Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

A 14th century ceremonial sword that was sold in Hyderabad to a British General in the early 20th century is set to return to India. The sword is among the seven objects being repatriated by Glasgow Life, which manages Glasgow’s museums.The tulwar was donated by to Glasgow Life museums’ collections in 1978.

About the sword

• The sword, shaped like a snake, has serrated edges and a damascene pattern, with gold etchings of an elephant and tigers.
• The sword was exhibited by Nizam of Hyderabad (1896-1911) at the 1903 Delhi Durbar (a ceremonial reception held to commemorate the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra as Emperor and Empress of India)
• The tulwar (sword) was purchased in 1905 by a British General from Maharaja Sir Kishen Pershad, the Prime Minister of Hyderabad.
• Kishen Pershad was known for his munificence where he was known to throw out coins to people chasing his motorcar.

Salar Jung Museum

• The Salar Jung Museum was established in the year 1951 and is located on the southern bank of the River Musi in Hyderabad, Telangana State of India. 
• The Salar Jung family is responsible for its collection of rare art objects from all over the world. 
• The family is one of the most illustrious families in Deccan history, five of them having been prime-ministers in the erstwhile Nizam rule of Hyderabad-Deccan. 
• Nawab Mir Yousuf Ali Khan, popularly known as Salar Jung III was appointed prime minister by Nawab Mir Osman Ali Khan Nizam VII in 1912. Salar Jung III relinquished the post of dewan or Prime Minister in November 1914 and devoted his life in enriching his treasures of art and literature. 
• The collection in the form of a museum was declared open on 16th December 1951 in Dewan Deodi, home of late Salar Jung’s and was opened to the public by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India. 
• Later the Government of India with the consent of the family members took over the Museum formally through a compromise deed and the museum was administered by the Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, Government of India. 
• Finally, in 1961, through an “Act of Parliament” the Salar Jung museum along with its library was declared an “Institution of National Importance”.
• The Museum was transferred to its present building, inaugurated by Dr. Zakir Hussain, President of India in the year 1968.

A Brief History of the Salar Jung Family.

• Nawab Mir Turab Ali Khan, Salar Jung I, was awarded the title of Salar Jung Bahadur at the age of 13, and later he was appointed as Prime Minister at the age of 24 by Nizam IV, Nawab Mir Farkhunda Ali Khan Nasir-ud-Daulah. 
• Salar Jung I was inspired by commemorative mementos made for coronations and special events of European royal families. On his visit to England in 1876, he ordered ceramic objects bearing his portraits. 
• He is also said to have bought the” Veiled Rebecca” to India along with many other master pieces. Mir Laiq Ali Khan was appointed first as secretary to the Council of Regency and later as a member of the Council of State. He was appointed as Prime Minister in 1884 by the Nizam VI of Hyderabad Nawab Mir Mehboob Ali Khan was conferred the title “Imad-us-Sultanat”.
• Salar Jung III emulated the traditions of European royal families in commissioning famous manufacturing houses in Europe to specially design gold-crested cutlery and crockery.

Nawab Mir Osman Ali Khan, the seventh Nizam appointed Mir Yousuf Ali Khan, Salar Jung III, as his prime minister in 1912. On health grounds, Salar Jung III relinquished the post of prime minister in November 1914. Thereafter, he devoted his time to enrich his art collection.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully demonstrated a hybrid propulsion system that used a solid fuel and liquid oxidiser.

• The hybrid motor was tested at the ISRO Propulsion Complex , Mahendragiri, on Tuesday evening. 
• The hybrid system is more efficient, “greener” and safer to handle, and paves the way for new propulsion technologies for future missions, the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), which tested it with support from the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC).

About:

• In the ground-based test, the flight equivalent 30 kN hybrid motor used HTPB-based (hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene) aluminised solid fuel and liquid oxygen (LOX) as oxidiser. 
• The test was performed for 15 seconds on a 300-mm sounding rocket motor.
• Conventional HTPB-based solid propellant motors used in rockets use ammonium perchlorate as oxidiser. 
• In rocket engines, oxidisers supply the oxygen needed for combustion.
• While both HTPB and LOX are green, the cryogenic LOX is safer to handle. And unlike conventional solid motors, the hybrid technology permits restarting and throttling capabilities on the motor. 
• The use of liquids facilitates throttling and control over the flow rate of LOX.

