General Studies Paper 3

• Context: A sharp decline in poverty levels, now down to about 16% of the population, is witnessed in India due to the emergence of the middle class at the national level. According to an estimate, about one-third of the population is estimated to have entered the middle-class.
• This is because of government’s systematic approach to increase middle-class wellbeing in the past. According to the author, these initiatives can be articulated through the 4S framework: Sampannata, Surakshit Bhavishya, Shreshtha Jeevan and Saralta.

What are the 4S framework for middle class prosperity?

Sampannata: Enrichment through inflation control and loans

• Between 2014 and 2022, annual inflation was 4. 6%. Despite multiple global crises, the CPI was at 5. 7% in December 2022, which was much lower than many G20 countries.
• This ensured
• a)greater liquidity for the middle-class,
• b) lower EMIs resulted in decline in loan rates. For example, student loan rates were priced about 8% in 2022 from around 14% in 2014,
• c) middle-class families found lower EMIs easier to purchase more houses, cars and also take more loans for the higher education,
• d) one-nation one-tax initiative of GST has led to gross savings of an estimated Rs 18 lakh-crore, which works out to an annual household saving of Rs 12,000,
• e) 120 million of 380 million beneficiaries of the PM Mudra Yojana were middle-class individuals.

Surakshit Bhavishya: Securing a healthy future

• This includes significant government efforts to provide affordable healthcare and quality education. Steps in this direction include
• a)353 new universities in the last nine years,
• b) Opening up of 15 new AIIMS and 261 new medical colleges,
• c) 41 Indian universities featured in global rankings in 2023 compared to just nine in 2014,
• d) 50-90% cheaper generic medicines available at 9,000 Jan Aushadhi Kendras,
• e) 87 crore free screenings is done at 1. 5 lakh Ayushman Bharat Centres.

Shreshta Jeevan: A better life

• -By 2022, India built 1. 65 lakh kms of national highways and had the second largest road network in the world, after the US, due to a tenfold increase in capital expenditure on roads and bridges,
• -India now has metro connectivity in 20 cities. India is now a year away from having the third largest metro network globally.
• -India has the highest per capita mobile data consumption rate and among the lowest cost of data per GB in the world.
• Nearly 80% of India’s 120 crore mobile phone users and 80 crore internet users are expected to receive 5G connectivity within a year. If done it will be the world’s fastest 5G roll-out.
• -Apart from that, visible improvements is seen in housing, transportation, tap water connections, and waste management. On an average, power is now available for 22 hours against 12. 5 hours in 2015.

Saralta: Hassle-free existence

• -India’s cashless digital payment ecosystem is hailed as among the best in the world. UPI accounted for 65% of the total digital transactions in 2021-22.
• -DigiLocker facility for paperless certificate authentication has been embraced by the middle-class.
• Overall, India’s rising global profile in a multitude of areas has inculcated a new sense of pride among Indian middleclass. Indian government remains committed to boosting prosperity for the middle-class through the 4S framework, providing an alternative development model to the world.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: The Supreme Court has issued notices on a petition highlighting the  vacant posts of Deputy Speakers  in Lok Sabha and five state assemblies for years.
• A Bench sought responses on a PIL that contends that not  electing a Deputy Speaker to the 17th (present) Lok Sabha, is “against the letter and spirit of the Constitution”.

Constitutional provisions regarding Deputy Speaker:

• Article 93 of the Constitution of India establishes the post of the Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha and Articles 94-96 detail their appointment, removal, and powers.
• In the absence of the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker serves as the Speaker and wields the full powers of the Speaker.
• Deputy Speaker is not subordinate to the Speaker and is directly responsible to the House.
• Article 178 of the Constitution establishes the post of Deputy Speakeof assemblies and Articles 179-181 deal with their powers and appointment or resignation.

Is it mandatory to have a Deputy Speaker?

• Constitutional experts point out that both Articles 93 and 178 use the word “shall”, indicating that the election of Speaker and Deputy Speaker is mandatory under the Constitution.

Do the powers of the Speaker extend to the Deputy Speaker as well?

• Article 95(1) says: “While the office of Speaker is vacant, the duties of the office shall be performed by the Deputy Speaker”.
• The Deputy Speaker has the same powers as the Speaker when presiding over a sitting of the House. All references to the Speaker in the Rules are deemed to be references to the Deputy Speaker when he presides.

What is the position of the Union government on the current vacancy in the post of Deputy Speaker?

• The Treasury benches have maintained there is no “immediate requirement” for a Deputy Speaker as “bills are being passed and discussions are being held” as normal in the House. A Minister argued that “there is a panel of nine members — senior, experienced and selected from different parties — who can act as chairpersons to assist the Speaker to run the House”.

