General Studies Paper 2

• Context: Exercise ‘DHARMA Guardian-2023’was held between India and Japan at Belgaum, Karnataka.
• The exercise was held to share experiences gained during operations, in order to enhance interoperability in the planning and execution of various operations in jungle & semi-urban/ urban terrain.
• The Year 2022 also marks 70 years of diplomatic relations between the two countries.

India-Japan Defence Relations

• India-Japan Defense and Security partnership forms a central pillar of bilateral ties. It has gained strength in recent years due to growing convergence on strategic matters and the increasing significance of a common outlook on issues of peace, security and stability.
• Exercises:
  • India-Japan participates in comprehensive  Tri-Service Exchanges resulting in regular armed forces staff talks between the two countries.
  • Indian Navy and JMSDF participate frequently in
    • Bilateral exercises such as JIMEX, Bilateral Maritime Exercises and Passage Exercises.
    • Multilateral exercises such as MILAN, MALABAR
  • Indian Army – JGSDF participates in the bilateral exercise Dharma Guardian annually.
  • 2023 saw the inaugural ‘Veer Guardian’ involving precise planning and skilful execution by the air forces of India and Japan.

Significance of Japan

• Japan’s manufacturing strength can help in the growth of the Indian indigenous defence industry.
• India can utilize Japanese experience in building border infrastructure.
• India receives large developmental assistance from Japan for special projects. Example: Bullet Train Project.
• Convergent Factors :
  • Open  Indo-Pacific:An open and thriving Indo-Pacific is important for the development and welfare of both countries.
  • Hegemonic China:China’s growing military capabilities and assertiveness on territorial disputes are concerns for India and Japan.
  • US role in Asia: Growing uncertainty over America’s future role in Asia calls the two nations into action to protect and preserve the rules-based order in their neighbourhood.

Way forward 

• By building on common interests,the Indo-Japanese relationship can reshape the Asian landscape and help in securing an open and secure Indo-Pacific.

General Studies Paper 2

Context:

• Mental disorders are now among the top leading causes of health burden worldwide, with no evidence of global reduction since 1990. Suicides rates in India are amongst the highest when compared to other countries at the same socio-economic level. The latest survey by India’s National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) found that nearly 150 million Indians are in need of mental healthcare services, but fewer than 30 million are seeking care. This shows several issues with mental healthcare in India including access and social attitude to mental health. The Government has taken several initiatives to improve access to mental healthcare services in addition to gradually changing the discourse on mental health. However, as evident in the data, there is a need for further effort to address the issues.

What is the status of Mental Health in India?

• The WHO defines Mental Health as, “Mental health is a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life, realize their abilities, learn well and work well, and contribute to their community. It is an integral component of health and well-being that underpins our individual and collective abilities to make decisions, build relationships and shape the world we live in“.
• The WHO calls Mental health as a basic human right. And it is crucial to personal, community and socio-economic development.
• According to the WHO, mental illness makes about 15% of the total disease conditions around the world. In 2019, India’s suicide rate was at 12.9 per 1,00,000 persons. This was higher than the regional average of 10.2 and the global average of 9.0. Suicide has become the leading cause of death among those aged 15–29 in India.
• In 2017, an estimation of the burden of mental health conditions for the States across India revealed that as many as 3 million people (~14% of the population) required care for mental health conditions. This included around 45.7 million people with depressive disorders and 44.9 million people with anxiety disorders.
• According to the National Mental Health Survey conducted by NIMHANS in 12 States, the prevalence of mental morbidity is high in urban metropolitan areas. Nearly 1 in 20 persons suffer from depression. 0.9 % of the surveyed population were at high risk of suicide.
• According to the NCRB data, 1,64,033 people committed suicide in 2021, a 6.2% rise in comparison to 2020.

What are the harmful effects of poor Mental Health?

• Impact on Physical Health: A study found that positive psychological well-being can reduce the risks of heart attack and stroke. On the other hand, poor mental status can lead to poor physical healthor harmful behaviour. Depression has been linked to many chronic illnesses. These illnesses include diabetes, asthma, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and arthritis.
• Impact on Relationships: Mental-health conditions during adolescence and young adulthood can have a significantly negative impact on the development of safe and healthy relationships with peers, parents, teachers, colleagues and partners.
• Impact on Productivity: It impacts a person’s ability to concentrate and engage in productive activities.
• The WHOReport on Mental Health and Development (2010) highlighted the risks of a cyclical relationship between vulnerability and poor mental health, in which people with such conditions are a vulnerable group subject to stigma, discrimination, violence, marginalization and other violations of their human rights.

Reasons for poor status of Mental Health in India:

• Lack of Awareness and Sensitivity: In India, mental health issues are not considered as healthcare issues. Any person suffering from mental issues is considered weak. Stigma and discrimination often undermine social support structures. Persons suffering from such issues are often tagged as ‘lunatics’ by the society. This leads to a vicious cycle of shame, suffering and isolation of the patients.
• A survey conducted in 2018 showed that while 87% of the respondents showed some awareness of mental illness, 71% also used terms associated with stigma.
• Lack of Mental Healthcare Personnel: There is a severe shortage of mental healthcare workforce in India. According to the WHO, in 2011, there were 301 psychiatrists and 0.047 psychologists for every 100,000 patients suffering from a mental health disorder in India. In contrast, the ratio in most developed countries is in excess of 10.
• Gap in Treatment: At present, only 20-30% of people with mental illnesses receive adequate treatment. One major reason for such a wide treatment gap is the problem of inadequate resources.
• Low budget Allocation: Developed countries allocate 5-18% of their annual healthcare budget on mental healthcare, while India allocates roughly 0.05% (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2014) of its healthcare budget. This is the lowest among all G20 countries. Despite a rise in mental illness issues, the Union Ministry of Health allocated less than 1% of its budget to directly deal with psychological illnesses in 2022.
• Changed Lifestyle: Increased use of certain kinds of social media is exacerbating stress and mental illness, especially among the young people. Social media detracts from face-to-face relationships, which are healthier, and reduces investment in meaningful activities. More importantly, it erodes self-esteemthrough unfavourable social comparison. In addition, some experts contend that the shift to nuclear families has reduced the avenues of relieving one’s anxieties as family members are not emotionally available at most crucial times.
• Income Inequalities: Mental issues are closely linked with poverty. People living in poverty are at greater risk of experiencing mental health conditions. On the other hand, people experiencing severe mental health conditions are more likely to fall into poverty through loss of employment and increased health expenditure.