Benefits:

• While both HTPB and LOX are green, the cryogenic LOX is safer to handle.
• And unlike conventional solid motors, the hybrid technology permits restarting and throttling capabilities on the motor.
• The hybrid system is more efficient, ”greener” and safer to handle and paves the way for new propulsion technologies for future missions.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) removed Central Bank of India from its Prompt Corrective Action Framework (PCAF) after the lender showed improvement in various financial ratios, including minimum regulatory capital and net non-performing assets (NNPAs).

Prompt Corrective Action

• The PCA norm is a supervisory tool and is imposed when a bank breaches certain regulatory thresholds on capital to risk weighted assets ratio (CRAR), net NPAs and return on assets (RoA).
• PCA delineates three risk thresholds. Triggering of each threshold will result in invocation of PCA, with a gradually increasing set of restrictions.

With the first risk threshold breached,

• The RBI can restrict dividend distribution, or remittance of profits
• The promoters and shareholders of the NBFCs will be asked to put in more capital.
• The RBI will also restrict issuance of guarantees or taking other contingent liabilities on behalf of group companies, in case of core investment companies.

After hitting risk threshold 2, 

• The NBFC will be prohibited from opening branches, in addition to restrictions under Threshold 1.

If the third risk threshold is triggered, 

• The RBI can even restrict capital expenditure. 
• There are other discretionary actions that the RBI can take, for example, special supervisory actions, or even removing the key executives.
• It is also important to note that apart from the actions mentioned in the PCA framework, the RBI can take any other action as it deems fit at any time.
• Aim: to initiate and implement remedial measures in a timely manner, so as to restore its financial health.
• Scope: Apply to all banks operating in India including foreign banks operating through branches or subsidiaries.

Conditions for Withdrawal of restrictions imposed:

• if no breaches in risk thresholds in any of the parameters are observed as per four continuous quarterly financial statements
• based on Supervisory comfort of the RBI, including an assessment on sustainability of profitability of the bank.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

On the side lines of the annual conference of United Planters Association of Southern India, The Coffee Board is coming out with a sustainability code for Indian coffee.

Coffee Board 

• The Government of India established the ‘Coffee Board’ through a constitutional act “Coffee Act VII of 1942” under the administrative control of Ministry of Commerce and Industry. 
• The Board comprises 33 members including the Chairman, who is the Chief Executive and appointed by the Government of India. 
• The remaining 32 members represent the various interests such as coffee growing industry, coffee trade interests, curing establishments, interests of labour and consumers, representatives of governments of the principal coffee growing states, and Members of Parliament.
• Role of Coffee Board: Coffee Board serves as the friend, philosopher and guide to the Coffee sector covering the entire value chain. The core activities are primarily directed towards research & development, transfer of technology, enhancement of production, quality improvement, export promotion and supporting development of Domestic market.
• The head office of the Coffee Board is situated in Bangalore.
• International Coffee Day is on 1st October.

About coffee and its cultivation:

• It is indigenous to Abyssinia Plateau (Ethiopia) from where it was taken to Arabia in 11th century. From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Badan Giri in the 17th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

Conditions of Growth

• The hot and humid climate
• Temperature between 15°C and 28 °C.
• Rainfall from 150 to 250 cm.
• Well-drained, rich friable loams containing a good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation.
• Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries.
• The crop is not tolerant to
• Frost and snowfall.
• High temperature above 30°C and strong sunshine (Hence, generally grown under shady trees on Northern and Eastern aspects of Hill).
• Prolonged drought.
• Stagnant water (Hence, grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600 metres above sea level).