Can the courts intervene in cases of a delay in electing the Deputy Speaker?

• Article 122(1) says: “The validity of any proceedings in Parliament shall not be called in question on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.”
• However, experts said that the courts do have jurisdiction to at least inquire into why there has been no election to the post of Deputy Speaker since the Constitution does envisage an election“as soon as may be”.

General Studies Paper 1

• Context: On December 24, 2009, a tunnel boring machine in Joshimath, Uttarakhand,hit an aquifer about 3kms from Selang village. Resulted in the loss of nearly 800 liters of water per

Land subsidence:

• It is the sinking of the ground because of underground material movement.
• Subsidence can be caused by gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, USA)).
• The causes for subsidence generally are:
  • Natural causes– earthquakes, glacial isostatic adjustment, soil compaction, erosion, sinkhole formation, etc.
  • Resource extraction– extracting resources such as oil, water, minerals, natural gas, etc. from the ground by mining, fracking or pumping.
  • Construction of infrastructure– excess infrastructure load above the carrying capacity of the soil.

Joshimath or Jyotirmath:

• It is a temple town and a municipality in Uttarakhand’s Chamoli district.
• The math or monasteryis one of the four cardinal institutions founded by Adi Shankaracharya in the four corners of India.
• The cantonment at Joshimath is one of the closest to the China border.
• Joshimath has no systemto manage wastewater.
• Ongoing infrastructure projects(the Tapovan Vishnugad dam and the Helang-Marwari bypass road) may also worsen the situation.

The problem in hilly urban India:

• An estimated 12.6% of India’s land areais prone to landslides, especially in Sikkim, West Bengal and Uttarakhand.
• According to the National Institute of Disaster Management (and highlighted in the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy, September 2019): Urban policy is making landslides worse .
• Land use planning in India’s Himalayan towns and the Western Ghats is often ill-conceived, adding to slope instability.
• Tunneling constructionis weakening rock formations.

What steps need to be taken?

• Acquiring credible datais the first step toward enhancing urban resilience with regard to land subsidence.
• The overall landslide risk needs to be mapped at the granular level.
• The Geological Survey of India has conducted a national mapping exercise (1:50,000 scale, with each centimeter denoting approximately 5(zero point five)km).
  • Urban policymakers need to take this further, with additional detail and localisation (1:1,000 scale).
• Areas with high landslide risk should not be allowed to expand large infrastructure
  • there must be a push to reduce human interventions and adhere to carrying capacity.
• Any site development in hazardous zones needs assessment by a geologist (with respect to soil suitability and slope stability) and an evaluation of its potential impact on buildings that are nearby.
• Corrective measures (retention walls), with steps to prohibit construction in hazardous areas.

Case of Aizawl, Mizoram:

• It is in ‘Seismic Zone V’, and built on very steep slope
• An earthquake with a magnitude greater than 7 on the Richter scale would easily trigger over 1,000 landslides and cause large-scale damage to buildings.
• The city has developed a landslide action plan (with a push to reach 1:500 scale),
• Updated regulations to guide construction activities in hazardous zones.
• The city’s landslide policy committee is cross-disciplinary in nature, seeking inputs from civic society and university students, with a push to continually update risk zones.

Case of Gangtok, Sikkim:

• The Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham has helped set up a real-time landslide monitoring and early warning system, with sensors assessing the impact of rainfall infiltration, water movement and slope instability.

 Flood risks of Indian cities:

• In August 2019, Palava City (Phase I and II) in Dombivli, Maharashtra experienced heavy flooding, leaving residents stranded.
• Seasonal rain is now increasing in intensity.
  • Reason for the flooding:
    • The township, spread over 4,500 acres, was built on the flood plains of the Mothali river.
    • When planned townships are approved, with a distinct lack of concern for natural hazards, such incidents are bound to occur.
  • Floods in Panjim, Goa, in July 2021,led to local rivers swelling and homes being flooded, leaving urban settlements along the Mandovi affected.
    • Issue:
      • The city, built on marshlands, was once home to mangroves and fertile fields, which helped bolster its flood resilience.
    • Delhi: An estimated 9,350 households live in the Yamuna floodplains
    • UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report of March 2022: highlighted the risk Kolkata faces due to a rise in sea levels.

