Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

As part of efforts to reduce its carbon footprint, the Indian Air Force (IAF) is looking to fly an AN-32 transport aircraft modified to operate on 10% blended biodiesel for 200 flight hours in the next six months.

• The global aviation industry, both civil and military, is one of the biggest emitter of greenhouse gases which cause global warming. 
• It is imperative that the industry finds ways to reduce its carbon footprint for global efforts to achieve ‘net zero emissions’ to be successful. 
• The annual fuel consumption of the IAF for 2021-22 was 6.2 lakh kilo litres, which contributed around 15 lakh tonnes of carbon dioxide.
• On the civil aviation front, an official from aircraft manufacturer Airbus said it had plans to offer 100% sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) compatibility on its commercial aircraft latest by 2030. The aircraft took flight on biodiesel blended with aviation turbine fuel (ATF) for the first time in December 2018.
• So far, an AN-32 has flown 65 hours with a 10% blend of biofuel and the performance has been very satisfactory.
• A second aircraft, a Dornier, was now undergoing ground tests after it had been cleared by the original manufacturer of the engine, Honeywell, for use of 50% biofuel.

The biofuel was extracted from Jatropha plant seeds using a technology patented by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun.

About Ethanol

• Ethanol is one of the principal biofuels. It is naturally produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts or via petrochemical processes such as ethylene hydration. 
• Ethanol has medical applications as an antiseptic and disinfectant. 
• It is used as a chemical solvent and in the synthesis of organic compounds, apart from being an alternative fuel source.

Ethanol Blended Petrol programme 

• It was launched in 2003 on a pilot basis and has been subsequently extended to 21 states and 4 Union Territories.
• The programme sought to promote the use of alternative and environment friendly fuels and to reduce import dependency for energy requirements.
• The government has been notifying the administered price of ethanol since 2014.
• India has set a target of 10 percent ethanol blending in petrol by 2022. 

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

Periyar E.V. Ramasamy’s birth anniversary (September 17) as Social Justice Day.

• Periyar is often referred to as an iconoclast because of the rebellious nature of his ideas.
• His thoughts had clarity and honesty which led people practicing different faiths to discuss and debate his ideas on rationality and religion.
• He had vision for eradiating social evils, political reforms, oppressing the minorities, etc. some of his vision has been discussed in this article.
• The World Day of Social Justice is an international day recognizing the need to promote social justice, which includes efforts to tackle issues such as poverty, exclusion, gender inequality, unemployment, human rights, and social protections. It is celebrated on 20th February every year, different from India’s case.

About E V Ramasamy Periyar:

• E V Ramasamy Periyar was born in 1879.He was an Indian social activist and politician.
• In the 1940s, Periyar launched a political party, Dravida Kazhagam (DK), which espoused an independent Dravida Nadu comprising Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, and Kannada speakers.
• Periyar died in 1973 at the age of 94. Over the years, Periyar is revered as Thanthai Periyar, the father figure of modern Tamil Nadu.

As a member of Congress Party:

• E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919.He disagreed with Gandhi over the question of separate dining for Brahmin and non-Brahmin students.
• He resigned from the party in 1925 and associated himself with the Justice Party and the Self Respect Movement which opposed the dominance of Brahmins in social life, especially the bureaucracy.

Vaikom Satyagraha(1924-1925):

• Vaikom Satyagraha was a satyagraha in Travancore,Kerala against untouchability in Hindu society.
• The Satyagraha was aimed at securing a freedom to all sections of society through the public roads leading to the Sri Mahadeva Temple at Vaikom.
• K. Kelappan played a dominant role in the Vaikom Satyagraha and was also the leader of the Guruvayur Satyagraha in 1932.
• Gandhiji, Chatampi Swamikal and Sree Narayana Guru had also supported the movement.Further, Periyar also came from Tamil Nadu to support the movement.
• The other prominent leaders in the movement include T K Madhavan, Velayudha Menon, K Neelakantan Namboothiri, T R Krishnaswami Iyer and George Joseph
• The movement managed to open the roads around the temple for their use.The temple entry movement gained momentum after this.

