunteer base, which has declined by 38% since 2019.
• Diversity and Representation: Ensure representation of SC, ST, OBC, and women in police, judiciary, and legal aid systems.
• Technology and Innovation: Integrate forensic science and alternative dispute resolution mechanisms to improve efficiency.
• Adopt E-Governance: Expand the use of digital tools for case management and public access to justice services.

Conclusion

• The India Justice Report 2025 exposes critical flaws in India’s justice system, emphasizing the urgent need for judicial reforms, police restructuring, and improved legal aid accessibility.
• Without systemic changes, justice will remain elusive for the common citizen.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The United Nations Secretary-General Antonio Guterres called for urgent action in three key areas to help finance the achievement of the UN-mandated Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) by 2030.

Background

• With the world facing compounding crises such as economic instability, conflicts, and trade disruptions, progress on the SDGs is lagging.
• Developing nations are spending over $1.4 trillion annually on debt servicing, limiting their ability to invest in development.
• Hence the UN has outlined three core areas needing urgent action: debt reforms, international financial institutions, and diversification of finance sources.

Key Areas of Reform

• Debt Reforms:
  • G20’s Common Framework for Debt Treatments must be accelerated and expanded to include middle-income countries in distress.
  • Credit rating agencies need to revise ratings methodologies that drive up borrowing costs for developing countries.
  • The IMF and World Bank must reform debt sustainability assessments to account for SDG-linked investments and climate vulnerabilities.
• Strengthening International Financial Institutions:
  • Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) need recapitalization and should stretch their balance sheets to increase lending capacity.
  • MDBs must focus on mobilizing private finance at affordable rates for developing countries.
• Diversifying Finance Sources:
  • Countries should mobilise domestic resources to strengthen the health, education and infrastructure sectors.
  • They should also try to increase blended finance options in collaboration with the private sector.
  • Governments must also find ways to effectively fight corruption to prevent misappropriation of critical funds.

Way Ahead

• There is a need to Push for an inclusive global tax system to ensure fair application of international tax norms.
• Also developed countries must honour their Official Development Assistance commitments.
• Global platforms, like the COP30 Climate Conference in Brazil, will explore innovative climate finance solutions with a target to mobilize $1.3 trillion annually by 2035.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The recent terrorist attack in Pahalgam poses challenges to India on multiple fronts by threatening the economic revival and normalisation efforts, and underscores long-standing lapses in intelligence and security measures.

About Terrorism

• It is broadly defined as the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, to achieve political, ideological, or religious objectives.
• It is a global challenge that undermines peace, security, and human rights.
• According to the United Nations, there is no universally agreed definition of terrorism, but it is generally understood as acts intended to cause death or serious harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or international organization to act or refrain from acting.
• In the context of India, terrorism often includes cross-border activities, insurgencies, and radicalized attacks.
• The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967, defines a terrorist act as one that threatens the unity, integrity, security, or sovereignty of India or causes terror among people by using violence or disrupting essential services.

Types of Terrorism in India

• Cross-Border Terrorism: Groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) continue to operate from Pakistan, targeting civilians and security forces in J&K.
  • It includes Mumbai Attacks (2008), Pathankot Airbase attack (2016), and Pulwama bombing (2019).
• Insurgency in the Northeast and Left-Wing Extremism: States like Manipur, Assam, and Nagaland face insurgency due to ethnic grievances and separatist demands.
  • The Maoist (Naxalite) threat in the ‘Red Corridor’ across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha remains a long-standing internal security issue.
• Cyber Terrorism and Financing: Terrorists increasingly exploit digital platforms for propaganda, recruitment, and fundraising using cryptocurrency and the darknet.
• Urban Radicalization & Lone-Wolf Attacks : The rise of lone-wolf attacks and online radicalization has added new dimensions to India’s security challenges.
  • Groups like The Resistance Front (TRF) use hybrid terrorism tactics, employing radicalized locals for targeted attacks.

Challenges in Counterterrorism Efforts

• Intelligence & Security Gaps: Despite advancements in surveillance, lapses in intelligence-sharing have led to major attacks, including the Pahalgam incident.
  • Strengthening human intelligence networks and cyber surveillance is crucial.
• Security and Intelligence Challenge: The attack also highlights long-standing inadequacies in intelligence and security mechanisms in J&K, despite recurring militant strikes in the past year.
• Geographical Expansion: Militant activities, once confined to the Kashmir Valley, have expanded to Jammu, with over 30 attacks between 2021 and 2024, many of which caused civilian casualties.
• Homegrown Extremism: Radicalization through social media and religious propaganda continues to fuel domestic terrorism.
  • Groups like the Indian Mujahideen (IM) and certain ISIS-inspired modules have emerged in recent years.
• Geopolitical Tensions: India’s strategic proximity to the United States has led to increased hostility from adversaries.
  • The extradition of Tahawwur Rana, accused in the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, has further strained relations with Pakistan.
• Public Sentiment & Communal Harmony: Terrorist attacks often fuel communal tensions, making it imperative for the government to prevent misinformation and social unrest.