Measures for Flood-proofing India’s cities:

• Urban planners will have to step back from filling up water bodies, canals and drains.
  • Focus on enhancing sewerage and stormwater drain networks.
• Existing sewerage networks need to be reworked and expanded to enable wastewater drainage in low-lying urban geographies.
• Rivers that overflow need to be desilted regularly along with a push for coastal walls in areas at risk from sea rise.
• Greater spending on flood-resilient architecture(river embankments, flood shelters in coastal areas and flood warning systems) is necessary.
• Protecting “blue infra” areas,, places that act as natural sponges for absorbing surface runoff, allowing groundwater to be recharged, is a must.
• Urban authorities will need to invest in simulation capacity to determine flooding hotspots and flood risk maps.

Way Forward

• The combination of poor urban planning and climate change will mean that many of India’s cities could face devastating flooding.
• Cities need to incorporate environmental planning and enhance natural open spaces.
• Urban master plans need to consider the impact of climate change and extreme weather;
  • Bengaluru needs to think of 125 mm per hour peak rainfall in the future, as against the current 75 mm.
• Urban authorities in India should assess and update disaster risk and preparedness planning.
  • Early warning systems will also be critical.
• Each city needs to have a disaster management framework in place,with large arterial roads that allow people and goods to move freely.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: The  agriculture sector  in India has experienced buoyant growth in the past two years.
• India’s agricultural exports are poised to scale a new peak in the financial year ending March 31, 2023. But so are imports, bringing down the overall farm trade surplus.

What are the Agri-Stats?

• The value of farm exports in April-December 2022 was 7.9% higher(USD 39 Billion) than the USD 36.2 bn for the corresponding period of the previous year.
• However,imports have grown 15.4% (USD 27.8 bn) in Apr-Dec 2022, over the USD 24.1 bn for Apr-Dec 2021.
• As a result, there has been a further shrinking of the surplus on the farm trade account.
• The two big contributors to India’sagri-export growth have been Rice and Sugar.
  • Rice:India in 2021-22 shipped out an all-time-high 21.21 million tonnes (mt) of rice valued at USD 9.66 billion.
    • That included 17.26 mt of non-basmati and 3.95 mt of basmati rice.
  • Sugar:Sugar exports hit a record value of USD 4.60 billion in 2021-22, as against USD 2.79 billion in last fiscal.
    • This fiscal has seen a further surge of 43.6%, from USD 2.78 billion in April-December 2021 to USD 3.99 billion in April-December 2022.
  • However, exports of some big-ticket items have faltered or slowed, such as spices, wheat, buffalo meat etc.

What about the Imports?

• Vegetable Oil:
  • According to the Solvent Extractors’ Association of India,India’s total edible oil imports rose from 13.13 mt in 2020-21 to 14.03 mt in the 2021-22 oil year (Nov-Oct), and increased further by 9% from 2.36 mt in Nov-Dec 2021 to 3.08 mt in Nov-Dec 2022.
• Cotton:
  • India has turned from a net exporter to a net importer of cotton.
  • Exports collapsed to USD 512.04 million in April-December, 2022 (from USD 1.97 billion in April-December 2021) and imports have also soared from USD 414.59 million to USD 1.32 billion for the same period.
• Cashew:
  • During April-December 2022, imports have posted a 64.6% rise to USD 1.64 billionfrom USD 996.49 million in April-December 2021, even as exports of cashew products have plummeted from USD 344.61 million to USD 259.71 million for the same period.

How India’s Farm Performance is Linked to International Commodity Prices?

• The UN Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) Food Price Index  — having a base value of 100 for the 2014-16 period — averaged 122.5 points in 2012-13 and 119.1 points in 2013-14.
  • Those were the years when India’s agri-exports were at USD 42-43 billion.
• As the index crashed to 90-95 points in 2015-16 and 2016-17, so did exports to USD 33-34 billion.
• The FAO index peaked at 159.7 points in March 2022, just after the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Since then,it has fallen every month, with the latest reading of 131.2 points for January 2023 the lowest after the 129.2 points of September 2021.
  • More than a general export slowdown, it’s the growth in imports that should be cause for concern.
• Going by past correlation i.e.,when the index was high, exports were high, and when it was low, exports were low. Currently, the index has been falling, which may lead to a slowdown in India’s farm exports and an increase in imports.
• In the event, the focus of policymakers too, may have to shift from being pro-consumer (to the extent of banning/ restricting exports) to pro-producer(providing tariff protection against unbridled imports).

Way Forward

• Clearly, the effects of not allowing new genetic modification (GM) technologies after the first-generation Bt cotton are showing, and impacting exports as well. Aproactive approach is required in edible oils as well, where planting of GM hybrid mustard has been permitted with great reluctance — and which is now a matter before the Supreme Court.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: Artificial intelligence (AI) programs involving Natural Language Processing (NLP) have caused a shift in the way people use web searches. AI-driven search engines may lead to radical changes in the way search is monetised via advertising, and it could challenge Google’s dominant search engine.