Self Respect Movement:

• The Self-Respect Movement was dedicated to the goal of giving non-Brahmins a sense of pride based on their Dravidian past.
• It’s aim was to achieve a society where backward castes have equal human rights and encouraging backward castes to have self-respect in the context of a caste-based society that considered them to be a lower end of the hierarchy.
• It was founded in 1925 by S. Ramanathan who invited Periyar to head the movement in Tamil Nadu.

As a President of Justice Party:

• A political party known as the South Indian Libertarian Federation (commonly referred to as Justice Party) was founded in 1916.
• It was formed to principally oppose the economic and political power of the Brahmin groups.
• The party’s goal was to render social justice to the non-Brahmin groups.Periyar took over the leadership of the party in 1938.

Relevance of Periyar in current times:

• On one level, a few people are benefiting greatly from the rampant rise of acts of violence against minorities. These people have such an external defence mechanism that it becomes easy for them to use incendiary rhetoric and get away with it.
• The discussion that Periyar initiated continues to-date, and is the antithesis to this manner of societal regression.
• Periyar proclaimed that he would always stand with the oppressed in the fight against oppressors and that his enemy was oppression.
• Spaces for debate are shrinking all over the world. Majoritarianism and populism are not enabling sensible conversations in any public sphere.
• At such a time, Periyar stands as a stellar precedent, reminding us of a time when people with opposing ideas were invited to the stage for a debate.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

In the context of the trend of establishing quality residential schools for the promotion of education in all areas and habitations in the country, the Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) for ST students take their place among the Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalays, the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalays and the Kendriya Vidyalays.

• Eklavya Model Residential School (EMRS) are set up in the States/UTs with grants under Article 275(1) of the Constitution of India.
• States/UTs are free to apportion funds out of their Article 275 (1) Grants to construct and run additional EMRS over the number sanctioned by the ministry.
• EMRS started in the year 1997-98 to impart quality education to ST children in remote areas in order to enable them to avail of opportunities in high and professional educational courses and get employment in various sectors.
• The schools focus not only on academic education but on the all-round development of the students.
• The Tribal Affairs Ministry in May , 2021, signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Microsoft to help Tribal schools such as Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) and Ashram Schools have digital transformation. The MoU was signed digitally in an online event ‘Empowering Youth for Success’.
• National Education Society for Tribal Students (NESTS), is an autonomous Society has been set up under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs to establish, endow, maintain, control, and manage the schools and to do all acts and things necessary for or conducive to the promotion of such schools. The NESTS shall function through an Executive Committee under the Chairmanship of Secretary, Tribal Affairs.

Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED):

• It was established in August 1987 under the Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 1984 by the Government of India as a National level Cooperative body under the administrative control of the then Ministry of Welfare of India, with the basic mandate of bringing about socio-economic development of tribals of the country by institutionalizing the trade of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) & Surplus Agricultural Produce (SAP) collected/ cultivated by them. As a market developer and service provider, the objective of TRIFED is socio-economic development of tribal people in the country by way of marketing development of the tribal products on which the lives of tribals depends heavily as they spend most of their time and derive a major portion of their income. The philosophy behind this approach is to empower tribal people with knowledge, tools and pool of information so that they can undertake their operations in a more systematic and scientific manner.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

The cheetah, which is being re-introduced to India from Africa, is not to be confused with the leopard, which too has spots that look somewhat similar. Here’s a list of members of the ‘cat’ genus Panthera, Puma, and Acinonyx.

Panthera

• This is the genus of large wild cats that can roar, but can’t purr. Among them, the lion, the leopard, and the jaguar are more closely related, while the other strand has the tiger and the snow leopard. The snow leopard is an exception to the rest of the group in that it can’t roar.

Tiger (Panthera Tigris)

Size: 75-300 kg 

Status: Endangered

• Jim Corbett’s “large-hearted gentleman with boundless courage”, the solitary and strongly territorial tiger is the largest of all wild cats and also the earliest Panthera member to exist. 
• Primarily a forest animal, they range from the Siberian taiga to the Sunderban delta. 
• The national animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, and South Korea, the tiger was voted the world’s favourite animal ahead of the dog in a 2004 Animal Planet global online poll.
• Madhya Pradesh has largest population of Tigers (526), followed by Karnataka (524) according to latest report by MoEF&CC.

