General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

As per the Minister of Road Transport and Highways the Indian road accident scenario, with 415 deaths and many injured every day, is more severe than Covid-19.

Road Accidents in India: What’s the Scenario?

• Present Situation:
  • Over 1.5 lakh people died from road accidents in 2021,and this has been the trend for several years.
  • According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)data from 2021, driving under the influence of drugs/alcohol contributed to 1.9% of deaths from accidents.
  • Further, nearly 90% of deaths on the road were due to speeding, overtaking, and dangerous driving.
  • According to the World Bank’s data from 2019, India ranked first among the top 20 countries for road accidents.
• Causes:
  • Infrastructural Deficits:Pathetic conditions of roads and vehicles, poor visibility and poor road design and engineering – including quality of material and construction, especially a single-lane with a sharp curve.
  • Negligence and Risks:Over speeding, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, tiredness or riding without a helmet, driving without seatbelts.
  • Distraction:Talking over mobile phones while driving has become a major cause of road accidents.
  • Overloading:To save on the cost of transportation.
  • Weak Vehicle Safety Standards in India:In 2014, crash tests carried out by the Global New Car Assessment Programme (NCAP) revealed that some of India’s top-selling car models have failed the UN (United Nations)’s frontal impact crash test.
  • Lack of Awareness:Regarding the importance of safety features like airbags, Anti lock Braking system
• Impacts:
  • Economy:
    • As per the World Bank, road crashes cost the Indian economy 3 to 5 percent of GDP each year.
  • Social:
    • The Burden on Households:
      • Every road accident death causes the depletion of nearly seven months’ household income in poor families and pushes the kin of victims into a cycle of poverty and debt.
    • Vulnerable Road Users(VRUs):
      • VRUs bear a disproportionately large burden of road crashes and account for more than half of all road crash deaths and serious injuries in the country.
        • It is often the poor, especially male road-users of working age, that constitute the category of VRUs.
      • Gender-Specific Impact:
        • Women in the families of victims bore the burden across poor and rich households, often taking up extra work, assuming greater responsibilities, and performing caregiving activities.
        • According to World Bank’s report “Traffic Crash Injuries and Disabilities: The Burden on Indian Society, 2021,
          • About 50% of women were severely affected by the decline in their household income after a crash.
          • About 40% of women reported a change in their working patterns post-accident ,while around 11% reported taking up extra work to deal with the financial crisis.
          • The income decline for low-income rural households(56%) was the most severe compared to low-income urban (29.5%) and high-income rural households (39.5%).

What Steps can be Taken in this Regard?

• Issues with Motor Vehicles (MV) (Amendment) Act, 2019: The MV (Amendment) Act, 2019increased the existing fines for violating traffic rules which were criticised on the pretext that the (fine) paying capacity of an average Indian was still limited.
  • Also, only a few cases of traffic violations are contested by the accused in a court of law.
  • Therefore, the expected impact of the deterrent provisions of the amended law could not be realised on ground.
• Road Safety Zones: It is proposed to set up smaller areas, parts of major roads and highways, as “ideal” road safety zones. These zones will incubate locally suitable, comprehensive safe road practices.
• A New Administrative Structure:The administrative structure for the implementation of road safety can be set up in three tiers:
  • Tier 1: It would be the Managing Group (MG),which would look after day-to-day operations and would be autonomous and financially empowered.
  • Tier 2:It would have district-level monitoring. This is where urgent solutions would be sought, budgetary allocations made, and review modes fixed. It would also ensure adherence to targets.
  • Tier 3: It would have top management and control, represented at the level of the Union or state government.
• Speed-Detection Devices:Installation of proven speed detection devices such as Radar and speed detection camera systems can be introduced.
  • Chandigarh and New Delhi have already implemented the service of speed detection devices such as digital still cameras (Chandigarh), speed cameras (New Delhi), and Radar gun (New Delhi) in traffic control.
    • Radar Gun is a handheld device used by traffic police to estimate the speed of a passing vehicle.
  • Improved Safety Measures:Speed humps, raised platforms, Roundabouts, and optical markings can reduce road accidents to a great extent.
  • Better Centre-State Coordination:It is a high time that we realise that lives cannot be lost at the cost of poor enforcement of traffic laws.
    • It is important for the States and the Centre to be on the same page in improving and strengthening the infrastructure of States by enabling more funds.
    • Merely and only fixing targets is not a pragmatic approach to reducing road accident fatalities. Putting dedicated efforts into achieving those targets is also required.

What are the Initiatives Related to Road Safety?

• Global:
  • Brasilia Declaration on Road Safety (2015):
    • The declaration was signed at the second Global High-Level Conference on Road Safety held in Brazil. India is a signatory to the Declaration.
    • The countries plan to achieve Sustainable Development Goal6 i.e., to halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents by 2030.
  • Decade of Action for Road Safety 2021-2030:
    • The UN General Assembly dopted resolution “Improving global road safety ” with the ambitious target of preventing at least 50% of road traffic deaths and injuries by 2030.
    • The Global Plan aligns with the Stockholm Declaration, by emphasizing the importance of a holistic approach to road safety.
  • The International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP) :
    • It is a registered charity dedicated to saving lives through safer roads.