Type and Varieties of Coffee

• The two main varieties of coffee viz., Arabica and Robusta are grown in India. Arabica is mild coffee, but the beans being more aromatic, it has higher market value compared to Robusta beans. On the other hand Robusta has more strength and is, therefore, used in making various blends. 
• Arabica is grown in higher altitudes than Robusta. 
• The cool and equable temperature, ranging between 15 degree Celsius to 25 degree Celsius, is suitable for Arabica while for Robusta, hot and humid climate with temperature ranging from 20 degree Celsius to 30 degree Celsius  is suitable. 
• Arabica requires more care & nurture and is more suitable for large holdings whereas Robusta is suitable irrespective of size of the farm.
• The harvest of Arabica takes place between November to January, while for Robusta it is December to February. 
• Arabica is susceptible to pests & diseases such as White Stem Borer, leaf rust etc., and requires more shade than Robusta.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

A two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court of India is presently hearing arguments on the correctness of a Karnataka High Court judgment that upheld the ban on the use of the hijab by students in Karnataka.

The Karnataka Hijab row:

• A dispute pertaining to school uniforms erupted in Karnataka, when some Muslim students of a college who wanted to wear hijab to classes were denied entry on the grounds that it was a violation of the college’s uniform policy.
• Several educational institutions Karnataka government’s compulsory uniform order and denied entry to Muslim girls wearing the hijab. This was challenged in the Karnataka High Court (HC).

Possible actions by the Bench

The Karnataka High Court made three primary findings in its judgment. 

• First, it held that the use of a hijab is not essential to the practice of Islam. Thus, the right to freedom of religion was not violated. 
• Second, it ruled that there exists no substantive right to freedom of expression or privacy inside a classroom and, therefore, these rights were simply not at stake here. 
• Third, it held that the ban did not stem directly out of the government’s order, which only called for a uniform dress code to be prescribed by the State or school management committees, and, hence, the law did not discriminate, either directly or indirectly, against Muslim students.

To decide on the correctness of this verdict, the Supreme Court need not answer all the questions posed before it. A reversal of any of the three findings made by the High Court ought to result in a nullification of the ban. 

Law and Religion

• In theory, the issues emanating out of these submissions ought to be capable of easy resolution, through an application of ordinary doctrines of constitutional law.
• But, as transcripts from the hearings have shown us, every time an argument over religious freedom in India is made, it invariably mires itself in the court-crafted doctrine of essential practice (ERP).

Essential religious practice (ERP) test is a doctrine evolved by the supreme court (SC) to protect only such religious practices under fundamental rights, which are essential and integral to religion. The doctrine of “essentiality” was invented by the SC in the Shirur Mutt case in 1954.

As a kind of inquiry

• The essential practices doctrine owes its existence to a speech made by B.R. Ambedkar in the Constituent Assembly. 
• Ambedkar was striving to distinguish the religious from the secular, by arguing that the state should be allowed to intervene in matters that are connected to religion but are not intrinsically religious.

Judicial Verdict

• Indeed, it was in this vein that the Supreme Court, in the case concerning the Shirur Mutt (1954), held that to determine what constituted an ‘essential’ aspect of religion, the Court ought to look towards the religion concerned, and to what its adherents believed was demanded by their faith. 
• But since then, the Court has, with a view to determining the kinds of circumstances in which the state could legitimately intervene, transformed this doctrine into an altogether different form of inquiry.
• In a series of cases, the Court has assumed something akin to an ecclesiastical power and determined whether a practice which was religious in nature was also “essential” to that religion. 
• It has allowed the Court to narrow the extent of safeguards available to religious customs by directly impinging on the autonomy of groups to decide for themselves what they deem valuable, violating, in the process, their right to ethical independence.

The essential practices test is not without alternatives. In his concurring opinion, in the case concerning the ban on entry of women into the Sabarimala temple, Justice D.Y. Chandrachud proposed one such doctrine: a principle of anti-exclusion. 

The anti-exclusion principal postulates that where a religious practice causes the exclusion of individuals in a manner which impairs their dignity or hampers their access to basic goods, the freedom of religion must give way to the over-arching values of a liberal constitution.

But until such time as the essential practices doctrine is overruled by a Bench of more than seven judges, the Court is bound to apply its tenets. Perhaps that reassessment will happen when a nine-judge Bench constituted in the review petitions filed against the judgment in the Sabarimala case passes judgment. For now, any Court hearing a matter touching upon a matter of faith has the unenviable task of acting not merely as an expert on law but also as an expert on religion

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

The Prime Minister launched the National Logistics Policy (NLP) at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi. The launch of the policy a significant step in fulfilling the ‘Pran’ of India being a developed country.