What is ChatGPT?

• ChatGPT is an AI-powered chatbot developed by the AI startup Open AI. The technology functions by leveraging extensive data to learn how to respond to user prompt in a human-like manner, providing information similar to a search engine. 

What is a Chatbot?

• A chatbot is a software that simulates human-like conversations with users via chat. 
• A chatGPT-based chatbot can help rural India in several ways: 
• Providing access to information: E.g. healthcare, education, agriculture, and government schemes.
  • In a recent demo, the Chatbot seamlessly responded to a query on PM Awas Yojana– made through a voice note.
• Improving access to services: E.g. banking, insurance, and healthcare. This can help bridge the gap between urban and rural areas and improve the quality of life for rural residents.
• Providing language support: It supports multiple languages. More languages are being integrated through Bhashini Daan Mission.
• Enhancing financial inclusion By promoting financial literacy and encouraging savings among rural residents.

Steps to overcome limitations:

• Government is yet to build a National Digital public platform for Indian languages
• Reducing the  digital divide in rural India
• Enabling access to affordable technology
• Reducing behavioural resistance to new technologies

Conclusion:

• A chatGPT-based chatbot can help to improve the quality of life for rural residents by providing access to information and services that are otherwise difficult to obtain.

BHASHINI Mission

• Under Bhashini Mission, a team at MeitY is currently building a WhatsApp-based chatbot that relies on information generated by ChatGPT to return appropriate responses to queries.
• BHASHINI Mission is a local language translation mission that aims to enable easy access to the internet and digital services in Indian languages, including voice-based access, and help the creation of content in Indian languages.
• It will also provide AI-based resources to Indian MSMEs, startups and innovators in the public domain

What is Bhasha Daan?

• It is an ambitious project which aims to crowdsource voice datasets in multiple Indian languages as part of Project BHASHINI.
• On the project’s website, people can contribute in three key ways:
• By recording their voice samples in multiple Indian languages
• By typing out a sentence being played
• By translating text from one language into another.

How AI-driven search engines are different from Conventional engines?

• Conventional engines list only relevant links. But the AI-driven search engines such as ChatGPT and Bard are different from Conventional engines as a)They have behavioural sense and they offer more “human” filtering of search results, b) They present search results in an essay format rather than just displaying links, c) They have the ability to write essays or even poetry on demand. AI-assisted fiction is another possibility that may change the publishing industry.
• They also have other applications such as one can use ChatGPT to write software code to perform various functions, or perhaps using NLP to build an autonomous driving application.

Challenges with AI-driven search engines:

• The AI-driven search engines have the following concerns, a)Though their searches are plausible and comprehensive, they are not necessarily accurate, b) There is a possibility that they will over-reach assertions. Conspiracy theories and opinions can be presented as facts if they are stated by “authorities”. For instance, Bard asserted the James Webb Space Telescope  was the first telescope to take pictures of an exoplanet, which is wrong, c) Their ability to write essays and poems might create a new kind of plagiarism.

What do AI-driven search engines mean as a business activity?

• NLP-based searches could lead to an entirely new revenue model for one of the Web’s biggest market segments. Advertising revenue share might move to new players, or perhaps create some entirely different revenue model.
• Google has been dominating search and it has built an empire around the cash cow of resulting advertising revenues. This is finally being challenged now with AI-driven search engines.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: The Union Budget 2023-24 has been presented in the Parliament. In 2005, the Government had started releasing a Gender Budget along with the Union budget. Gender Budgeting is a strategy to ensure that promises on gender equality show up in public budget allocations as well. However, achieving gender equality through Gender Budgeting has remained a challenge. The share of Gender Budget (in total Government Budget) has remained low despite growing at an annualized rate 13% since inception. With some reforms in the implementation, the Government can improve the efficacy of Gender Budgeting in terms of outcomes.