India:

• Motor Vehicles Amendment Act, 2019:
  • The Act hikes the penalties for traffic violations, defective vehicles, juvenile driving
  • It provides for a Motor Vehicle Accident Fund, which would provide compulsory insurance cover to all road users in India for certain types of accidents.
  • It also provides for a National Road Safety Board, to be created by the Central Government.
• The Carriage by Road Act, 2007:
  • The Act provides for the regulation of common carriers, limiting their liability and declaration of the value of goods delivered to them to determine their liability for loss of, or damage to, such goods occasioned by the negligence or criminal acts of themselves, their servants or agents and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
• The Control of National Highways (Land and Traffic) Act, 2000:
  • The Act provides for the control of land within the National Highways, right of way and traffic moving on the National Highways and also for removal of unauthorized occupation thereon.
• National Highways Authority of India Act,1998:
  • The Act provides for the constitution of an authority for the development, maintenance and management of NHs and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court has passed a verdict on the Demonetisation of currency notes of Rs 500 and Rs 1,000 in a majority 4-1 by a five-judge Constitution Bench.

What are the Rulings of the Verdict?

• Majority Ruling:
  • The majority held that Centre’s notification dated November 8, 2016 is valid and satisfies the test of proportionality.
  • The RBI and the Centre had been in consultation with each other for six months prior to the November 8 notification issued under Section 26(2)of the RBI (Reserve Bank Of India) Act, 1934.
  • The statutory procedure under Section 26(2) of the RBI Act was not violated merely because the Centre had taken the initiative to “advice” the Central Board to consider recommending
  • The government was empowered under the provision to demonetise “all series” of banknotes.
  • On hasty decision, the court said such measures undisputedly are required to be taken with utmost confidentiality and speed. If the news of such a measure is leaked out, it is difficult to imagine how disastrous the consequences would be.
  • Demonetisation was done for the “proper purposes” of eliminating fake currency, black money and terror financing.
• Minority Ruling:
  • The government could have issued a notification under Section 26(2) of the RBI Act only if the RBI had initiated the proposal to demonetise by way of a recommendation.
  • Therefore, the government’s notification issued under Section 26(2) of the RBI Act was unlawful.
  • In cases in which the government initiates demonetisation, it should take the opinion of the RBI. The opinion of the Board should be “independent and frank”.
  • If the Board’s opinion was in the negative, the Centre could still go forward with the demonetisation exercise, but only by promulgating an ordinance or by enacting a parliamentary legislation.
  • Describing the Parliament as the “nation in miniature”, “without the Parliament, democracy will not thrive”.

What is the Test of Proportionality?

• The test of proportionality is a commonly employed legal method used by courts around the world, typically constitutional courts, to decide cases where two or more legitimate rights clash.
• When such cases are decided, one right typically prevails at the expense of the other and the court thus has to balance the satisfaction of some rights and the damage to other rights resulting from a judgment.
• The principle of proportionality ordains that the administrative measure must not be more drastic than is necessary for attaining the desired result.

What was Demonetisation?

• About:
  • On 8^thNovember 2016, the government announced that the largest denomination of Rs 500 and Rs 1000 were demonetised with immediate effect ceasing to be a legal tender.
  • It is the act of stripping a currency unit of its status as legal tender or fiat money.
  • It occurs whenever there is a change of national currency and the current form or forms of money is pulled from circulation and retired, often to be replaced with new notes or coins.
• Objectives of Demonetisation:
  • To discourage the use of high-denomination notes for illegal transactions and thus curb the widespread use of black money.
  • To encourage digitisation of commercial transactions,formalise the economy and so, boost government tax revenues.
    • The formalisation of the economy means bringing companies under the regulatory regime of government and subject to laws related to manufacturing and income tax.
  • Operation Clean Money:
    • It was launched by the Income Tax Department (CBDT) for e-verification of large cash deposits made during the period from 9^th November to 30^thDecember 2016.
    • The programme was launched on 31^stJanuary 2017 and entered into the second phase in May 2017.
    • It aimed to verify cash transaction status (exchange/savings of banned notes) of taxpayers during the demonetisation period and to take tax enforcement action if transactions do not match the tax status.
  • Impact of the Move:
    • Currency with the public stood at Rs. 17.97 lakh crore on 4^thNovember 2016 and declined to Rs 7.8 lakh crore in January 2017 after demonetisation.
    • Demands fell, businesses faced a crisis and gross domestic product(GDP) growth declined nearly 1.5%, with many small units and shops being shut down and it also created a liquidity shortage.
      • Liquidity shortages or crises arise when financial institutions and industrial companies scramble for, and cannot find the cash they require to meet their most urgent needs or undertake their most valuable projects.