Counter-Terrorism Efforts

• Legal Framework:
  • Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) empowers agencies to label individuals as terrorists.
  • National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act created a central counter-terror agency with pan-India jurisdiction.
• Institutional Mechanisms:
  • NIA, Intelligence Bureau (IB), and Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) are pivotal in intelligence collection and enforcement.
  • Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) ensures inter-agency coordination.
• Technological Integration:
  • Deployment of facial recognition, drone surveillance, and AI-enabled threat analytics enhances border and urban surveillance.
• International Cooperation:
  • India collaborates with the U.S., Israel, and other nations on intelligence sharing and counter-radicalization efforts. It is also part of global anti-terror frameworks such as:
  • Financial Action Task Force (FATF)
  • United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee
• De-Radicalization Initiatives: State police and intelligence wings, particularly in Kerala and Maharashtra, run community outreach and deradicalization programs targeting vulnerable youth.

Recent Government Initiatives

• NATGRID: A centralized database for real-time intelligence sharing.
• Safe City Projects: Urban surveillance under Smart Cities Mission.
  • Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children (CCPWC)

Way Forward: Strengthening India’s Counterterrorism Strategy 

• Enhanced Security Infrastructure: Deploying advanced surveillance technologies, including AI-driven threat detection.
  • Expanding special forces operations in high-risk areas.
• International Cooperation: Strengthening counterterrorism partnerships with Saudi Arabia, the US, and European nations.
  • Joint intelligence-sharing initiatives to track global terror networks.
• Restoring Normalcy: Immediate steps should focus on boosting security, encouraging tourism, and addressing public concerns.
  • Confidence-building measures can help counter the fear instilled by the attack.
• Community Engagement & De-Radicalization: Implementing rehabilitation programs for radicalized individuals.
  • Encouraging interfaith dialogues to counter extremist narratives.

Conclusion

• The Pahalgam attack represents not just an assault on innocent lives but on the very fabric of J&K’s resurgence.
• While the government must address the immediate security lapse, it must also take long-term measures to strengthen peace, stability, and economic growth in the region.
• A calculated and decisive response is essential to restore confidence and ensure that terrorism does not derail the progress made in J&K.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, the World Bank’s released Poverty and Equity Brief on India offers a complex picture of the socio-economic landscape of India, and raises questions about broader economic inequality and the reliability of data in capturing socio-economic trends.

Key Findings of Poverty and Equity Brief on India

• Decline in Extreme Poverty: Extreme poverty, defined as living on less than $2.15 per day (2017 PPP terms), fell from 16.2% in 2011-12 to 2.3% in 2022-23, lifting 171 million people out of poverty.
  • Rural extreme poverty dropped from 18.4% to 2.8%, and urban extreme poverty from 10.7% to 1.1%, narrowing the rural-urban gap.
• Lower-Middle-Income Poverty Line: The World Bank introduces a broader measure of poverty at $3.65 a day (PPP terms), reflecting the challenges faced by low and middle-income countries.
  • Using it, poverty fell from 61.8% to 28.1%, lifting 378 million people out of poverty.
  • Rural poverty declined from 69% to 32.5%, and urban poverty from 43.5% to 17.2%, further reducing the rural-urban gap.
• Regional Contributions: Five populous Indian states — Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh — accounted for 65% of the country’s extreme poor in 2011-12 and contributed to two-thirds of the overall decline by 2022-23.
• Inequality Trends: The consumption-based Gini index improved from 28.8 in 2011-12 to 25.5 in 2022-23, indicating reduced inequality.
  • However, income-based inequality remains high, with the median earnings of the top 10% being 13 times higher than the bottom 10%.
• Employment Growth: It has outpaced the working-age population since 2021-22, with rising employment rates among women.
  • Urban unemployment fell to 6.6% in Q1 FY24/25, the lowest since 2017-18.

Challenges Highlighted By World Bank

• Income & Gender Disparities: The median earnings of the top 10% were 13 times higher than those of the bottom 10% in 2023-24, reflecting persistent income inequality.
  • Gender disparities also persist, with 234 million more men in paid work compared to women.
  • Youth unemployment remains high at 13.3%, increasing to 29% among tertiary education graduates.
• Urban-Rural Divide: While the urban-rural gap has narrowed from 84% in 2011-12 to 70% in 2023-24, disparities in access to opportunities and resources remain significant.
• Conflicting Observations on Migration Trends (Data Inconsistencies): The brief notes a recent shift of male workers from rural to urban areas since 2018-19, which contradicts Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) data showing an increase in agricultural employment.
  • A 2024 study by the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister reported a decline in rural-to-urban migration, creating data inconsistencies that require closer examination.