Gender Budgeting (GB):

• Gender Budgeting is the use of fiscal policies and public financial management tools to promote gender equality. It is an exercise that applies a ‘Gendered-lens‘ to the allocation and tracking of public funds. This is done in order to ensure that governments are acutely aware of the impact of their choices on gender outcomes. Gender Budgeting is not limited to funding explicit gender equality initiatives. It also entails analyzing fiscal policies and budgetary decisions to understand their impact on gender equality and using this information to design and implement more effective gender policies. It translates the gender commitments into fiscal commitments.
• The ‘Gender Budgeting Handbook, 2015’ released by the Ministry of Women and Child Development notes that Gender Budgeting is a tool for gender mainstreaming. It observes that, “Gender Budgeting is concerned with gender-sensitive formulation of legislation, policies, plans, programmes and schemes; allocation and collection of resources; implementation and execution; monitoring, review, audit and impact assessment of programmes and schemes; and follow-up corrective action to address gender disparities.” It is not only about the Budget and it is not just a one-time activity. It is a continuous process that must be applied to all levels and stages of the policy process.
• Evolution of Gender Budgeting: It was first introduced in 1984 in Australia to evaluate the impact of the national budget on women and girls. The approach was adopted by other countries including Canada, South Africa and Philippines etc. In 1995, the United Nation’s Beijing Platform for Action called for integrating a gender perspective into government budget processes.
• In 2015, the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) called for adequate resources and tools to track budget allocations for gender equality (SDG indicator 5.c.1). The Addis Ababa Action Agenda for Development (2015) recognized the importance of tracking resource allocations for gender equality and strengthening capacity for Gender Budgeting.
• In 2020, G20-Women, an official engagement group to the G20, called for greater investment in GB to ensure that fiscal policies advance gender equality in the short and long-term recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Status of Gender Budgeting in India:

• The Government of India had adopted Gender Budgeting in 2005-06.
• In India, Gender Budgeting comprises two parts: (a)Part A reflects Women-Specific Schemese., those which have 100% allocation for women; (b) Part B reflects Pro-Women Schemes i.e., those where at least 30% of the allocation is for women.
• The gender budgeting framework has helped the gender-neutral ministries to design new programs for women.
• Gender Budgeting Cells (GBC): The Government has mandated the establishment of Gender Budgeting Cells in all Ministries and Departments as an institutional mechanism to implement Gender Budgeting. The GBCs conduct gender-based impact analyses, beneficiary needs assessments, and beneficiary incidence analyses and determine the room for re-prioritizing public expenditures and better implementation.
• Role of The Ministry of Women and Child Development in Gender Budgeting: The Ministry has made consistent efforts to support the institutionalization of GB at the State/UT level. The Ministry also provides financial support to Government training institutions for capacity building of Government officials to enhance Gender Budgeting in States/UTs.
• Role of States/UTs in Gender Budgeting: In a reply to a question in the Lok Sabha (March 2021), the Government responded that 27 States/UTs have adopted Gender Budgeting and have taken various steps to address gender gaps and advance gender equality. Goa, Haryana, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Telangana, Chandigarh, Ladakh, Puducherry haven’t adopted GB yet.
• These steps take by States include identification of a nodal Department for Gender Budgeting, constitution of Gender Budgeting Cells, formulation of State Women/Girls Policy, creation of Gender Data Bank and adding Gender Budget Statement in the State Budget. Additionally, 21 States/UTs have established designated State Nodal Centres for sustained capacity building efforts on GB.
• Budgetary Allocations: India’s Gender Budget has allocated INR 2.23 lakh crore in the Union Budget 2023-24. This is ~30% higher than Budgetary allocation in 2022-23 (INR 1.71 lakh crore, Budget estimate) but only ~2% than actual allocation (INR 2.18 lakh crore, Revised Estimate).
• Part A of the Gender Budget has allotted over INR 88,000 crore in FY2023-24. It is dominated by the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana(both Urban and Rural housing). These two schemes attracted 90% of the total funding for Part A of the Gender Budget. Part B has received INR 1.35 lakh crore. Part B comprise several schemes pertaining to rural development, health, education and women empowerment.
• Important women-centric schemes include: (a)Safe City Project, an initiative under the Nirbhaya Fund scheme for ensuring safety of women and children; (b) SAMBAL, a sub-scheme comprising of old schemes like One Stop Centre, Women Helpline and Beti Bachao Beti Padhao; (c) SAMARTHYA, includes women empowerment programmes like Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana and Swadhar Greh. SAMBAL and SAMARTHYA are part of the larger umbrella scheme ‘Mission Shakti‘, an integrated women empowerment programme.

Benefits of Gender Budgeting:

• Understanding Impact of Budget: Gender Budgeting approach leads to better informed policy choices. This approach makes the policy makers more aware of the potential impact of policy decisions on gender.
• Better Utilisation of Resources: It can support efforts to not only design, but re-design fiscal policies, adjusting resources to better address persistent gender gaps.
• Achievement of Gender Equality Goals: It leads to greater focus on achieving gender equality goals. A focused approach leads to better results. An IMF Working paper on the impact of Gender Budgeting in G20 countries notes that Gender Budgeting leads to more programmes incorporating gender related goals. Every country analysed in the research paper had some positive outcome in terms of gender equality.
• Wider Societal Outcomes: There are many other factors that impact the achievement of gender equality, including societal attitudes and behaviours. Gender Budgeting practices can make a difference in the way governments consider policy in respect to gender and lead to more conscious and better-informed decision making.