Lion (Panthera Leo)

Size: 100-250 kg

Status: Vulnerable

• Native to Africa and Asia, the lion is the most social cat, and lives in groups called prides. 
• They prefer open forests such as scrubland, and adult males have a prominent mane. 
• The lion is arguably the most widely recognised animal symbol in human culture — be it the Ashoka pillar in Sarnath, the main entrance to Buckingham Palace, or the 20th Century Fox and MGM logo.
• There are approximately 600 Asiatic lions left in the Gir Forest of Western India, their last remaining natural habitat.

Jaguar (Panthera Onca)

Size: 50-110 kg 

Status: Near Threatened

• The largest cat in the Americas, the Jaguar has the strongest bite force of all wild cats, enabling it to bite directly through the skull of its prey. 
• Melanistic (black) Jaguars are common and are often called black panthers. 
• Jaguar was a powerful motif in the Mayan and Aztec civilisations.

Leopard (Panthera Pardus)

Size: 30-90 kg  

Status: Vulnerable

• Similar in appearance to the Jaguar with a rosette patterned coat, the leopard was described by Jim Corbett as “the most beautiful of all animals” for its “grace of movement and beauty of colouring”.
• The most adaptable of all big cats, they occupy diverse habitats at all altitudes across Africa and Asia. 
• Like black jaguars, melanistic leopards are called black panthers. 
• In some African cultures, leopards are considered to be better hunters than lions.

Snow leopard (Panthera Uncia)

Size: 25-55 kg

Status: Vulnerable

• The ghost of the mountains, this smokey-grey cat lives above the snow line in Central and South Asia. 
• The most elusive of all big cats, it cannot roar, and has the longest tail of them all — which comes in handy for balance while hunting along the cliffs, and also gives warmth when wrapped around the body. 
• The snow leopard is the state animal of Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh.

PUMA

Closely related to the domestic cat, this genus has only one extant species, the cougar.

Cougar (Puma concolor)

Size: 40-100 kg

Status: Least Concern

• The cougar is the second-largest cat in the Americas. (The Jaguar is the largest.) 
• Cougars are also called ‘mountain lion’ and ‘panther’ across their range from the Canadian Yukon to the Southern Andes. 
• Concolor is latin for “of uniform colour”. 
• The Incas designed the city of Cusco in the shape of a cougar.

Acinonyx

This is a unique genus within the cat family, with only one living member, the cheetah.

Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

Size: 20-70 kg 

Status: Vulnerable

• The fastest land mammal, the cheetah is the only cat without retractable claws — the grip helps it accelerate faster than any sports car (0-100 km/hr in 3 seconds). 
• Cheetahs are not aggressive towards humans, and they have been tamed since the Sumerian era. 
• They don’t breed well in captivity — picky females play hard to get.
• Cheetahs are not really big, and they hunt during the day to avoid competing with other big cats. Mac OS X 10.0, Apple’s first major operating system, was code-named Cheetah in 2001.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Malaria booster vaccine shows up to 80 per cent efficacy: Lancet study

About the vaccine:

• R21/Matrix M is a modified version of RTS, S.
• The vaccine trial began in 2014-15 on 450 children in Burkina Faso. 

• R21/Matrix-M malaria vaccine is licensed to Serum Institute of India.
• In 2021, University of Oxford reported findings – the vaccine demonstrated efficacy of 77% over 12-months of follow-up.
• This vaccine is the first to meet the World Health Organization’s Malaria Vaccine Technology Roadmap goal of a vaccine with at least 75% efficacy
• Study involved 450 participants aged 5 to 17 months and recently reported an efficacy of over 80%.

Malaria:

• Firstly, it is caused by the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito if the mosquito itself is infected with a malarial parasite.
• Secondly, there are five kinds of malarial parasites — Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax (the commonest ones), Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium knowlesi.
• Thirdly, according to the World Malaria Report 2020, cases of Malaria in India dropped from about 20 million in 2000 to about 5.6 million in 2019.
• Fourthly, globally 39 countries have declared themselves Malaria free. 
• As per WHO, a country can be declared malaria-free when it reports zero indigenous cases of malaria for 3 or more years.
• Symptoms include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

The Eastern Economic Forum was established in 2015 to encourage foreign investments in Russia’s Far East. Russia hosted the seventh Eastern Economic Forum (EEF) Vladivostok from September 5 to 8. The four-day forum is a platform for entrepreneurs to expand their businesses into Russia’s Far East (RFE).