Way Forward

• Demonetization was an expeditious move to boldly counter the black money and parallel economy (illegal economy, such as money laundering, smuggling, etc.) threat with visible impact on how the government’s policies are perceived in international circles of economic power.
• This move by the government achieved greater significance for a globally connected India as it showed boldness in tackling an issue which has remained a thorn in the growth

General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

Recently, the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) Chairperson said that the ST body’s position on the Forest (Conservation) Rules 2022 being violative of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 “will be the same” even as the Environment Ministry has dismissed these concerns.

What is the Issue?

• Consent Clause for Diversion of Forest Land:
  • In September 2022, flagging concerns over the provision in the new rules that proposes to do away with the consent clause for diversion of forest land for other purposes, the Commission had recommended that these rules should be put on hold immediately.
    • In response, the ministry has insisted that the rules were framed under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and that the NCST’s apprehension of these rules being in violation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 was “not legally tenable”.
    • The Minister added that the two statutory processes were parallel and not dependent on each other.
  • Consent of Gram Sabhas:
    • The NCST had pointed out that the FCR 2022 has done away with the provisions to mandatorily seek consent of Gram Sabhas before the Stage 1 clearance, leaving this process to be done later and even after Stage 2 clearance.
      • According to the government, FCR 2022 already provides for diversion of forest land “only after fulfilment and compliance of all provisions, including settlement of rights under the Forest Rights Act” and also does not bar or infringe upon the operation of other laws mandating consent of Gram Sabhas.

What are the Provisions of Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2022?

• Formation of Committees:
  • It constituted an Advisory Committee, a regional empowered committee at each of the integrated regional offices and a screening committee at State/Union Territory (UT) government-level.
• Compensatory Afforestation:
  • The applicants for diverting forest land in a hilly or mountainous state with green cover covering more than two-thirds of its geographical area, or in a state/UT with forest cover covering more than one-third of its geographical area, will be able to take up compensatory afforestation in other states/UTs where the cover is less than 20%.
• Allows Private Plantations:
  • The rules make a provision for private parties to cultivate plantations and sell them as land to companies who need to meet compensatory afforestation targets.
    • Prior to the updated rules, state bodies would forward documents to the FAC that would also include information on the status of whether the forest rights of locals in the area were settled.
  • No consent of Gram Sabha needed:
    • The new rules state that a project, once approved by the FAC, will then be passed on to the State authorities who will collect the compensatory fund and land, and process it for final approval.
      • Previously consent of gram sabha, or the governing body in villages in the area, was required to give written consent to the diversion of the forest.
    • Allows building in Forests:
      • Right to construct structures for bonafide purposes including forest protection measures and residential units (up to an area of 250 sq meters as one-time relaxation).

What is the State of Forest in India?

• About:
  • According to India State of Forest Report, 2021,the Total Forest and Tree cover is now 7,13,789 square kilometres, 21.71% of the country’s geographical area, an increase from 21.67% in 2019.
  • Forest Cover (Area-wise): Madhya Pradesh> Arunachal Pradesh> Chhattisgarh> Odisha> Maharashtra.

Category:

• Reserved Forests:
  • Reserve forests are the most restricted forests and are constituted by the State Government on any forest land or wasteland which is the property of the Government.
  • In reserved forests,local people are prohibited, unless specifically allowed by a Forest Officer in the course of the settlement.
• Protected Forests:
  • The State Government is empowered to constitute any land other than reserved forests as protected forests over which the Government has proprietary rights and the power to issue rules regarding the use of such forests.
  • This power has been used to establish State control over trees, whose timber, fruit or other non-wood products have revenue-raising potential.
• Village forest:
  • Village forests are the one in which the State Government may assign to ‘any village community the rights of Government to or over any land which has been constituted a reserved forest’.
• Degree of Protection:
  • Reserved forests > Protected forests > Village forests.

Constitutional Provisions:

• Through the 42^ndAmendment Act, 1976 Forests and Protection of Wild Animals and Birds were transferred from State to Concurrent List along with Education, Weights & Measures and Administration of Justice.
• Article 48 A in the Directive Principles of State policy, mandates that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
• Article 51 A (g)of the Constitution states that it shall be the Fundamental Duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forests and Wildlife.

What are the Related Initiatives?

Indian Forest Policy, 1952:

• It was a simple extension of colonial forest policy. However, it became conscious about the need to increase the forest cover to one-third of the total land area.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980:

• It stipulated that the central permission is necessary to practice sustainable agro-forestry in forest areas. Violation or lack of permit was treated as a criminal offence.

National Forest Policy, 1988:

• The ultimate objective of the National Forest policy was to maintain environmental stability and ecological balance through conservation of forests as a natural heritage.

National Afforestation Programme :

• It has been implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change since 2000 for the afforestation of degraded forest lands.

Other Related Acts:

• The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, The Environment Protection Act of 1986, and The Biodiversity Diversity Act of 2002.
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006:
  • It has been enacted to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation of forest land in forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers, who have been residing in such forests for generations.

General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

Recently, the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) has released the Draft Rules for Online Gaming.

• The proposed rules have been introduced as an amendment to the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021.