Challenges in Gender Budgeting:

• Low Allocation: Despite increase in allocation in absolute terms, the share of Gender Budget in overall Union Budget has always remained less than 6%. The highest allocation was in 2011-12 at 5.8%.
• Skewed Allocation: The Gender Budget consists of two parts based on fund allocation. Part A with 100% allocation for women has lower share in the Gender Budget. The highest share for Part A was 46% in FY2021-22. Since 2005-06, the share of Part A was less than 30% of the overall Gender Budget for 12 years.
• Technical Challenges: Implementation of Gender Budgeting faces several challenges like lack of guidance, coordination, expertise among personnel, and low quality of gender impact assessments (GIAs).
• Absence of Gender Disaggregated Data: Lack of gender disaggregated data make it difficult to formulate effective policies. Additionally, it limits the ability to accurately measure the effectiveness of the Gender Budgeting policies and initiatives. IMF paper notes that Governments often point out to their inability to track gender-sensitive policies over their implementation cycle, due to lack of budget classifications or failure to incorporate gender classifiers in the financial management information systems (FMIS).
• Skewed Implementation: Many sectors/schemes that can have impact on women, do not practice Gender Budgeting. NITI Aayog paper on Gender Mainstreaming (June 2022) has noted that only 62 out of 119 centrally-sponsored schemes are practising GB. The paper noted that the record of Ministers associated with Environment and Climate Change, Urban Transformation, Skill etc. have done poorly.
• Under-Reporting: The Gender Budget does not take into account some of the major schemes that benefit women. For instance, the Jal JeevanMission (JJM) aims to provide household tap connections to all rural households by 2024. Tap water can particularly improve women’s quality of life because it is mostly women and girls who gather water in households that do not have regular water access. Yet, none of the allocations in the JJM have been reported in the Gender Budget.
• Moreover, the schemes that allocate less than 30% funds for women, are not covered in Part B of the Gender Budget.
• In addition, there is lack of clarity on the way schemes allocate at least 30% of their funds for women. For instance, the Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana – Gramin(PMAY-G) accounted for 24% of the Gender Budget in 2023-24 and was placed in Part A of the GB because the scheme encourages houses to be owned by women and thereby might benefit women. On the other hand, only 27% of the funds allocated under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) accounted for Part B of the GB, despite women being 55% of MGNREGS workers
• Lack of Accountability: There is no mandate to have a minimum allocation with respect to Gender Budget. In the absence of any accountability mechanisms regarding Gender Budgeting, monitoring and implementation continue to be inadequate.

Way forward to make Gender Budgeting more effective:

• First, NITI Aayog has recommended that a Gender Budgeting Act can mainstream gender-based budgeting across all Ministries and States/UTs. The Act can also mandate all data collecting institutions to analyse and publish gender-disaggregated statistics. This can make the process of GB more scientific.
• Second, the NITI Aayog has also recommended that the Ministry of Women & Child Development (MWCD) should encourage State Governments to increase budgetary allocation towards womenand child development, protection and welfare schemes to ensure improved fund availability and utilisation of schemes. It has also emphasised on the need of finalising the National Policy for Women with revision in 2016 Draft Policy.
• Third, there is a need to have uniform guidelines regarding Gender Budgeting. Evidence from the IMF survey shows that without guidelines or a common methodology for impact assessments, it is difficult for line Ministries to implement a common approach to GB analysis.
• Fourth, the tools to monitor implementation and collect data must be improved. Better data can help in deeper analysis that can help in accurate measurement of outcomes and designing targeted initiatives for gender equality.
• Fifth, the IMF recommends that fiscal policies should focus on areas where gender gaps persist. Gender Impact Assessments(GIAs) should be undertaken to help understand the gender impact of current and alternative policies. The analysis can be utilized to better redesign the policy interventions.

Conclusion

• Gender Budgeting is one of the most potent tools for gender mainstreaming and achieving gender equality. India has been one of the early adopters of Gender Budgeting. Yet the process faces several challenges. The next step should be to plug these gaps and make the process more effective. As India enters the phase of Amrit Kaal, the Prime Minister has highlighted the importance of the role of Nari Shaktiin achieving the goal of developed economy by 2047. This should be actioned through more responsive and effective Gender Budgeting.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: Union Budget 2023-2024  has allocated nearly Rs 100 crore for the National Action for Mechanized Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE) and the government is looking to enable 100% mechanical desludging of septic tanks and sewers in all cities and towns.
• The process of extending the Scheme to all the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)  of the country has been initiated.