Key Factors Behind the Decline in Extreme Poverty

• Impact of Household Consumer Expenditure Surveys (HCESs) Methodology: The decline is captured through the revised methodology of the HCESs of 2022-23 and 2023-24, allowing a more granular understanding of consumption patterns.
• While extreme poverty is fading, the data reveals that many individuals still struggle with basic living costs.
• Food Security Schemes: The distribution of food grains to 80 crore people has played a pivotal role in reducing extreme poverty.
  • These measures have ensured basic survival needs for millions, contributing to the sharp decline in poverty rates.
• Direct Benefit Transfers (DBTs): Programs like Jan Dhan Yojana and PM Kisan Samman Nidhi Yojana have provided financial support to vulnerable populations.
  • The impact of these schemes, though not fully understood, has been captured through revised methodologies in the HCESs of 2022-23 and 2023-24.

Other Flagship Initiatives

• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): It provides 100 days of guaranteed wage employment annually to rural households.
  • It focuses on strengthening the livelihood resource base of marginalized communities.
• Mission Antyodaya: A convergence framework to optimize resources allocated by 26 ministries for rural development.
  • Gram Panchayats serve as focal points for implementation.
• Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM): It empowers rural women through community institutions that provide financial, technical, and marketing support.
  • It facilitates access to government schemes like Swachh Bharat Mission and Poshan Abhiyan.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Gramin (PMAY-G): It aims to provide housing for the poorest segments of society.
  • It uses a three-stage validation process to ensure aid reaches deserving individuals.
• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): It aims to provide connectivity to unconnected habitations as part of a poverty reduction strategy.
  • It ensures high technical and management standards for rural road networks.
• Multidimensional Poverty Reduction Initiatives: India’s multidimensional poverty declined from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23, lifting 24.82 crore people out of poverty.
  • The National Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) assesses deprivation across health, education, and living standards.

Conclusion

• India’s remarkable reduction in extreme poverty demonstrates the effectiveness of targeted government programs and robust food security measures.
• However, challenges such as persistent inequality, inconsistent data, and the struggle of millions to sustain a basic standard of living highlight the need for continued efforts.
• As India moves forward, balancing welfare schemes with sustainable economic policies will be crucial for building an equitable and inclusive society.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Office of the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha, a crucial constitutional institution, has remained vacant since the constitution of the 17th Lok Sabha in 2019. This prolonged vacancy violates constitutional spirit, disrupts institutional balance, and undermines the ethos of parliamentary democracy.

About

• Article 93 of the Constitution mandates that “the House of the People shall, as soon as may be, choose two members to be Speaker and Deputy Speaker.”
• However, the Constitution does not specify a deadline, leading to ambiguity and misuse.
• The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha also do not enforce any time-bound election for the Deputy Speaker.
• Thus, while the appointment is a constitutional requirement, the absence of an enforceable timeline has enabled political discretion to overshadow parliamentary propriety.

Historical and Conventional Context

• The institution originated under the Government of India Act, 1919, where the Speaker and Deputy Speaker were called the President and Deputy President.
• Post-independence, G.V. Mavalankar and Ananthasayanam Ayyangar were the first Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha, respectively.
• The convention has been to allocate the Deputy Speaker’s position to a member of the Opposition to promote bipartisanism.

Roles and Responsibilities

• The Deputy Speaker:
  • Acts as the Presiding Officer in the Speaker’s absence.
  • Can chair parliamentary committees.
  • Exercises a casting vote in case of a tie (when presiding).
  • Maintains decorum and upholds the rules of procedure.
  • Is not subordinate to the Speaker, but directly accountable to the House.

Issues Arising from the Vacancy

• Centralisation of Power: The Speaker (usually from the ruling party) wields unchecked authority in the absence of a Deputy Speaker from the Opposition.
• Breakdown of Constitutional Morality: While legally permissible, indefinite delay reflects a lack of respect for constitutional conventions and democratic ethos.
• Undermining Consensus Politics: Keeping the post vacant denies the Opposition a vital institutional voice, affecting deliberative democracy.
• Functional and Procedural Risks: In case of the Speaker’s sudden resignation or incapacity, lack of a Deputy can create a leadership vacuum.
• Global Comparisons: In the UK, Canada, and other Westminster democracies, such posts are filled promptly with bipartisan consultation to maintain continuity and legitimacy.

Reforms and Way Forward

• Statutory Timeline: Amend the Rules of Procedure or introduce a law to mandate the election of the Deputy Speaker within a fixed timeframe (e.g., 60 days).
• Judicial Clarification: The Supreme Court in 2021 admitted a petition on the delay in appointing the Deputy Speaker. A definitive ruling could reinforce constitutional accountability.
• Strengthening Parliamentary Norms: Codify conventions like offering the Deputy Speakership to the Opposition, to protect democratic balance.
• Presidential Oversight: The President, as constitutional guardian, could be empowered to remind or advise the House regarding delays in fulfilling constitutional obligations.

Conclusion

• The Deputy Speaker’s prolonged absence is not just an administrative lapse but a systemic malaise reflecting the politicisation of constitutional offices. In a vibrant democracy like India, institutional roles must not be reduced to political bargaining chips.
• Restoring the Deputy Speaker’s office promptly and systematically is essential not only for parliamentary continuity, but also for upholding the spirit of the Constitution, the dignity of the Opposition, and the health of India’s deliberative democracy.