What are the Draft Rules?

• Self Regulatory Body:
  • Online games will have to register with a self-regulatory body, and only games cleared by the body will be allowed to legally operate in India.
    • The self-regulatory body will have a board of directors with five members from diverse fields, including online gaming, public policy, IT, psychology and medicine.
  • There could be more than one self-regulatory body and all of them will have to inform the Centre about the games they have registered along with a report detailing the criteria for registering.
• Due Diligence:
  • Online gaming firms will be required to undertake additional due diligence, including KYC of users, transparent withdrawal and refund of money, and a fair distribution of winnings.
  • For KYC, they will have to follow norms laid down for entities regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
• Random Number Generation Certificate:
  • Gaming companies will also have to secure a Random Number Generation Certificate, which is typically used by platforms that offer card games to ensure that game outputs are statistically random and unpredictable.
  • They will also have to get a “no bot certificate” from a reputed certifying body.
• Restrictions on Betting:
  • Online gaming companies will not be allowed to engage in betting on the outcome of games.
• Compliance:
  • Similar to social media and e-commerce companies, online gaming platforms will also have to appoint a compliance officer who will ensure that the platform is following norms, a nodal officer who will act as a liaison official with the government and assist law enforcement agencies, and a grievance officer who will resolve user complaints.

What is the Need for the Rules?

• Around 40 to 45 % of the gamers in India are women, and therefore it was all the more important to keep the gaming ecosystem safe.
• It is believed to be a great first step for comprehensive regulation for online gaming and will reduce the state-wise regulatory fragmentation that was a big challenge for the industry.
• The revenue of the Indian mobile gaming industry is expected to reach USD 5 billion in 2025.
• The industry grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 38% in India between 2017-2020, as opposed to 8 % in China and 10% in the US.
• It is expected to grow at a CAGR of 15 % to reach Rs 153 billion in revenue by 2024, as per a report by VC firm Sequoia and management consulting company BCG.

General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

The Investor Education and Protection Fund (IEPF) will launch an outreach programme to create awareness of Cryptocurrencies and Online Gaming.

What is the Outreach Programme?

• The need for the outreach programme is based on the observation that both crypto-assets and online gaming (that extends to gambling and betting) are still being promoted in a risky manner despite the recent turmoil in the sector.
• The programme will help potential investors to thoroughly educate themselves before making any decision since cryptocurrency investing is a complex and risky endeavour.

What is the IEPF?

• It is managed by the IEPF Authority, which was set up in 2016 under the provisions of Section 125 of the Companies Act, 2013.
• The Authority is entrusted with the responsibility of administration of the IEPF, which, besides promoting awareness among investors, makes refunds of shares, unclaimed dividends, matured deposits and debentures and so on to rightful claimants.
• As for investment education, the idea is to reach out to household investors, housewives and professionals alike in rural and urban areas and teach them the basics.
• Focus areas include primary and secondary capital markets, various saving instruments, the instruments for investment (such as mutual funds, equity, among others), making investors aware of dubious Ponzi and chit fund schemes and existing grievance redressal mechanisms, among other things.

Why is there a Concern about Cryptocurrency?

• The crypto dilemma stems from concerns about the unregulated currency having a destabilising effect on the monetary and fiscal stability of a country.
• Further, crypto exchanges in India are being investigated for their alleged involvement in unlawful practices such as drug trafficking, money laundering, violating foreign exchange legislation and evasion of GST (Goods and Services Tax).
  • As on December 2022, Rs 907.48 crore have been attached/seized, three persons have been arrested and four prosecution complaints have been filed before the Special Court, Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA).
• The immutable, public nature of the blockchain makes crypto a poor choice for money laundering because it allows law enforcement to uncover and trace money laundering far easier than cash transactions.”
• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has recommended framing legislation on the sector. It is of the view that cryptocurrencies should be prohibited.

What about Online Gaming?

• The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has been appointed the nodal industry for online gaming in India; for e-sports, the nodal agency is the Department of Sports,under the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports.
• A proposed framework for Central regulation by MeitY isexpected to address issues faced by the sector.
• For instance, there is confusion about the definitions of a ‘game of chance’ like fantasy games, and a ‘game of skill’,a term which has been used in the Public Gaming Act (1867) but has not been spelt out. There are risks from cybercrimes as well.
• In a ‘game of skill’, while the element of chance cannot be entirely ruled out, it is the ‘element of skill’ (mental or physical skill of the user) that plays a dominant role in determining the outcome of the game rather than pure chance.
• As per several rulings of the Supreme Court and several High Courts clearly establish ‘Games of Skill’ as legitimate business activities protected under Article 19(1)(g) of the Indian Constitution.
• These rulings have also emphasized a clear distinction between ‘Games of Skill’ and ‘Games of Chance’.
• Despite these court rulings, online skill games have faced restrictions in a few States due to addiction, financial losses and the thin line between skill and chance.