What steps have been taken to improve Mental Health in India?

 Legal Measures

• The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017: The Act makes several provisions to improve the state of mental health in India. The Act rescinds the Mental Healthcare Act, 1987 which was criticised for failing to recognise the rights and agency of those with mental illness. The Act seeks to ensure rights of the person with mental illness to receive care and to live a life with dignity. It provides the Right to Access to Healthcare: Every person shall have a right to access mental health care and treatment from mental health services run or funded by the appropriate Government. It also empowers person with mental illness to make an advance directive that states how he/she wants to be treated for the illness.
• The Act decriminalised suicide stating that whoever attempts suicide will be presumed to be under severe stress, and shall not be punished for it.
• Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2017: The Act acknowledges mental illness as a disability and seeks to enhance the Rights and Entitlements of the Disabled and provide an effective mechanism for ensuring their empowerment and inclusion in society.

Schemes and Initiatives

• National Mental Health Programme (NMHP): Keeping with the WHO’s recommendations, the programme was introduced in 1982 to provide mental health services as part of the general healthcare system. The District Mental Health Programme(DMHP) component of the NMHP has been sanctioned for implementation in 704 districts for which support is provided to States/UTs through the National Health Mission.
• Facilities made available under DMHP at the Community Health Centre (CHC) and Primary Health Centre (PHC) levels, include outpatient services, assessment, counselling/ psycho-social interventions, continuing care and support to persons with severe mental disorders, drugs, outreach services, ambulance services etc. In addition to above services there is a provision of 10 bedded in-patient facility at the District level.
• Generating Awareness: To generate awareness among masses about mental illnesses Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities are an integral part of the NMHP. At the District level, sufficient funds are provided to each District under the DMHP (under the Non-communicable Diseases flexi-pool of National Health Mission) for IEC and awareness generation activities in the community, schools, workplaces, with community involvement.
• Under the DMHP various IEC activities such as awareness messages in local newspapers and radio, street plays, wall paintings are undertaken by the States/UTs.
• National Tele Mental Health Programme: The Government has announced a National Tele Mental Health Programme in the Budget of 2022-23, to further improve access to quality mental health counselling and care services in the country.
• Kiran: A 24/7 toll-free helpline called Kiranwas established by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment in 2020 to offer support to those dealing with anxiety, stress, depression, suicide thoughts, and other mental issues.
• Manodarpan: Students will receive psychosocial help as part of an effort under the Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan, with the goal of improving the students’ mental health and overall well-being. Its components include Advisory Guidelines for students, teachers and faculty of School systems and Universities along with families; National level database and directory of counsellors; Toll-free helpline; Handbook on Psychosocial Support etc.
• Issuance of Guidelines/Advisories: Guidelines/ advisories on management of mental illness have been issued by the Government. All the guidelines, advisories and advocacy material can be accessed on the website of the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare under ‘Behavioural Health – Psychosocial Helpline’.

Way forward:

• There is a need of an urgent and well-resourced ‘whole-of-society’ approach to protect, promote and care for the mental health of people. This should be based on the following pillars.
• First, there is a need to address the deep stigma surrounding such issues which prevents patients from seeking timely treatment and makes them feel shameful, isolated and weak.
• Second, mental health should be made an integral part of the public health programme to reduce stress, promote a healthy lifestyle, screen and identify high-risk groups and strengthen interventions like counselling services. Special emphasis should be given to schools. In addition, special focus should be on groups that are highly vulnerable to mental health issues such as victims of domestic or sexual violence, unemployed youth, marginal farmers, armed forces personnel and personnel working under difficult conditions.
• Third, Infrastructure should be improvedfor mental health care and treatment. Innovative models are required to deepen the penetration of services and staff. ASHAs can be trained for this purpose. Community health workers (ASHAs) can not only educate and sensitize women and children about mental diseases but also guide them to reach the right expert in their locality.
• Fourth, The above interventions will require enhanced allocation to mental healthcare in the Budget. Substantial investment will be needed to address the wide treatment gap in the health infrastructure and human resources.
• Fifth, Careful mapping and research needs to be undertaken to produce quality data, that is essential to understand the size of the problem. This in turn should be utilised to implement a comprehensive approach, supported by heightened political commitment, scientific understanding and a citizen driven movement.
• Sixth, the WHO has recommended Three Paths to transformation towards better Mental Health.

Conclusion

• The status with respect to mental issues has worsened since COVID-19 pandemic. The mental healthcare system in India is under-equipped to deal with the crisis. Urgent interventions, in terms of enhanced budget, increased workforce, and improved awareness are necessary to address the challenge.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• India is one of the largest consumers of vegetable oils in the world, with a rapidly growing population and increasing demand for edible oils. However, the country’s domestic production of oilseeds has not kept pace with this demand, leading to a heavy dependence on imports.
• India imports vegetable oil worth more than USD 14 billion to meet chronic domestic shortages, but it intends to boost domestic production and reduce reliance on imports by increasing domestic production.
• In the near future, it is necessary for the country to develop significant self-sufficiency, but for the time being, imports are unavoidable. However, the current import strategy prioritizes the benefit of consumers and disregards the welfare of local oilseed farmers.
• In order to be effective, a holistic policy must judiciously balance the interests of consumers and growers. There is a need for comprehensive policy action due to looming risks such as land constraints, water shortages, and climate change.

Why is India not Self-Sufficient in Oilseed Production?