• To ensure quick last mile delivery, end transport-related challenges, save time and money of the manufacturers, prevent wastage of the agro-products, concerted efforts were made and one of the manifestations of those efforts is today’s National Logistics Policy.
• India is the 5th largest economy in the world but the logistics cost is high at around 13-14%.

What is Logistics?

• Logistics encompasses planning, coordinating, storing, and moving resources —people, raw materials, inventory, equipment, etc from one location to another, from the production points to consumption, distribution, or other production points.

National Logistics Policy 2022

• The policy focuses on key areas such as process re-engineering, digitisation, and multi-modal transport.
• It is a crucial move as high logistics cost impacts the competitiveness of domestic goods in the international market.
• The need for a national logistics policy was felt since the logistics cost in India is high as compared to other developed economies.

Aim of the National Logistics Policy(NLP)

• Reduce the cost of logistics from 14-18% of GDP to global best practices of 8% by 2030. Countries like the US, South Korea, Singapore, and certain European nations have such a low logistics cost-to-GDP ratio.
• Improve the country’s Logistics Performance Index (LPI) ranking to be among top 25 countries by 2030.
• Create data-driven decision support systems (DSS) to enable an efficient logistics ecosystem.
• To improve the competitiveness of Indian goods both in domestic as well as export markets.

Key Building Blocks of the policy

• Unified Logistics Interface Platform(ULIP): It aims to collapse all logistics and transport sector digital services into a single portal, thereby freeing manufacturers and exporters from the present tyranny of long and cumbersome processes.
• Ease of Logistics Services (E-Logs): It aims to allow the industry to directly take up operational issues with government agencies for speedy resolution.
• Comprehensive Logistics Action Plan: It comprises integrated digital logistics systems, standardization of physical assets, benchmarking service standards, human resource development, capacity building, development of logistics parks etc.

Significance of the Policy

• PM Gati Shakti will get further boost and complementarity with the launch of the National Logistics Policy.
• The Policy will help make the sector an integrated, cost-efficient, resilient, and sustainable logistics ecosystem in the country as it covers all bases of the sector along with streamlining rules and addressing supply-side constraints.
• The policy is an endeavor to improve the competitiveness of Indian goods, enhance economic growth and increase employment opportunities.

Benefits of the policy

• National Logistics Policy has immense potential for development of infrastructure, expansion of business and increasing employment opportunities.
• Improve competitiveness
• Ensuring quick last mile delivery, end transport-related challenges, save time and money of the manufacturers, prevent wastage of the agro-products and improvement in coordination.
• Strengthening of the logistics sector will not only make the life of common man easier but will also help in increasing the respect of labour and workers.
• Issues related to logistics are reduced and when the country’s exports increase, small industries and the people working in them benefit the most.

Way forward

The National Logistics Policy will improve India’s trade competitiveness, create more jobs, improve India’s performance in global rankings and pave the way for India to become a logistics hub.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), which carries out quality checks or assessments of Indian Higher-level Educational Institutions (HEIs), courted controversy recently over the rating of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda which changed from A to A+. 

Grading of the University withheld after receiving an anonymous complaint that the university unduly tried to influence the peer review team with gold, cash and other favours.

What is NAAC?

• The NAAC, an autonomous body under the University Grants Commission (UGC), assesses and certifies HEIs with gradings as part of accreditation. 
• Through a multi-layered process, a higher education institution learns whether it meets the standards of quality set by the evaluator in terms of curriculum, faculty, infrastructure, research, and other parameters. 
• The ratings of institutions range from A++ to C. If an institution is graded D, it means it is not accredited.

How is the accreditation process carried out?

• NAAC relies heavily on self-assessment reports of applicant institutions.
• The first step has an applicant institution submitting a self-study report of information related to quantitative and qualitative metrics.
• The data is then validated by NAAC expert teams, followed by peer team visits to the institutions. 
• Only higher education institutions that are at least six years old, or from where at least two batches of students have graduated, can apply.
• The accreditation is valid for five years.
• When an institution undergoes the accreditation process for the first time it is referred to as Cycle 1, and the subsequent five-year periods as Cycles 2, 3 and so on.
• This last step has sparked controversy.