What is the Eastern Economic Forum?

• The EEF was established in 2015 to encourage foreign investments in the RFE. 
• The EEF displays the economic potential, suitable business conditions and investment opportunities in the region. 
• The agreements focus on infrastructure, transportation projects, mineral excavations, construction, industry and agriculture.

Who are the major actors in the Forum? What are their interests?

• China is the biggest investor in the region as it sees potential in promoting the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative and the Polar Sea Route in the RFE. 
• The Trans-Siberian Railway has further helped Russia and China in advancing trade ties. 
• China is also looking to develop its Heilongjiang province which connects with the RFE. China and Russia have invested in a fund to develop northeastern China and the RFE.
• South Korea has also been gradually increasing its investments in the region. South Korea has invested in shipbuilding projects, manufacturing of electrical equipment, gas-liquefying plants, agricultural production and fisheries. 
• Japan is another key trading partner in the Far East. In 2017, Japanese investments through 21 projects amounted to $16 billion.  Japan also sees a market for its agro-technologies which have the potential to flourish in the RFE, given similar climatic conditions.
• India seeks to expand its influence in the RFE. During the forum, Prime Minister expressed the country’s readiness in expanding trade, connectivity and investments in Russia. 
• India is keen to deepen its cooperation in energy, pharmaceuticals, maritime connectivity, healthcare, tourism, the diamond industry and the Arctic.
• In 2019, India also offered a $1 billion line of credit to develop infrastructure in the region. Through the EEF, India aims to establish a strong inter-state interaction with Russia. Business representatives of Gujarat and the Republic of Sakha have launched agreements in the diamond and pharmaceuticals industry.

What does the EEF aim for?

• The primary objective of the EEF is to increase the Foreign Direct Investments in the RFE. 
• The region encompasses one-third of Russia’s territory and is rich with natural resources such as fish, oil, natural gas, wood, diamonds and other minerals. 
• The sparse population living in the region is another factor for encouraging people to move and work in the Far East. 
• The region’s riches and resources contribute to five per cent of Russia’s GDP. But despite the abundance and availability of materials, procuring and supplying them is an issue due to the unavailability of personnel.
• The RFE is geographically placed at a strategic location; acting as a gateway into Asia. The Russian government has strategically developed the region with the aim of connecting Russia to the Asian trading routes. 
• Russia is trying to attract the Asian economies in investing and developing the far east. 
• The Ukraine war is a worrying issue as it affects the economic growth of the country. However, Russia believes that it can survive the economic crisis and the sanctions with the help of China and other Asian powers.
• Moreover, the coming together of countries like Myanmar, Armenia, Russia, and China seems like the forming of an anti-sanctions group in the international order.

Will India be able to achieve a balance between the EEF and the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF)?

• The U.S.-led Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) and the EEF are incomparable based on its geographic coverage and the partnership with the host-countries. India has vested interests in both the forums and has worked towards balancing its involvement. India has not shied away from investing in the Russia-initiated EEF despite the current international conditions.
• At the same time, India has given its confirmation and acceptance to three of the four pillars in the IPEF. 
• The country understands the benefits of being involved in the development in the RFE but it also perceives the IPEF as a vital platform to strengthen its presence in the Indo-Pacific region. 
• The IPEF also presents an ideal opportunity for India to act in the region, without being part of the China-led Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership or other regional grouping like the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership .
• The IPEF will also play a key role in building resilient supply chains. India’s participation in the forum will help in disengaging from supply chains that are dependent on China and will also make it a part of the global supply chain network. 
• Additionally, the IPEF partners will act as new sources of raw material and other essential products, further reducing India’s reliance on China for raw materials. 
• Although, India has refrained from full participation in the trade pillar of the IPEF, it does not signify an end to India’s role in the forum.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

On a modified B-747 that took off from Windhoek, Namibia, for Gwalior on Friday, are eight Namibian wild cheetahs five females, three males would-be founders of a new population in Kuno National Park in Madhya Pradesh.