• Land Fragmentation:
  • One of the major challenges in oilseed production in India is land fragmentation.
  • Indian farmers have small landholdings,which makes it difficult for them to adopt modern farming techniques, machinery and technology.
• Low Productivity:
  • Oilseed yields in India are relatively low compared to other countries. The productivity of oilseeds is hampered by poor seed quality, lack of irrigation facilities, inadequate use of fertilizers, and insufficient research and development efforts.
• Climate Variability:
  • The climate in India is diverse, and the crop productivity is highly dependent on the availability of water,temperature, and other environmental factors.
  • India has witnessed significant changes in rainfall patterns, which have adversely affected oilseed production.
• Lack of Storage and Distribution Infrastructure:
  • India has limited storage and distribution infrastructure, which results in significant post-harvest losses.
  • This, in turn, discourages farmers from producing oilseeds, as they do not have the necessary infrastructure to store and sell their produce.
• Dependence on Imports:
  • India is heavily dependent on imports for edible oils, and this has affected the competitiveness of the domestic oilseed industry.
  • Low import tariffs and high domestic taxes have also made imported oil cheaper than domestically produced oil.
• Lack of Government Support:
  • The Indian government has not provided enough support to the oilseed sector, in terms of research and development, extension services, and financial support.
  • The government has also not encouraged private sector investment in the sector.

Related Initiatives taken:

• National Mission on Edible Oil-Oil Palm (NMEO-OP):
  • NMEO-OP is a new Centrally Sponsored Scheme. It is proposed to have an additional 6.5 lakh hectares for palm oil by 2025-26.
• Oil Palm Area Expansion under Rastriya Krishi Vikas Yojana:
  • It is helping increase the minimum support prices of oilseed crops,creation of buffer stock for oilseeds, cluster demonstration of oilseed crops, etc are being implemented by the government to boost domestic production.
• Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY):
  • The PMFBY is an insurance scheme for farmers, which provides coverage against crop losses due to natural calamities, pests, and diseases. The scheme covers all oilseeds crops and provides financial security to farmers in case of crop failure.
• Technology Mission on Oilseeds:
  • Launched in 1986, the Technology Mission on Oilseeds aimed at increasing the production of oilseeds through the use of advanced technologies and scientific methods.
• Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY):
  • The PKVY is a scheme that promotes organic farming in the country.
  • Under the scheme, farmers are encouraged to adopt organic farming practices for various crops, including oilseeds.

How can India boost Domestic Production?

• Enforcing Area Expansion:
  • Encourage area expansion through incentivized crop rotation in high-input grain mono-cropping regions like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.
  • By promoting crop rotation, farmers in these regions can grow more oilseeds, increasing their yields.
• Adopting Multiple Technologies:
  • Incorporate multiple technologies, such as information technology, satellite technology, nuclear agri-technology, and
  • By adopting these technologies, farmers can increase their yields, improve the quality of their crops, and optimize their land and water usage.
• Work towards a Breakthrough in Seed Technology:
  • Investing in research and development to improve seed technology can lead to the creation of high-yielding and disease-resistant seeds, which can boost the production of oilseeds.
• Implementing a Robust Procurement System:
  • A robust procurement system can provide a guaranteed market for farmers, thereby encouraging them to grow more oilseeds.
• Tapping the Potential of Non-Conventional Oil Sources:
  • Tap the huge potential of non-conventional oil sources like cottonseed, rice-bran, and tree-borne oilseeds. By utilizing non-conventional oil sources, the country can diversify its oilseed production and reduce its dependence on traditional sources.
• Regulating and Monitoring Imports:
  • Currently, policy interventions are often reactive and knee-jerk, and lack supportive data.
  • A simple administrative system of ‘Import Contract Registration’ and monitoring of arrivals will remove the opacity in trade and facilitate data-driven decisions by India.
• Cutting down Credit Period to 45 days:
  • Long credit period of 90-120-150 days encourages over-trading and speculation.
  • Some Indian importers are already in a serious ‘import debt trap’because of rampant over-trading. Also, Bank loans to importers can turn into Non-Performing Assets (NPAs)
  • Reduced credit period will automatically slow the pace of import and make the importer more responsible and accountable.
• Bring Cooking Oil under PDS:
  • Support vulnerable sections of consumers with supply of edible oil under welfare programmes at subsidised rates.
    • Public Distribution System and private trade supplies can co-exist and help advance consumer interest.
  • Creating Processing Industry Modernisation Fund:
    • Many of the 15,000 oilseed crushing units and 800 solvent extraction plants are intrinsically inefficient in terms of scale, equipment, technology and productivity.
    • Amodernised industry will capture greater value and create potential to attract  foreign direct investment.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• The most critical and pressing issue in front of the world and coming generations is to contain the global temperature rise within 1.5^o Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the reason for this temperature rise. Therefore, all the mechanisms and sustainable alternatives must be implemented to mitigate the climate risk. Climate change is having profound impacts on India. This includes adverse impacts on agriculture, water resources, forest and biodiversity, health, coastal management, and an increase in temperature. Heat waves have become more common and severe with many cities reporting temperatures above 48^oCelsius. The decline in agricultural productivity is the significant impact of climate change on India. Recognising the impact, India is championing climate action to achieve the nationally determined climate goals, mainstream sustainability, and reduce the carbon footprint. In this context, decarbonisation of transport sector is vital to achieve the climate goals.

Current Status of Transportation in India

• The average carbon footprint of a person in India is 0.56 tonnes per year, compared to the global average of four tonnes per person per year. India’s transport demand is expected to increase by 2.7 times in over 30 years. Bus transport in India accounts for 38% of passenger km, though its share in overall registered vehicles in India is just around 3.5%. Two- wheelers account for 76-80% of the total registered automotive in India. Last-mile connectivity is still a big issue and mainly depends on three- wheelers and sub-seven-meter buses.
• Sale of electric two-wheelers has jumped from 4,073 units in June 2021 to 42,260 in July 2022. The prices of electric buses is falling rapidly. In a recent tender by the Convergence Energy Services Limited (under Ministry of Power), the price discovered for EV buses has come to be 27% and 25% below diesel and CNG buses respectively (without subsidy).
• India is the biggest manufacturer and market for two wheelers globally. The same status is expected to be carried over to EV segment. The EV segment is led by start-ups at present, but large traditional manufacturers are also scaling-up their EV segments.
• Lifetime emissions from EVs are 19-34% lower than (Internal Combustion Engines) ICE vehicles.