Way Forward

• Apart from the outreach programme, there has to be a regulatory mechanism for the crypto sector.
• If the government takes a heavy-handed approach and starts saying things like virtual currency is not legal in India, that will not be entirely true. People may presume incorrectly that it is illegal,and One may be indulging in unlawful transactions like money laundering using crypto assets. But unlawful transactions can also be executed using legal banking channels as well.

Question for Practice

Q.1 What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect the global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also? (UPSC 2021)

General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

The year 2022 was not the best for tech firms, yet we may innovative technologies emerge in future related to Metaverse and AI (Artificial Intelligence), which may raise concerns and present Opportunities.

• The year 2022 saw a lot of the shift in demand during and post the Covid-induced lockdowns.
• The year 2022 ended with near mayhem across most Silicon Valley companies, especially those in the Internet business.

What will be the Future Challenges and Opportunities of Meta-AI?

• More Pervasive AI:
  • ChatGPT has shown the world that conversational artificial intelligence is an idea whose time has come.
  • The ChatGPT can answer “follow-up questions”, and can also “admit its mistakes, challenge incorrect premises, and reject inappropriate requests.” but most such AI elements are now in standalone products, which is more play than work.
  • In 2023, this intelligence will be seen coming into more products that we use every day —for instance Gmail that will not just auto-suggest but also write next mail to the boss.
• Beyond Social Media:
  • Twitter and Facebook are struggling to remain relevant amid an increasingly younger and digital native audience. Their concepts of social engagement are very different, often sans text and notice-board behaviors.
  • Meta, for instance, knows that it will have to think beyond its present social media platforms and wants to be the social link when users move to the Metaverse, if at all.
  • But that might not be something that will shift soon. Till then, there seems to be a vacuum emerging in the social media space, for now plugged by users sticking to short videos. But that fad too shall pass and not all platforms are good in that segment.
• More Regional, Darker Social Bubbles:
  • As the Internet spreads to new users, especially in countries like India, it is also becoming more localized and multilingual.
  • Across the world, the English language internet seems to have plateaued, making platforms like Google focus more on opportunities to serve smaller, regional languages.
  • This is a tech challenge in more ways than one, but also presents an opportunity to test out new technologies that can convert the content of the internet for these new users without much human intervention.
• Future of Metaverse: 
  • As hybrid workforces become the norm and with travel still not as easy as earlier, extended reality (XR)could become the answer to collaborate and communicate virtually.
    • XR is an emerging umbrella term for all the immersive technologies, including augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR) plus those that are still to be created.
    • All immersive technologies extend the reality we experience by either blending the virtual and “real” worlds or by creating a fully immersive experience.
  • Since the headsets and other paraphernalia to facilitate these virtual interactions are still very expensive, it might be up to companies to make these available to their employees for regular XR meetings. The first experience of this could end up looking like an upgraded version of video conferencing, but with the ability to interact with objects in the virtual space.
  • A few more commercial versions of the Metaverse is expected to be accessible to regular users during the year. However, the challenge will be with the hardware that lets people access these virtual worlds without making people bankrupt in the real world. The big disruptor could be an affordable device that logs users into the Metaverse easily — maybe it will just be a smartphone.

What are the Ethical Concerns related to AI?

• The legal and ethical issues that confront society due to AI include privacy and surveillance, bias or discrimination, and potentially the philosophical challenge is the role of human judgment. Concerns about newer digital technologies becoming a new source of inaccuracy and data breaches have arisen as a result of its use.
• The other side of this technological revolution is a growing apprehension on thesocio-political and economic implications of AI, specifically, the concerns about co-existence of these emerging technologies and core principles of modern democracies.
• Consequently, AI ethics and the safe and responsible application of AI are becoming front and centre of the technology revolution.
• Constitutional morality was envisioned as the cornerstone for AI ethics’ principles in India, thus, propelling our constitutional rights and ethos to the paramount consideration for deploying AI in a responsible manner.

What are the Principles of a Responsible AI?

• Safety and Reliability: AI systems must ensure reliability regarding their intended functions and must have built-in safeguards to ensure the safety of stakeholders.
• Equality:AI systems must be built keeping in mind that similar people in similar circumstances are treated equally.
• Inclusivity and Non-Discrimination:AI systems must be developed to be inclusive of all stakeholders, and must not discriminate through bias between stakeholders on religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth or residence in matters of education, employment, access to public spaces etc.
• Privacy and Security:AI systems must ensure that the personal data of data subjects must be safe and secure, such that only authorised persons must access personal data for specified and necessary purposes, within a framework of sufficient safeguards to ensure this process.
• Principle of Transparency:The design and training of AI systems is key for its functioning. The system must be audited and be capable of external scrutiny to ensure that the deployment of the AI system is impartial, accountable and free from bias or inaccuracies.
• Principle of Accountability:Since there are various actors in the process of developing, deploying and operationalizing an AI system, the accountability structures for any effects, harms or damages by the AI system must be clearly set out in a publicly accessible and understandable manner.
• Protection and Reinforcement of Positive Human Values:This principle focuses on the possible deleterious effects of AI systems through collection of personal data for profiling, the use of AI systems in manners contrary to fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India.