As translocation gained currency as a conservation tool (as well as for boosting hunting stock or tourism), the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), a union of governments and civil society organisations, in 1995 came up with a guideline which has been updated since.

Genetic diversity: It is often difficult to find genetically suitable animals, particularly for building a new population, when the source population itself is closely related. This can lead to inbreeding depression in the new population.

Habitat and prey base: The factors that caused a species to lose numbers or go extinct must be dealt with to secure the habitat, before restocking so that colonies of reintroduced animals become large enough as quickly as possible to withstand fluctuations in both the environment and population size, experts say. Physical security, enough space, and ample food are the priorities.

Landscape viability: Simply releasing and moving animals between pocket forests can at best halt further habitat fragmentation in the name of a charismatic species. Even if such assisted exchanges succeed in ensuring genetic viability, animals will remain susceptible to demographic and environmental events in such a broken landscape.

Curbing the cats’ homing instincts: risks from losing the released animal from the target site and human-animal conflict.

Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh:

• Established in 1981 as a wildlife sanctuary in the Sheopur and Morena districts.
• In 2018, it was given the status of a national park. It is part of the Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests eco region.
• Area of 344.686 km2
• Fauna: Indian leopard, jungle cat, sloth bear, dhole, Indian wolf, golden jackal, striped hyena, and Bengal fox, chital, Sambar deer, nilgai, four-horned antelope, chinkara, blackbuck and wild boar

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Two years ago, Israel, the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain signed the United States-brokered Abraham Accords. It was a historic moment for our peoples and nations, fostering new hope for peace and prosperity in the Middle East. 

Key Points

• It also brought exciting opportunities for India and its thriving business community, which enjoys strong relations and engagement with our countries.
• The Abraham Accords were a product of collaboration between our nations towards normalisation of ties, bringing Israel closer to the Gulf nations that shared common values and mutual interests, and taking forward the peace initiative.
• It is deepening people-to-people ties and business opportunities.
• New joint ventures are being undertaken in critical sectors such as clean energy, health, innovation, technology, agriculture, water, trade, tourism, sustainability and much more.
• It has worked to produce academic collaborations between our universities, promote cultural exchange in the arts field, and raise awareness about our shared histories and heritage. 
• Ultimately, we aim to further strengthen our mutual understanding and the close friendship between our people.

The I2U2 Group

The Accords have paved the way for greater regional and multinational cooperation. Expanding economic opportunities continue to reach India, and we have already seen major commercial collaborations between companies from the UAE, Israel, Bahrain and the United States with the Indian private sector.

One concrete example of high-level economic cooperation between our governments is the formation of the I2U2 Group, established by Israel, India, the UAE, and the United States.

• I2U2 was initially formed in October, 2021 following the Abraham Accords between Israel and the UAE, to deal with issues concerning maritime security, infrastructure, and transport in the region.
• At that time, it was called the ‘International Forum for Economic Cooperation’.
• That was referred as the ‘West Asian Quad’.

The project will also greatly benefit the people of India. 

• I2U2 combines the strengths and resources of each member country to find innovative solutions to pressing global challenges and will serve as a model for multilateral cooperation with other like-minded countries.
• India is one of our important partners, and the breadth of our cooperation reflects our mutual interests: 
• Championing a sustainable recovery from the Covid-19 pandemic, expanding trade, addressing climate change, and combating threats to international security and stability.
• India will get advantage of the Abraham Accords to deepen engagement with Israel without risking its ties with the UAE and the other Arab states.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

Central Kashmir’s Manasbal Lake is once again open for training drill. It’s a historic day after a gap of 33 years. NCC training activities of the naval wing are being revived at the lake.

Manasbal Lake

• Manasbal Lake is located in Ganderbal District in the State of Jammu and Kashmir in India. 
• The name Manasbal is said to be a derivative of the Lake Manasarovar. 
• Lake is encircled by three villages viz., Jarokbal, Kondabal (also called Kiln place, is situated on the north-eastern side of the lake) and Ganderbal and is stated to be the deepest lake (at 13 m or 43 ft depth) in India.] 
• The large growth of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) at the periphery of the lake (blooms during July and August) adds to the beauty of the clear waters of the lake. 
• The Mughal garden, called the Jaroka, (meaning bay window) built by Nur Jahan overlooks the lake. 
• The lake is a good place for bird watching as it is one of the largest natural stamping grounds of Aquatic birds in Kashmir and has the sobriquet of “supreme gem of all Kashmir Lakes”. 
• The root stocks of lotus plant which grows extensively in the lake are harvested and marketed, and also eaten by the local people. 