Initiatives for Decarbonisation of Transport Sector

• Shift to Zero Tailpipe Emissions Mode: The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan(NEMMP) 2020 is a National Mission document providing the vision and the roadmap for the faster adoption of electric vehicles and their manufacturing in the country. As part of the NEMMP 2020, Department of Heavy Industry formulated the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles in India  (FAME India) Scheme in the year 2015. Its aim is to promote manufacturing of electric and hybrid vehicle technology and to ensure sustainable growth of the same.
• The 1^stPhase of FAME India Scheme was implemented through four focus areas namely:
• (a) Demand Creation,
• (b) Technology Platform,
• (c) Pilot Project and
• (d) Charging Infrastructure. Market creation through demand incentives was aimed at incentivizing all vehicle segmentse. 2-Wheelers, 3-Wheelers Auto, Passenger 4-Wheeler vehicles, Light Commercial Vehicles and Buses.
• The 2^ndPhase (FAME II) is a 3-year subsidy programme. It aims at supporting the electrification of public and shared transportation. Since the launch of the the remodelled FAME Il in June 2021, the sales have increased rapidly e.g., sale of two-wheelers have jumped from 4,073 to 42,260 between June 2021-June 2022.
• The Government has nearly doubled the FAME 2 subsidy outlay at INR 5,172 crore in the Union Budget 2023-24. This is 78% more than the INR 2,900 crore that it had earmarked in the Budget for FY2022-23.
• EV Value Chain: The Government is trying to establish India as a leading producer across the full electric vehicle (EV) value chain. India has a chance also to become the global hub of manufacturing for the entire EV Value chain (except raw material mining). Therefore, billion-dollar incentive programs such as the Advanced Chemistry Cell Program  with an outlay of US$ 2.5 billion over five years were rolled out and have received an overwhelming response from the industry.
• Similarly, to promote manufacturing of EV auto components, PLI for Advanced Auto Components  (US$ 3.5 billion) has been launched. This will pave the way for a smooth transition of existing auto parts manufacturing in India and produce global champions.
• EV Policies: States have also provided several fiscal and non-fiscal supports, in addition to the incentives provided by the Union Government. More than 22 states have declared their EV policies. Several states have also rolled out the incentives for battery manufacturing.
• Indian Railways have launched their EV policy. They not only want to phase out all ICE vehicles used by Indian railways in offices etc., but also to put the charging stations at all electrified railway station parking spaces. This will significantly boost the charging infrastructure availability and help railways achieve their net zero carbon emission by 2030.
• Promoting Environmentally Friendly Technology: India is focusing on catalyzing, growing and fuelling the entrepreneurs in the country to create businesses with clean technologies such as hydrogen, electric mobility, batteries, etc. Green technologies are driving sustainable development in India. Such technologies maximise energy efficiency and preserve the environment while saving money.
• Shoonya– Zero Pollution Mobility: It is a consumer and corporate-facing campaign hosted by NITI Aayog. The campaign aims to accelerate the transition of vehicles used for ride-hailing and deliveries into electric vehicles (EVs) by creating awareness and demand for zero-pollution rides and deliveries in Indian cities. The ecosystem it has created by bringing together a dedicated group of industry stakeholders, corporate partners, and consumers is being utilized to build awareness around EVs.

Challenges to Decarbonisation of Transport Sector

• First, The initial purchase price of electric two-wheelers with fixed batteries is still greater than that of internal combustion engine vehicles. On a total cost of ownership basis, EVs are cheaper. However, high initial costs act as a deterrent to adoption.
• Second, the 2-Wheeler EV segment is being driven by start-ups and new entrants. Established players in 2-wheeler segment seem to be reluctant to join the EV bandwagon. This can limit the scale-up and expansion of the segment.
• Third, despite policy initiatives, there is severe shortage of charging infrastructure. Lack of charging infrastructure has limited adoption of EVs. The setting-up of charging infrastructure is not lucrative and appealing proposition as of now due to low market penetration of EVs. Hence, there seems to be catch-22 situation.
• Fourth, Despite Government push, the adoption of public transport has been low.
• Fifth, the manufacturers have not yet focused on the commercial vehicle EV segment, which has a large share in the transport sector and remains a large emitter.

Way Forward for Decarbonisation of Transport Sector

• First, to meet the needs of EVs, primarily four-wheelers, cargo three-wheelers, Light commercial vehicles (LCVs), and buses, there is a need to develop fast charging technology.
• Second, Government-led firms like BHEL/BEL can work together to build a local supply chain for charger manufacturing. Further technical assistance can be obtained from research institutions such as lISc and labs such as CPRI/CSIR/ARCI.
• Third, Opportunity charging and hybrid battery storage concepts (with fixed and switch battery) should be investigated for intercity transportation.
• Fourth, Rural battery swap stations can alter the landscape of EV adoption and battery storage. It has the potential to increase electricity availability and quality in remote places. For example, in rural locations, the battery switch station might be powered by localised solar power (small setups). These switch stations can function as micro power grids, supplying extra power to the grid while also powering nearby villages/houses, in addition to functioning as EV exchanges. Suitable models should be developed to scale-up such swap stations.
• Fifth, there is a need for developing a mission plan for Advanced Chemistry Cell (i.e. battery) recycling. This is especially significant since more than 95% of the original essential minerals in these ACC batteries may be recovered and reused in cell production. Many countries have already made the use of recycled materials in new ACC cells mandatory. India should adopt a similar approach.
• Sixth, German commercial vehicle manufacturers have committed to launching light-duty and heavy-duty electric vehicles as well as developing a dedicated charging network in Germany. All large manufacturers (Traton Group, Daimler, and Volvo) are cooperating with each other and investing in zero-emission commercial vehicle charging infrastructure to mitigate risks and boost asset utilisation. A similar strategy can be adopted by Indian manufacturers.
• Seventh, the electric bicycles need to be promoted. Although the prices of electric bikes are currently high, leasing companies, fleet operators, aggregators, financers, etc., can make it a viable option. e-Commerce and hyper-local delivery start-ups can utilise e-bikes to reduce their carbon footprint.
• Eighth, Since EV is an evolving space, capacity building at all levels, along with upskilling and reskilling, is very important. It all starts with the government officials at the municipal level who interact for things like charging infra, incentives, etc. The sensitisation of the latest guidelines, rules, incentives, etc. should be well communicated through regular training.
• Ninth, the decarbonisation of transport sector and transition to EVs will require creation of future ready workforce. NITI Aayog is working with IITs to nudge them to start EV-specific courses. More than 15 IITs have already started the courses at the PG level. This has to trickle down to diplomas and other technical and non-technical institutes.