General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

The Assam state Cabinet recently approved the merger of four districts with their constituent districts.

• On 27^thDecember, the EC announced the process of delimitation of Assembly and Parliamentary constituencies in Assam, saying it would be based on Census data from 2001. Assam currently has 14 Lok Sabha constituencies and 126 Assembly constituencies.

What is Delimitation?

• About:
  • Delimitationliterally means the act or process of fixing limits or boundaries of territorial constituencies in a country to represent changes in population.
  • The Delimitation Commission is to work without any executive influence.
  • The Constitution mandates that the Commission’s orders are final and cannot be questioned before any court as it would hold up an election indefinitely.
  • When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modification in the orders.
• Need:
  • To provide equal representation to equal segments of a population.
  • Fair division of geographical areas so that one political party doesn’t have an advantage over others in an election.
  • To follow the principle of “One Vote One Value”.
• Composition:
  • The Delimitation Commission is appointed by the President of India and works in collaboration with the Election Commission of India.
    • Retired Supreme Courtjudge
    • Chief Election Commissioner
    • Respective State Election Commissioners

What is the Process of Delimitation?

• Under Article 82, the Parliament enacts a Delimitation Act after every Census.
• Under Article 170,States also get divided into territorial constituencies as per Delimitation Act after every Census.
• Once the Act is in force, the Union government sets up a Delimitation Commission.
• The first delimitation exercise was carried out by the President (with the help of the Election Commission) in 1950-51.
• The Delimitation Commission Act was enacted in 1952.
• Delimitation Commissions have been set up four times — 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002 under the Acts of 1952, 1962, 1972 and 2002.
• There was no delimitation after the 1981 and 1991 Censuses.

What are the Issues with Delimitation?

• States that take little interest in population control could end up with a greater number of seats in Parliament. The southern states that promoted family planning faced the possibility of having their seats reduced.
• In 2002-08,Delimitation was done based on the 2001 census, but the total number of seats in the Assemblies and Parliament decided as per the 1971 Census was not changed.
  • The 87^thAmendment Act of 2003 provided for the delimitation of constituencies on the basis of 2001 census and not 1991 census. However, this can be done without altering the number of seats allotted to each state in the Lok Sabha.
• The Constitution has also capped the number of Lok Shaba & Rajya Sabha seats to a maximum of 550 & 250 respectively and increasing populations are being represented by a single representative.

General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

India has shared the vision to make International Year of Millets 2023 a ‘People’s Movement’ alongside positioning India as the ‘Global Hub for Millets’.

What is International Year of Millets?

• About:
  • India’s proposal to observe an International Year of Millets in 2023 was approved by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)in 2018 and the United Nations General Assembly has declared the year 2023 as the International Year of Millets.
  • This was adopted by a United Nations Resolution for which India took the lead and was supported by over 70 nations.
• Objectives:
  • Awareness of the contribution of millet to Food Security and nutrition.
  • Inspire stakeholders to improve sustainable production and quality of millets.
  • Focus on enhanced investment in research and development and extension services to achieve the other two aims.

What is Millet?

• About:
  • Millet is a collective term referring to a number of small-seeded annual grasses that are cultivated as grain crops, primarily on marginal lands in dry areas in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions.
  • Some of the common millets available in India are Ragi (Finger millet), Jowar (Sorghum), Sama (Little millet), Bajra (Pearl millet), and Variga (Proso millet).
    • The earliest evidence for these grains has been found in Indus civilization and was one of the first plants domesticated for food.
  • It is grown in about 131 countries and is the traditional food for around 60 crore people in Asia & Africa.
  • India is the largest producer of millet in the world.
    • It accounts for 20 % of global production and 80% of Asia’s production.
  • Global Distribution:
    • India, Nigeria and China are the largest producers of millets in the world, accounting for more than 55% of the global production.
    • For many years, India was a major producer of millets. However, in recent years, millet production has increased dramatically in Africa.
  • Significance:
    • Nutritionally Superior:
      • Millets are less expensive and nutritionally superior to wheat & rice owing to their high protein, fibre, vitamins and minerals like iron content.
      • Millets are also rich in calcium and magnesium. For example, Ragi is known to have the highest calcium content among all the food grains.
      • Millets can provide nutritional security and act as a shield against nutritional deficiency, especially among children and women. Its high iron content can fight high prevalence of anaemia in India women of reproductive age and infants.
    • Gluten-free a low Glycemic Index:
      • Millets can help tackle lifestyle problems and health challenges such as obesity and diabetes as they are gluten-free and have a low glycemic index (a relative ranking of carbohydrate in foods according to how they affect blood glucose levels).
    • Super Crop at Growing:
      • Millets are Photo-insensitive(do not require a specific photoperiod for flowering) & resilient to climate change. Millets can grow on poor soils with little or no external inputs.
      • Millets are less water consuming and are capable of growing under drought conditions, under non-irrigated conditions even in very low rainfall regimes.
      • Millets have low carbon and water footprint (rice plants need at least 3 times more water to grow in comparison to millets).