NAMASTE Scheme:

• It was launched in 2022 as a Central Sector Scheme.
• The scheme is being undertaken jointly by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs and the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment (MoSJE) and aims to eradicate unsafe sewer and septic tank cleaning practices.

• Objectives:
  • Zero fatalities in sanitation work in India.
  • All sanitation work is performed by skilled workers.
  • No sanitation workers come in direct contact with human faecal matter.
  • Sanitation workers are collectivised into Self Help Groups (SHGs)  and are empowered to run sanitation enterprises.
  • Strengthened supervisory and monitoring systems at National, State and Urban Local Body (ULB) levels to ensure enforcement and monitoring of safe sanitation work.
  • Increased awareness among sanitation services seekers (individuals and institutions) to seek services from registered and skilled sanitation workers.

Key Features of the Scheme to be Implemented in all ULBs:

• Identification:NAMASTE envisages identifying the Sewer/Septic Tank Workers (SSWs).
• Occupational Training and distribution of PPE Kits to SSWs.
• Assistance for Safety Devices to Sanitation Response Units (SRUs).
• Extending Health Insurance Scheme Benefits to identified SSWs and their families under the Ayushman Bharat- Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY).
• Livelihood Assistance: The Action Plan will promote mechanization and enterprise development by providing funding support and subsidy (capital +interest) to the sanitation workers, to procure sanitation related equipments.
• IEC (Information Education and Communication) Campaign:Massive campaigns would be undertaken jointly by the ULBs & NSKFDC (National Safai Karamcharis Finance & Development Corporation) to spread awareness about the interventions of NAMASTE.

What is Manual Scavenging?

• Manual scavenging is defined as “the removal of human excrement from public streets and dry latrines, cleaning septic tanks, gutters and sewers”.
• India banned the practice under the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 (PEMSR).
  • The Act recognizes manual scavenging as a “dehumanizing practice.

Steps taken to tackle the Menace of Manual Scavenging:

• The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation (Amendment) Bill, 2020:
  • It proposes to completely mechanise sewer cleaning, introduce ways for ‘on-site’ protection and provide compensation to manual scavengers in case of sewer deaths.
  • It will be an amendment to The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013.
  • It is still awaiting cabinet approval.
• The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013:
  • Superseding the 1993 Act, the 2013 Act goes beyond prohibitions on dry latrines, and outlaws all manual excrement cleaning of insanitary latrines, open drains, or pits.
• The Building and Maintenance of Insanitary Latrines Act of 2013:
  • It outlaws construction or maintenance of unsanitary toilets, and the hiring of anybody for their manual scavenging, as well as of hazardous cleaning of sewers and septic tanks.
• Prevention of Atrocities Act:
  • In 1989, the Prevention of Atrocities Act  became an integrated guard for sanitation workers, more than 90% people employed as manual scavengers belonged to the Scheduled Caste. This became an important landmark to free manual scavengers from designated traditional occupations.
• SC Judgment:
  • In 2014, a  Supreme Court order made it mandatory for the government to identify all those who died in sewage work since 1993 and provide Rs. 10 lakh each as compensation to their families.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context:  India’s nuclear power capacity experienced a significant increase. By 2021-22, it had risen to 47,112 Million Units.
• In 2017, the government gave simultaneous approval for 11 indigenous pressurised heavy water reactors with a total capacity of 7,000 MegaWatts.

What is the Status of India’s Nuclear Energy?