Conclusion

• The Government has laid an ambitious outline and policies to direct the country towards a cleaner, greener, and more connected world. The industry is also reciprocating the same, but the speed needs to pick up on all sides, including manufacturing and consumer acceptance. Decarbonisation of Transport sector is vital to achieve the Net Zero target. It would require close cooperation among all stakeholders; Government, Business and the citizens.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: Japan is now emphasising on the Global South amidst a major transformation of its foreign and security policies under Kishida’s leadership.

How has Japan shown impressive leadership in the world of strategic ideas in recent times?

• Japan has constructed and popularised the Indo-Pacific construct over the last decade and more.
• Former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe first articulated the idea of the Indo-Pacific in an address to the Indian Parliament in August 2007. He called for a coalition of Asian democracies that eventually took the form of the Quadrilateral forum.
• Japan’s Prime Minister Fumio Kishida has now taken the initiative to raise the Global South to the top of the G7 agenda.
• In a major policy speech in Washington last month, Japan’s PM Kishida cautioned other G7 countries on the dangers of neglecting the Global South. Kishida is conscious that the West has neglected political engagement with the Global South in recent decades.
• Kishida is firm in his conviction that the G7 can’t “impose its values” on the Global South. Kishida has told his G7 partners that we need to be more committed to our values.There is a need to have a firm understanding of historical and cultural backgrounds of the global south.
• Japan now wants the G7 to reconnect with the Global South in more fundamental ways. Kishida believes that greater cooperation between the G7 and the developing countries is also critical for addressing the current global challenges.

The major changes in foreign and security policies of Japan under Kishida’s leadership:

• Kishida is among the few leaders in Asia who has clearly articulated the implications of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine a year ago this month. If unilateral change of the status quo by force is unchallenged, it will happen elsewhere in the world, including Asia.
• Kishida has announced sweeping reform in Japan’s defence policy. This involved doubling the defence spending to 2% of the GDP over the next 5 years, building a large missile force, boosting cybersecurity capabilities, and taking larger responsibilities for regional security and capacity building in the Indo-Pacific.
• Japan has adopted new realist diplomacy. Japan now recognises the essential relationship between diplomacy and defence.

How is Kishida’s new approach beneficial from the Indian perspective?

• Kishida’s new approach provides the basis for more substantive and wider collaboration between Delhi and Tokyo in the developing regions of the world.
• India should welcome Kishida’s new interest in the Global South. Japan’s initiatives on the Indo-Pacific and the Quad have broken the misperception of Asia as being merely Sino-centric.
• The India-Japan partnership on the Global South might help overcome the traditional divides between East and West as well as North and South.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) cautioned that sea level rise  poses a serious threat to both China and India in a report titled “Global Sea-Level Rise and Implications.”
• Findings of the “Global Sea-Level Rise and Implications” report:
• Sea level rise varies regionally
• It will encroach upon Infrastructure and coastal communities will be encroached upon
• It affects a number of major cities on every continent: Shanghai, Dhaka, Bangkok, Jakarta, Mumbai, Copenhagen, New York, Buenos Aires, Santiago, etc.
• Poses a significant economic, social, and humanitarian problem(threatens coastal farmlands, water reserves, the resilience of infrastructures, food-nutrition security, human lives and livelihoods), especially in vulnerable areas.
• Along with other climate concerns, it will affect coastal ecosystems, related development and beyond 1 billion people by 2050
• Growing Urbanization in exposed areas will exacerbate the effects.
• It is reinforced by storm surges and tidal variations as seen during the landfall of hurricane Sandy (New York) and Cyclone Idai (Mozambique)

Reasons behind sea-level rise:

• Increase in average global temperature (by over 1°C since 1880)
• Thermal expansion of seawater (leading to mean sea level increasing by ~20 cm)
• Glacier and ice-sheet melt
• Changes in groundwater storage.

Challenges:

• According to the IPCC, melting ice sheets (the largest contributor to sea level change) are hard to predict.
• By 2150, global sea level rise is estimated to rise by roughly 4, 0.5 and 0.2 m under high, mid and low-emission scenarios, respectively.
• Limiting 21st-century global surface temperature rise to 2 °C above the pre-industrial level ( ’Paris Agreements target) would be insufficient.

Way ahead:

• A low greenhouse gas emission scenario, with temperatures staying below 1.5 °C
• Reaching net zero carbon emissions before 2060.
• Particularly along the coast, urban systems must enable climate-resilient development.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: According to a recent report titled ‘Making the Digital Ecosystem Disabled Friendly, WhatsApp has been ranked India’s most accessible app for persons with disabilities,which evaluated the most popular apps across categories like messaging, online payments, transport, e-commerce   and food delivery.
• According to the World Health Organization,  about 16% of the global population is disabled. Based on that figure, there are at least 192 million disabled Indians.
• Also, India had 750 million Internet/smartphone users in 2020, including 120 million people with disabilities.
• Despite technology’s tremendous potential to level the playing field for the disabled, it can also reinforce barriers if it is not designed with their needs in mind.
  

Challenges with the Digital Ecosystem for Disabled in India:

• Lack of Accessibility:
  • Many websites, apps, and online resources are not designed with accessibility in mind, making it difficult for people with disabilities to access them.
  • This includes barriers to using assistive technologies like screen readers, magnifiers, or voice recognition software, which makes it hard for people with visual, auditory, or motor disabilities to access the digital content.
• Limited Availability of Assistive Technologies:
  • Many people with disabilities in India do not have access to the necessary assistive technologies to access digital content. The cost of these devices is often prohibitive, and there is also a lack of awareness about their availability and benefits.
• Limited Awareness:
  • Many people with disabilities in India are not aware of the available digital resources or how to access them.
  • For instance, there is a lack of information on the accessibility features of various digital platforms, apps, and websites.
• Language Barriers:
  • There is a significant language barrier in India, with a vast population speaking different regional languages.
  • Many digital resources are available only in English or Hindi, making it difficult for people who speak other languages to access them.
• Limited User Testing:
  • User testing for people with disabilities is often limited or non-existent. Therefore, the accessibility features and overall usability of digital resources for people with disabilities are not adequately assessed.

What is the State of Digital Accessibility Rights in India?