What are the Related Initiatives Taken by the Government?

• Initiative for Nutritional Security through Intensive Millet Promotion (INSIMP)
• Increase in Minimum Support Price (MSP):The government has hiked the Minimum Support Price of Millets, which came as a big price incentive for farmers.
  • Further, to provide a steady market for the produce, the government has included millets in the public distribution system.
  • Input Support: The government has introduced provision of seed kits and inputs to farmers, building value chains through Farmer Producer Organisations and supporting the marketability of millets.

General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

Recently, the Year-End-Review of the Department of Space for the year 2022 under the Ministry of Science and Technology was released.

What are the Key achievements of the Department of Space?

• Key Missions:Altogether 44 spacecraft missions, 42 launch vehicle missions and 5 technology demonstrators, have been successfully realized, since 2014.
  • Chandrayaan-2 Mission:In 2019, Chandrayaan-2 was successfully launched.
    • It is providing valuable science data for the research community.
  • 50^thPSLV Launch:
    • The launch of PSLV-C48/ RISAT-2BR1 in Dec 2019 marked the50^th launch of PSLV, the workhorse launch vehicle.
    • RISAT-2BR1 will keep a check on infiltration by allowing round-the-clock surveillance across the border.
  • ISRO System for Safe & Sustained Operations Management (IS4OM):
    • In July 2022, the Ministry of science dedicated ISRO System for Safe & Sustained Operations Management (IS4OM) to the nation in.
    • It is a facility that is conceived with a holistic approach towards ensuring safety and sustainability while reaping the benefits of sustainable utilization of outer space for national development.
  • Launch Vehicle Mark (LVM) 3:
    • LVM3 /OneWeb India-1 Mission was successfully accomplished in October 2022.
    • With this launch, LVM3 exemplifies Atmanirbharata and enhances India’s competitive edge in the global commercial launch service market.
  • Integrated Main Parachute Airdrop Test (IMAT):
    • As part of Gaganyaan programme, IMAT of crew module deceleration system was successfully carried out at Babina Field Fire Range (BFFR), Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh in November 2022.
  • Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator:
    • Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)successfully demonstrated new technology with Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (IAD) – a game changer with multiple applications for future missions.
    • The IAD has huge potential in a variety of space applications like recovery of spent stages of rocket, for landing payloads on to Mars or Venus and in making space habitat for human space flight missions.
  • PSLV-C54:
    • PSLV-C54 successfully launchedEOS-06 satellite in November 2022 along with Eight Nano-satellites including INDIA-BHUTAN SAT (INS-2B).
    • The launch of the new satellite is part of India’s efforts to back Bhutanese King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck’s plans to use advanced technology, including ICT and space technology, for the development of Bhutan.

Academic Support, Capacity building and Outreach:

• Space Technology Incubation Centers (STIC):
  • In order to boost the space research activities, STIC have been established, since 2018.
  • Under this initiative, nine Space Technology Cells (STC), Six STIC and Six Regional Academic Centre for Space (RACS) are operational.
• Satish Dhawan Centre for Space Sciences:
  • Recently, Satish Dhawan Centre for Space Sciences was jointly established by ISRO/DoS and Central University of Jammu.
• Unispace Nanosatellite Assembly & Training by ISRO:
  • In June 2018, India announced a capacity building training programme UNNATI (UNispace Nanosatellite Assembly & Training by ISRO)on Nanosatellites development through a combination of theoretical coursework and hands-on training on Assembly, Integration and Testing (AIT).
• Young Scientist Programme:
  • In 2019, ISRO launched an annual special programme called “Young Scientist Programme” or the “Yuva VIgyani KAryakram” (YUVIKA)in line with the Government’s vision “Jai Vigyan, Jai Anusandhan”.
  • The Program is primarily aimed at imparting basic knowledge on Space Technology, Space Science and Space Applications to the young talents with the intent of encouraging them in the fascinating domain of outer space.
• SpaceTech Innovation Network (SpIN):
  • ISRO and Social Alpha signed an MoU in December 2022 to launch SpaceTech Innovation Network (SpIN), India’s first dedicated platform for innovation curation and venture development for the burgeoning space entrepreneurial ecosystem.