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

The UNESCO United Nations World Water Development Report of 2022 has encapsulated global concern over the sharp rise in freshwater withdrawal from streams, lakes, aquifers and human-made reservoirs, impending water stress and also water scarcity being experienced in different parts of the world.

The new Water Report of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) sounded a note of caution about this silent crisis of a global dimension, with millions of people being deprived of water to live and to sustain their livelihood.

Growing Water Stress

• The Water Scarcity Clock, an interactive webtool, shows that over two billion people live in countries now experiencing high water stress; the numbers will continue to increase. 
• The Global Drought Risk and Water Stress map (2019) shows that major parts of India, particularly west, central and parts of peninsular India are highly water stressed and experience water scarcity. 
• A NITI Aayog report, ‘Composite Water Management Index’ (2018) has sounded a note of caution about the worst water crisis in the country, with more than 600 million people facing acute water shortages. 
• The typical response of the areas where water shortage or scarcity is high includes transfer of water from the hinterlands/upper catchments or drawing it from stored surface water bodies or aquifers. 
• This triggers sectoral and regional competition; rural-urban transfer of water is one such issue of global concern.

Water Stress and Water Scarcity:

• Water scarcity is a physical, objective reality that can be measured consistently across regions and over time.
• “Water stress” refers to the ability, or lack thereof, to meet human and ecological demand for water.

Types of water scarcity

• Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity
• Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively.
• Arid areas for example Central and West Asia, and North Africa often suffer from physical water scarcity.
• Economic water scarcity is caused by a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources, or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water.
• Much of Sub-Saharan Africa has economic water scarcity.

Urban Water Use

• According to Census 2011, the urban population in India accounted for 34% of total population distributed in 7,935 towns of all classes.
• It is estimated that the urban population component in India will cross the 40% mark by 2030 and the 50% mark by 2050 (World Urbanization Prospects, 2018). 
• The urban population accounted for 50% of the total world population by the end of the last century. 
• Although the pace of India’s urbanisation is relatively slow, it is now urbanising at a rapid pace — the size of the urban population is substantial. 
• Water use in the urban sector has increased as more and more people shift to urban areas, and per capita use of water in these centres rises, which will continue to grow with improved standards of living.
• Examining the urban water management trajectory, it is evident that in the initial stages when a city is small, it is concerned only with water supply; in a majority of cases, water is sourced locally, with groundwater meeting the bulk of the supply. 
• As the city grows and water management infrastructures develop, dependence shifts to surface water.
• With a further growth of cities, water sources shift further up in the hinterlands, or the allocation of urban water is enhanced at the expense of irrigation water. 
• Almost all cities in India that depend on surface water experience this trend. 
• City water supply is now a subject of inter-basin and inter-State transfers of water.

The case of Ahmadabad

• Ahmedabad is an interesting case in this context. More than 80% of water supply in this city used to be met from groundwater sources till the mid-1980s.
• The depth to groundwater level reached 67 meters in confined aquifers. The city now depends on the Narmada canal for the bulk of its water supply.
• The shift is from local groundwater to canal water receiving supply from an inter-State and inter-basin transfer of surface water.
• Whatever be the source, surface or groundwater, cities largely depend on rural areas for raw water supply, which has the potential to ignite the rural-urban dispute.
• Available studies covering Nagpur and Chennai indicate the imminent problem of rural-urban water disputes that the country is going to face in the not-so-distant future as water scarcity grows, which will be further exacerbated by climate change.

A system perspective and catchment scale-based approach are necessary to link reallocation of water with wider discussions on development, infrastructure investment, fostering a rural-urban partnership and adopting an integrated approach in water management.

Institutional strengthening can offer entry points and provide opportunities to build flexibility into water resource allocation at a regional level, enabling adjustments in rapidly urbanizing regions.