What are the alternatives being explored?

• From the prevailing “input-based” approach, the NAAC plans to adopt an “outcome-based approach”. 
• The white paper states the current system is akin to accepting the claim of a PhD candidate that his thesis is of high quality. 
• Instead, it suggests that emphasis should be on finding out if students are equipped with relevant skills and academic abilities.
• Rather than relying exclusively on the self-study reports of the HEIs, the NAAC should ask institutions to provide evidence such as samples of learning materials, continuous assessment tasks and final examinations to show they have outcomes of learning specified in the syllabus.

How many institutions in India are accredited?

• There are 1,043 universities and 42,343 colleges listed on the portal of the All India Survey on Higher Education. 
• As per the latest data from June 21, there were 406 universities and 8,686 colleges that were NAAC-accredited. 
• Among the states, Maharashtra accounts for the highest number of accredited colleges at 1,869 – more than twice as many as Karnataka’s 914, the second highest. 
• Tamil Nadu has the most accredited universities at 43.

Issues

• The fear of obtaining a poor grade or no accreditation at all holds back higher education institutes from voluntarily applying for evaluation.

Way forward

• It is recommended that the role of Peer Team visits be facilitatory in nature and not have a significant weightage in assessment and accreditation.
• The new system of Provisional Accreditation for Colleges (PAC) under which even one-year-old institutions could apply for accreditation should be further explored while maintaining quality.
• NAAC should help the colleges improve the quality of education they provide, such that they can be successful in meeting the standards that NAAC accreditation calls for.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Supreme Court made an observation about the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) as “a caged parrot speaking in its master’s voice”.

Central Bureau of Investigation

The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), functioning under Dept. of Personnel, Ministry of Personnel, Pension & Public Grievances, Government of India, is the premier investigating police agency in India. It is also the nodal police agency in India that coordinates investigation on behalf of Interpol Member countries.

Background

• The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) owes its origin to the Special Police Establishment, constituted by the British government in 1941, which was substituted by the Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) Act, 1946.
• The CBI came into existence on 1 April, 1963, through a Government of India resolution. The establishment of the CBI was recommended by the Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Corruption (1962-64)
• The CBI is not a statutory body. Its investigative and jurisdiction powers are governed by the DSPE Act, 1946.
• In 2021, The Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) Act, of 1946 and the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) Act, of 2003 were amended to extend the tenure of CBI and ED directors

Composition of CBI:

• The CBI is headed by a Director and he is assisted by a Special Director or an additional director.
• Additionally, it has a number of joint directors, deputy inspector generals, superintendents of police and all other usual ranks of police personnel.

Powers and Jurisdiction of CBI:

• DSPE Act confers upon the CBIs concurrent and co-extensive powers to carry out the investigation of the offences mentioned under the same section.
• The Central Government has the power to extend the jurisdiction of the CBI to any area, except union territories, that falls within the geographical boundaries of India, subject to the consent of the state so concerned
• An additional power conferred in the CBI Constitution is that CBI can correspond with and demand information from any Ministry or Department of the central or State Government
• The officers of the CBI also have the added power of being exempt from the provisions of the Right to Information Act of 2005.
• As a large number of public sector undertakings came up, the employees of these undertakings were also brought under CBI purview.
• Similarly, with the nationalization of the banks in 1969, the Public Sector Banks and their employees also came within the ambit of the CBI.
• CBI can Suo-moto take up investigation of offenses only in the Union Territories.
• The Central Government can authorize CBI to investigate a crime in a State but only with the consent of the concerned State Government.
• The Supreme Court and High Courts, however, can order CBI to investigate a crime anywhere in the country without the consent of the State.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

An experiment carried out by the University of Oxford researchers combines two unique and one can say even mind-boggling discoveries, namely, high-precision atomic clocks and quantum entanglement, to achieve two atomic clocks that are “entangled.” This means the inherent uncertainty in measuring their frequencies simultaneously is highly reduced.

What is Quantum Entanglement?