Reforms and Enhanced Participation of Industries:

• NewSpace India Limited (NSIL):
  • In 2019, the NSIL got incorporated as a wholly owned Government of India Undertaking/ Central Public Sector Enterprise (CPSE).
  • It was aimed at enabling Indian Industries to scale up high-technology manufacturing base for space programmeand to commercially exploit the products and services emanating from the Indian Space Programme for meeting the domestic and global customer needs.
  • GSAT-24 communication satellitewhich is the first demand driven mission of NSIL was launched from Kourou, French Guiana, in June 2022.
• IN-SPACe:
  • IN-SPACe was launched to provide a level playing field for private companies to use Indian space infrastructure.
  • It acts as a single-point interface between ISRO, and everyone who wants to participate in space-related activities or use India’s space resources.
• Indian Space Association (ISpA):
  • ISpA aspires to be the collective voice of the Indian Space industry. ISpA will be represented by leading domestic and global corporations that have advanced capabilities in space and satellite technologies.
• First Private Launchpad & Mission Control Center:
  • First private launchpad & mission control center established by M/s Agnikul Cosmos Pvt. Ltd., Chennai in ISRO campus at SDSC, SHAR in November 2022.
• Indian Space Policy – 2022:
  • Indian Space Policy – 2022 policy is cleared by the Space Commission. The Policy has undergone extensive deliberations with industry groups, inter-ministerial consultations, has been reviewed by Empowered Technology Group and is under further approval process.
• Disaster Management:
  • Monitoring flood inundation, generation of flood hazard zonation atlases of flood prone states, developing flood early warning models, multiple daily detections & dissemination of active forest fires, forecasting cyclone track; intensity & landfall, damage assessment due to earthquakes and landslides, etc. were carried out.
• Covid-19 Related Supports:
  • During the Covid-19 pandemic period, devices likeMechanical Ventilator & Medical Oxygen Concentrator were developed and the technologies are transferred to Indian industries.

Question For Practice

Q.1 What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (2019)

Q.2 Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development? (2016)

General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

The Indian Rupee depreciated by around 10% against the US dollar and the rupee was the worst-performing Asian currency in 2022.

• This decline was mainly on account of appreciation in the US currency on safe haven appeal amid fears of recession and inflation across many parts of the world and Russia-Ukraine war.

How did the Rupee Perform in 2022?

• During the year, the rupee fell to a lifetime low of 83.2 against the dollar. Compared to rupee, depreciation of other Asian currencies was to a lesser extent.
  • During the year, the Chinese Yuan, Philippine Peso and Indonesian Rupiah fell around 9%. South Korean Won and Malaysian Ringgit declined by nearly 7% and 6%, respectively.
• However, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI)heavily intervened in the forex market to defend rupee. Since the beginning of 2022, the country’s foreign exchange reserves have fallen by USD 70 billion. It stood at USD 562.81 billion as of 23^rd December 2022.
• Reserves have witnessed a bit of erosion but the central bank is now starting to again build up its reserves and that would act as a buffer in times of uncertainty.

What was the Reason for Capital Outflows?

• The US Fed aggressively raised interest rates by 425 basis point (bps) in 2022 in its fight against inflation. This led to a higher interest rate differential between the US and India, and investors pulled out money from the domestic market and started investing in the US market to take advantage of higher rates.
• In 2022,Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) pulled out Rs 1.34 lakh crore from the Indian markets – the highest-ever yearly net outflow.
  • They withdrew Rs 1.21 lakh crore from the stock markets and Rs 16,682 crore from the debt market in 2022, putting pressure on the rupee.
• Russian invasion of Ukraine accentuated the FPI withdrawals with the global economic slowdown making inflows tougher.

What may be the Impact of Depreciation on the Indian Economy?

• Positive:
  • Weaker rupee should theoretically give a boost to India’s exports, but in an environment of uncertainty and weak global demand, a fall in the external value of rupee may not translate into higher exports.
• Negative:
  • It poses risk of imported inflation, and may make it difficult for the central bank to maintain interest rates at a record low for longer.
  • India meets more than two-thirds of its domestic oil requirements through imports.
  • India is also one of the top importers of edible oils. A weaker currency will further escalate imported edible oil prices and lead to a higher food inflation.

What is the Outlook on Rupee for 2023?

• Even though the outlook on the rupee remains weak in the near future, the depreciation in local currency may not continue for a longer period as India remains the fastest-growing economy.
• The terminal interest rate for the US Fed was anticipated, but it cannot be the case that their monetary policy will be tightened endlessly.
• When the (US Fed) tightening is over, the tide will surely turn.

What is Appreciation vs Depreciation of Currency?

• In a floating exchange rate system, market forces (based on demand and supply of a currency) determine the value of a currency.
• Currency Appreciation:It is an increase in the value of one currency in relation to another currency.
  • Currencies appreciate against each other for a variety of reasons, including government policy, interest rates, trade balances and business cycles.
  • Currency appreciation discourages a country’s export activity as its products and services become costlier to buy.
• Currency Depreciation: It is a fall in the value of a currency in a floating exchange rate system.
  • Economic fundamentals, political instability, or risk aversion can cause currency depreciation.
  • Currency depreciation encourages a country’s export activity as its products and services become cheaper to buy.

What are Devaluation and Depreciation?

• In general, devaluation and depreciation are often used interchangeably.
• They both have the same effect – a fall in the value of the currency which makes imports more expensive, and exports more competitive.
  • However, there is a difference in the way they are applied.
• A devaluation occurs when a country’s central bank makes a conscious decision to lower its exchange rate in a fixed or semi-fixed exchange rate.
• A depreciation is when there is a fall in the value of a currency in a floating exchange rate.

Question For Practice

1. How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India? (2018)