• Legal Efforts:
  • India signed and ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) in 2007.
  • To ensure compliance with the UNCRPD, India enacted the  (Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act 2016)  to replace the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995.
    • The RPWDA adopts the same definition of universal design as in the UNCRPD and places obligations on the appropriate government to ensure universal design for everyday electronic goods and equipment and consumer goods.
  • During Covid-19 Period, the Supreme Court directed the government to conduct a disability audit for the CoWIN website and the Aarogya Setu app.
  • National Policy on Electronic Accessibility, 2013:
    • It seeks to remove discrimination by focusing on awareness, capacity building, institutional training and research and development.
  • Disability-inclusive Disaster Risk Reduction Guidelines:
    • The guidelines released by the National Disaster Management Authority  in 2019 provide accessible information on the websites in the situation of risk, armed conflicts, humanitarian emergencies and natural disasters to help persons with disabilities.
  • Judicial Efforts:
    • Thee-Committee, which is a governing body set up by the Supreme Court to oversee the digitization of Indian courts, has been making changes to court websites to ensure that they are accessible to PwDs.
    • For instance, it has ensured that all High Court websites have accessible captchas by including audio captchas in addition to visual captchas.
    • The e-Committee has also ensured that these websites are accessible in terms of text colour, contrast, text size,and mostly in terms of screen reader access as well.
    • The e-Committee runs training programmes for lawyers to make filings accessible.

Way Forward:

• Accessibility Standards:
  • India can implement accessibility standards to ensure that digital products and services are accessible to persons with disabilities.
  • The accessibility standards should be based on international standards such as Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG)  or Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) standards.
• Inclusive Design:
  • Inclusive design can ensure that digital products and services are designed to be accessible to everyone, including persons with disabilities.
  • Inclusive design involves designing with the user in mind, taking into consideration their abilities, needs, and limitations.
• Assistive Technology:
  • India can encourage the development and use of assistive technology to help persons with disabilities access digital products and services.
  • Assistive technology includes software, hardware, and devices that help persons with disabilities to interact with digital products and services.
• Training and Awareness:
  • India can provide training and awareness to digital product and service providers,developers, and designers on accessibility and inclusive design. This can help ensure that accessibility and inclusive design are integrated into the design and development process.
• Collaborations:
  • India can collaborate with organizations, researchers, and experts in the field of disability and accessibility to develop innovative solutions to make digital products and services accessible to persons with disabilities.
• Government Policies:
  • The Indian government can create policies that incentivize companies to implement accessibility standards and inclusive design in their digital products and services.The government can also create policies that require digital products and services to be accessible to persons with disabilities.
• Use of AI:
  • Currently technology is used to automate a large number of accessibility tests,and combine that with in-depth manual testing to provide comprehensive accessibility feedback to developers.
  • Developers and companies can now use AI to automate accessibility testing and analyze feedback from users with disabilities to provide actionable insights.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: India and Nepal recently agreed to strengthen their economic and development cooperation for the benefit of the two countries and region as a whole.
• India’s Foreign Secretary recently met his Nepalese counterpart holding discussions on strengthening the comprehensive bilateral relations.
  • The visit is in continuation of the regular exchange of visits between the two friendly neighbours.
• Issues of discussion:
  • Various aspects of Nepal-India relations including the power sector cooperation, trade, transit, education, culture, healthcare and connectivity infrastructure were discussed during the meeting.
  • Issues such as increasing development assistance to Nepal, boosting investment, resolving problems surfacing in connectivity, and bilateral trade as well as the promotion of power trade were mainly featured during the meeting.
• Provision of international air route:
  • Nepal urged India to provide an international air route for the effective operation of the newly opened Gautam Buddha International Airport and Pokhara International Airport.
• Proposal of a common voice of the South Asian nations: 
  • Nepal also proposed to form a mechanism for a common voice of the South Asian nations in the international forums regarding climate change issues.

India-Nepal Relations

• India & Nepal share close and friendly relations characterised by age-old historical and cultural linkages, open borders and deep-rooted people-to-people contacts.
  • Nepal is important for India in the context of its overall strategic interests in the region, and the leaders of the two countries have often noted the age-old “Roti Beti” relationship.
• Sharing borders:
  • The country shares a border of over 1,850 km with five Indian states — Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
  • Land-locked Nepal relies heavily on India for the transportation of goods and services.
• Trade and economic ties: 
  • India remains Nepal’s largest trade partner, with bilateral trade crossing US$ 7 billion in FY 2019-20. India provides transit for almost the entire third-country trade of Nepal.
    • India’s export to Nepal has grown over 8 times in the past 10 years while exports from Nepal have almost doubled. Despite the difficulties due to the pandemic, India ensured uninterrupted flow of trade and supplies to Nepal.
    • Nepal is India’s 11th largest export destination, up from 28th position in 2014.
    • In FY  2021-22, it constituted 2.34% of India’s exports. Infact exports from India constitute almost 22% of Nepal’s GDP.
  • Development Partnership: 
    • Financial and technical assistance:
      • GoI provides substantial financial and technical assistance to Nepal for the implementation of large development and infrastructure and connectivity projects,  as well as small development projects/high-impact community development projects in key areas of education, health, irrigation, rural infrastructure, livelihood development, etc. all across the country.
    • The ‘New Partnership in Agriculture’:
      • It was announced in April 2018, which focuses on collaborative projects in Agriculture, Education and R&D.
    • Cross-border railway links:
      • India is providing financial and technical assistance for construction of two broad gauge cross-border railway links viz Jayanagar-Bardibas and Jogbani-Biratnagar.
    • India-Nepal Rail Services Agreement (RSA):
      • India and Nepal signed a Letter of Exchange (LoE) to the India-Nepal Rail Services Agreement (RSA), which enabled all authorised cargo train operators including private container train operators to carry Nepal’s container and other freight.
    • Mahakali River bridge:
      • Recently, a MoU was signed between India and Nepal for the construction of a motorable bridge across the Mahakali River connecting Dharchula (India) with Darchula (Nepal), under Indian grant assistance.
    • Operation Maitri & post-earthquake reconstruction assistance:
      • In the wake of the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, GoI was the first responder and carried out its largest disaster relief operation abroad (Operation Maitri).
      • India extended US$ 1 billion to Nepal as part of its long-term assistance for post-earthquake reconstruction in housing, education, health and culture heritage sectors.