• Quantum entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when a group of particles are generated, interact, or share spatial proximity in a way such that the quantum state of each particle of the group cannot be described independently of the state of the others, including when the particles are separated by a large distance.
• In quantum physics, entanglement is a weird phenomenon described as a “spooky action at a distance” by Albert Einstein.
• It is a way of saying that the physical attributes of two independent systems, say spin or frequency, vary in tandem.

Atomic Clock

• An atomic clock is a clock that measures time by monitoring the resonant frequency of atoms. It is based on atoms having different energy levels. 
• This phenomenon serves as the basis for the International System of Units’ (SI) definition of a second – time taken by 9,19,26,31,770 oscillations of a caesium atom with accuracy of gaining or losing a second only once in about 20 million years.
• At the start of the 21st century, the cesium clocks that were available were so accurate that they would gain or lose a second only once in about 20 million years. 
• At present, even this record has been broken and there are “optical lattice clocks” that are so precise that they lose a second only once in 15 billion years. 
• To give some perspective, that is more than the age of the universe, which is 13.8 billion years.

Proof of Concept

• Quantum networks of this kind have been demonstrated earlier, but this is the first demonstration of quantum entanglement of optical atomic clocks.
• The key development here is that we could improve the fidelity and the rate of this remote entanglement to the point where it’s actually useful for other applications, like in this clock experiment.
• For their demonstration, the researchers used strontium atoms for the ease in generating remote entanglement. They plan to try this with better clocks such as those that use calcium.
• We can now generate remote entanglement in a practical way. At some point, it might be useful for state-of-the art systems.

Applications

• Studying the space-time variation of the fundamental constants, probing dark matter, precision geodesy, accurate time keeping in GPS, or monitoring stuff remotely on Mars etc.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

An ecological niche is the right set of environmental conditions under which an animal or plant species will thrive. A range of ecological niches can occur within an ecosystem. Biodiversity is the result of these niches being occupied by species that are uniquely suited to them. Desert plants, for example, are suited for dry, arid ecological niches because they have the ability to store water in their leaves.

• As the world’s climate undergoes change, the ability of existing species to hold on to their biogeographic niches may be altered. 
• This has an important bearing on agriculture, as practices and crop choices that have worked well for centuries may no longer be ideal.
• Factors that are altered by such changes include the availability of food and nutrients, occurrence of predators and competing species. Non-living, or abiotic factors also affect ecological niches. 
• These include temperature, amount of available light, soil moisture, and so on.

Niche Modelling

• Ecologists use such information for conservation efforts as well as for future developments. 
• Ecological niche modelling is a predictive tool for identifying new possibilities — new inhabitants for an existing habitat, or new geographical locations where a desirable plant may grow well. 
• The modelling involves the use of computer algorithms to compare data about the environment and to make forecasts about what would be ideal for a given ecological niche.

Where to grow

Researchers at the Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh used modelling strategies to examine the economically important spice, saffron.

• Crocus sativus, the saffron plant, is propagated through underground stems called corms. 
• It is thought to be a native of Greece, and grows best under mediterranean climate conditions. 
• Today, Iran grows nearly 90% of the world’s saffron. 
• The flower of the plant has three bright crimson stigmata, which are handpicked when ready and carefully dried for the commercial saffron. 
• Besides adding flavour to food, saffron has many other uses. 
• Ancient Indian medical texts prescribed it for disorders of the nervous system. 
• More recent clinical trials have shown that the administration of 30 mg saffron every day had a significant anti-depressant effect.
• India produces 5% of the world’s saffron and historically, some of the world’s most prized saffron has been grown in old lake beds of Kashmir. 
• The temperate climate of Jammu and Kashmir is well-suited with a well-drained soil of high pH value (6.3 to 8.3), summer temperatures (when flowers develop) of around 25°C and good soil nutrient availability.

Need Niche Modelling:

• To bridge ecological considerations and economic realities and to examine economic feasibilities within the context of changing ecological scenarios.
• The study identified 4,200 sq. km. of new areas suitable for saffron cultivation in places in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, North Sikkim, Imphal, Manipur and Tamil Nadu.

Using big data

• It refers to extremely large data sets that may be analysed computationally to reveal patterns, trends, and associations, especially relating to human behaviour and interactions.
• It is characterised by 3Vs – Variety, Volume, Velocity