Issues between India & Nepal

• Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950:
  • On 31 July 1950, India and Nepal signed a treaty of peace and friendship in an effort to “strengthen and develop these ties and to perpetuate peace between the two countries”.
    • As time passed, Nepal believed the treaty was “incompatible with national self-respect”.
  • Madhesi Issue:
    • India’s entrenched interests in Nepal suffered a setback in 2015, when a blockade at the borders ensued following protests by Madhesis and some other ethnic groups against marginalisation of their interests in the newly-passed Nepalese Constitution.
  • Kalapani dispute:  
    • The area is in India’s control but Nepal claims the region because of historical and cartographic reasons. The area is the largest territorial dispute between Nepal and India consisting of at least 37,000 hectares of land in the High Himalayas.
  • Susta Border dispute:
    • Susta is a disputed territory between Nepal and India. It is administered by India as part of West Champaran district of Bihar.
    • Nepal claims the area a part of West Nawalparasi District under Susta rural municipality, alleging that over 14,860 hectares of Nepali land in Susta has been encroached upon by India.

Way ahead

• There are several irritants that have developed, straining this relationship, and for now there seems to be a concerted attempt by both governments to return to bonhomie, with the Indian government seeking to utilise “religious diplomacy” as a means to emphasise the special relationship.
• India-Nepal relations need to graduate to a more meaningful partnership on economic and geopolitical issues, with the Indian government continuing to retain a substantial role in partnering the Nepali regime in development projects.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: India is quickly emerging as one of the leading players in the global e-commerce industry  E-commerce is dramatically opening up the global market for Indian entrepreneurs at scale and this has changed the fate of ‘Made in India’
• After experiencing the convenience of online shopping during the pandemic,  customers continue to favour digital shelves. There are an estimated 2.14 billion online shoppers globally and the number continues to grow rapidly.
• This presents a fantastic opportunity for businesses in India to start thinking about the global opportunity more seriously.With wider availability of the internet, rising e-commerce marketplaces, manufacturing on demand, easier access to capital, and variable models for logistics and shipping, Indian entrepreneurs can plug themselves into global supply chains and create strong export businesses.
• However, there are bottlenecks related to logistics, cross-border payments, compliance requirements and more. It will take a lot of work to expand the export opportunities for millions of small businesses across the country.

What is the State of Exports from India?

• India’s manufacturing sector has grown 3 times over the last three decades in FY22with contributions from traditional sectors like petrochemicals, steel, cement, and automobiles, as well as new sunshine areas like electronics, toys, and others.
  • Manufacturing Production in India increased 2.60% in December of 2022 over the same month in the previous year.
• There’s also been a steady spike in other categories like bed linens, jewellery, toys, coffee, butter, honey, millets, musical instruments, and more, which is boosting overall exports.
• The export of India’s toy story has grown at nearly 30% CAGR over the last seven years.
• Export of butter and dairy spreads from India has risen at a 25% CAGR.
• The rise of the Direct-to-Consumer (D2C) revolution in India has also been seen where new-age brands from different corners of India are serving customers across the country and the world.
  • Industry estimates suggest that there are over 800 successful D2C brands in India today,with a sector valuation of over USD40 billion.
• India’s merchandise trade crossed the USD1-trillion mark in calendar year 2022 with the share of exports at USD450 billion and imports at USD723 billion.
  • Outbound shipments grew 13.7% year-on-year (YoY) in 2022, while imports rose by 21% in comparison to 2021.

Challenges with E-Commerce Exports in India:

• Infrastructural Barriers:
  • Lack of proper infrastructure, such as warehousing and transportation, makes it difficult for e-commerce businesses to scale and reach a larger audience.
• Payment and Financial Services:
  • Access to payment and financial services, especially for small businesses, is still a major challenge.
• Lack of Trust:
  • Customers are often hesitant to make online purchases from unfamiliar websites,which can limit the growth of e-commerce exports.
• Shipping and Delivery:
  • Shipping and delivery of products to foreign countries can be expensive and time-consuming,leading to dissatisfaction among customers.
• Customs and Duties:
  • Complex customs and duties regulations can make exporting goods challenging and time-consuming.
• Cybersecurity:
  • E-commerce websites are vulnerable to  cyber attacks, which can lead to loss of sensitive information and negatively impact the reputation of the business.
• Lack of Standardization:
  • Lack of standardization in terms of product quality, delivery, and customer service can make it difficult for e-commerce businesses to gain a competitive edge.
• Competition from International Players:
  • Competition from well-established international e-commerce companies can make it difficult for Indian companies to grow and succeed in the global market.

How India can Lead the E-commerce Export Market?

• Creating more Awareness:
  • Creating awareness about e-commerce exports is crucial in promoting and increasing the growth of this industry.
  • One effective strategy for creating more awareness about e-commerce exports on the ground is through:
    • Education and training can help in gaining a better understanding of the benefits and opportunities offered by e-commerce exports.
    • Networking events which can serve as a platform for businesses and individuals to connect and share ideas.
    • Marketing campaigns can also play a crucial role in creating awareness about e-commerce exports.
  • Improving Infrastructure:
    • India needs to invest in better infrastructure facilities such as roads, ports, and warehouses to make it easier for e-commerce companies to export their products.
  • Simplifying Export Regulations:
    • The government can simplify the export regulations and procedures to make it easier for e-commerce companies to start exporting.
  • Encouraging Foreign Investment:
    • The government can encourage foreign investment in the e-commerce sector to bring in more resources and expertise to help companies grow.
  • Developing a Strong Logistics Network:
    • A strong logistics network is crucial for e-commerce exports, and India needs to develop this network to ensure that products reach their destination on time.
  • Promoting Digitalization:
    • The government can encourage digitalization in the e-commerce sector to make it easier for companies to connect with customers and suppliers and streamline their operations.
  • Offering Incentives:
    • The government can offer incentives to e-commerce companies that are focused on exports, such as tax breaks, subsidies, and grants, to encourage them to grow and expand their operations.
  • Building Strong Partnerships:
    • The government can build strong partnerships with other countries and organizations to help Indian e-commerce companies access new markets and find new customers.

General Studies Paper 3

• The Union Budget 2023-24  has given a new push for clean energy. Apart from providing INR 35,000 crore for priority capital investments towards energy transition and net zero objectives, the Budget has earmarked INR 10,000 crore for establishing 500 new ‘Waste to Wealth‘ plants under GOBARdhan (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources Dhan) scheme for promoting circular economy  Of the 500 new plants announced, 200 will be Compressed Biogas Plants (CBG), including 75 in cities and the remaining 300 will be community or cluster-based plants. Biogas is an environment friendly solution to ensure energy security as well as a small step towards reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

Bio-gas:

• Biogas is a mixture of Methane (CH₄), Carbon-dioxide (CO₂) and small quantities of other gases. It is produced by anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in an oxygen-free environment. The precise composition of biogas depends on the type of feedstock and the production method used. The organic matter to produce biogas can be biodegradable waste such as agricultural waste, animal waste like dung and segregated organic fraction of municipal solid waste.
• Compressed Biogas (CBG): Biogas can be purified and upgraded up to 98% of purity to make it suitable to be used as a green fuel for transportation or filling of cylinders. The process relies on a high pressure of ~250 bar and hence is called Compressed Biogas (CBG).
• Bio-Methane: It is also known as ‘renewable natural gas’. It is a near-pure source of methane produced either by ‘upgrading’ biogas or through the gasification of solid biomass followed by Methanation. Upgradation refers to a process that removes any CO₂and other contaminants present in the biogas.

Initiatives taken by the Government with respect to Biogas:

• First, Under the Sustainable Alternative to More Affordable Transportation(SATAT) programme (launched 2018), the Government of India has been encouraging private businesses to establish Compressed Biogas (CBG) plants and provide CBG to oil marketing companies so that it can be sold as an automotive and industrial fuel.
• Second, Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources (GOBAR)-Dhanwas launched by the Government of India in April 2018 as a part of the biodegradable waste management component under the Swachh Bharat Mission-Gramin.
• Third, the Waste to Energy Division of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy’s (MNRE)  has notified a five-year-long National Bioenergy Programme(2021-22 to 2025-26).
• Fourth, the Government of India and NITI Aayog have devised road maps to speed up the country’s transition to environmentally friendly fuels and to boost the use of liquefied natural gas (LNG), hydrogen, and methanol.

Advantages of Biogas:

• Environment Friendly: It is a renewable and environmentally friendly energy source. Less energy is required to produce Biogas compared to extracting natural gas.
• Moreover, Methane has higher greenhouse/warming potentialthan carbon-dioxide. Hence, capturing and combusting methane to produce carbon-dioxide reduces the overall global warming, compared to a situation where methane is allowed to escape to the atmosphere.
• Energy Diversification: Biogas production reduces reliance on fossil fuels such as oil and coal.
• Renewable: The raw materials used in biogas production are renewable, as trees and crops will continue to grow. Manure, food scraps, and crop residue are always available raw materials, making it a highly sustainable option.
• Reduce Soil and Water Pollution: Producing biogas from waste reduces dumping of wastes in landfills. Overflowing landfills not only emit foul odours, but also allow toxic liquids to enter underground water sources. As a result, another advantage of biogas is that it may improve water quality. Furthermore, anaerobic digestion deactivates pathogens and parasites, making it effective in reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases.
• Similarly, waste collection and management improve dramatically in areas with biogas plants. This, in turn, leads to improvements in the environment, sanitation, and hygiene.
• Organic Fertilizers: The byproduct of the biogas generation process is enriched organic digestate, which is an excellent supplement to or replacement for chemical fertilisers. The fertiliser discharge from the digester can accelerate plant growth and resistance to diseases, whereas commercial fertilisers contain chemicals that are toxic and can cause food poisoning, besides other harmful effects.
• Promotes Circular Economy: It is a simple and low-cost technology that promotes a circular economy. The technology used to generate biogas is relatively inexpensive. It is simple to set up and requires little investment when used on a small scale. Small biodigesters can be used at home, utilising kitchen waste and animal manure. After a while, a household system pays for itself, and the materials used in generation are completely free.
• Biogas can also be compressed to the quality of natural gas and used to power automobiles in large plants. Such plants require little capital investment and create green jobs.
• Healthy Alternative for Cooking Fuel: Biogas generators relieve women and children of the laborious task of gathering firewood. As a result, more time is available for other productive activities. More importantly, cooking on a biogas rather than an open fire keeps the family safe from smoke in the This aids in the prevention of deadly respiratory diseases.
• Achieving SDGs: According to the Linköping University’s Biogas Research Center report, Biogas contributes to all 17 of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals.

Challenges in Production and Use of Biogas:

• Lack of Technological Advances: According to some experts, the systems used to produce biogas are inefficient. There is lack of a new technology that can simplify the process, make it accessible, and reduce the cost of doing so. This means that large-scale production to meet the needs of a large population is still impossible. Although current biogas plants can meet some energy needs, many governments are unwilling to invest in the sector.
• Impurities: Impurities remain in biogas after refinement and compression. Use of Biogas in automobiles can corrode the engine’s metal parts. Corrosion would result in higher maintenance costs. The gaseous mixture is far more appropriate for kitchen stoves, water boilers, and lamps.
• Temperature Limitation: Biogas generation, like other renewable energy sources (such as solar and wind), is influenced by the weather. The ideal temperature for bacteria to digest waste is around 37°C. Digesters in cold climates require heat energy to maintain a constant biogas supply. Hence its use is limited to warm regions.
• Suitability for Metropolitan Areas: Another disadvantage is that industrial biogas plants only make sense where raw materials (food waste, manure) are abundant. As a result, biogas generation is much better suited to rural and suburban areas. The material used in biogas generation emit bad smells. Hence it is necessary that the plants are sufficiently far from the inhabited areas
• To power a 1MW power plant, at least 300 hectares of land is required, as minimum usable area. Large quantities of land must therefore be available, which poses a challenge in urban areas.
• Transport: If the plant is located far away, suitable means of transport will be needed to transport the raw materials and the final product. This will add to costs and emissions.

Conclusion

• Biogas can prove to be a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. It is an ideal source to ensure energy security in the rural areas. It can also contribute to decarbonization of the agriculture sector  through conversion of methane. There is a need to invest in new technologies that can help scale up the use of Biogas in urban areas. This can help in achieving the climate targets in the long run.