• Nuclear energy is the fifth-largest source of electricity for India which contributes about 3% of the total electricity generation in the country.
• India has over 22 nuclear reactors in 7 powerplants across the country which produces 6780 MW of nuclear power. In addition, one reactor,   Kakrapar Atomic Power Project (KAPP-3) has also been connected to the grid in January- 2021.
  • 18 reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and 4 are Light Water Reactors (LWRs).
  • KAPP-3is the India’s first 700 MWe unit, and the biggest indigenously developed variant of the PHWR.
• Recent Developments:
  • Joint Ventures with Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs):
    • Government has also allowed Joint Ventures with PSUs to enhance India’s nuclear program.
    • As a result, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)  is now in two joint ventures with the National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) and the Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL).
  • Expansion of Nuclear Installations:
    • In the past,India’s nuclear installations were mostly located in South India or in Maharashtra and Gujarat in the west.
      • However, the government is now promoting its expansion to other parts of the country. As an example, the upcoming nuclear power plant in Gorakhpur town of Haryana, which will become operational in the near future.
    • India’s Indigenous Move:
      • The world’s first thorium-based nuclear plant,“Bhavni,” using Uranium-233, is being set up at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu.
      • This plant will be entirely indigenous and will be the first of its kind. The experimental thorium plant “Kamini”  already exists in Kalpakkam.
    • Challenges:
      • Limited Domestic Resources:India has limited domestic resources of uranium, which is the fuel for nuclear reactors.
        • This has forced the country to import a significant portion of its uranium requirements, making the country’s nuclear energy program vulnerable to global market conditions and political tensions.
      • Public Opposition:The construction of nuclear power plants often faces opposition from local communities due to concerns over the safety of the reactors and the potential impact on the environment.
      • Technical Challenges:The development of nuclear power plants involves complex technical challenges, including the design and construction of reactors, the management of nuclear waste, and the maintenance of nuclear safety standards.
      • International Sanctions:India is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and has faced international sanctions in the past for its nuclear weapons program.
        • This has limited its access to advanced nuclear technology and fuel supplies from other countries.
      • Regulatory Barriers:The regulatory framework for the development of nuclear power in India is complex and has been criticised for being slow and bureaucratic, leading to delays in the implementation of projects.

How India Can Enhance its Nuclear Power Capacity?

• Overcoming Public Opposition:Addressing public concerns and increasing public awareness about the safety of nuclear power is critical to overcoming opposition to the construction of new reactors.
  • This can be achieved through transparent communication and consultation with local communities, as well as the implementation of rigorous safety standards.
• Technical Innovation:To overcome the technical challenges faced by the nuclear energy sector, India needs to focus on innovation in reactor design, waste management, and safety systems.
  • This could involve investment in research and development and the deployment of advanced technologies.
• Financial Sustainability: To overcome the financial challenges faced by the nuclear energy sector, India needs to find ways to make nuclear energy more cost-competitive with other forms of energy.
  • This could involve reducing construction and operation costs, as well as developing innovative financing models.
• Improving International Collaboration:India needs to strengthen its international partnerships to overcome the limitations posed by international sanctions and access to advanced nuclear technology and fuel supplies.
  • This could involve the development of joint ventures with other countries, the participation in international research initiatives, and the negotiation of nuclear trade agreements.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

In the  Union Budget 2023-24,  the government has set a disinvestment    target of Rs 51,000 crore, down nearly 21% from the budget estimate for the current year and just Rs 1,000 crore more than the revised estimate. It is also the lowest target in seven years.

What is Disinvestment?

• The disinvestment process involves the sale of government stake in public sector enterprises to strategic or financial buyers,either through the sale of shares on stock exchanges or through the sale of shares directly to buyers.
• The proceeds from the disinvestment are used to finance various social and infrastructure projects and to reduce the government’s fiscal deficit.

• Approaches:
  • Minority Disinvestment:The government retains a majority in the company, typically greater than 51%, thus ensuring management control.
  • Majority Divestment:The government hands over control to the acquiring entity but retains some stake.
  • Complete Privatisation: 100% control of the company is passed on to the buyer.
• Process:
  • In India, the disinvestment process is conducted by the Department of Investment and Public Asset Management (DIPAM), which comes under the Ministry of Finance.
  • The primary objective of DIPAM is to manage the government’s investments in public sector enterprises and to oversee the disinvestment of government equity in these enterprises.
  • Government had constituted the National Investment Fund (NIF) in 2005 into which the proceeds from disinvestment of Central Public Sector Enterprises were to be channelized.
    

Need For Disinvestment:

• Reduce the Fiscal Burden:The government may disinvest in order to reduce the fiscal burden or bridge the revenue shortfall for that year.
  • It also uses disinvestment proceeds to finance the fiscal deficit, to invest in the economy and development or social sector programmes, and to retire government debt.
• Encourages Private Player:Disinvestment also encourages private ownership of assets and trading in the open market.
  • Encourage private sector investment in the economy, as it signals the government’s commitment to reforms and to creating a more conducive business environment.
  • If successful, it also means that the government does not have to fund the losses of a loss-making unit anymore.
• Improves Efficiency:By divesting from public sector enterprises, the government can improve the efficiency and competitiveness of these enterprises, as private sector ownership and management can bring in new ideas and a more market-oriented approach.
• Better Allocation of Resources:The government can reallocate the resources freed up through disinvestment towards other priorities, such as social and infrastructure development.
• Increases Transparency:Disinvestment can bring in greater transparency and accountability in the functioning of public sector enterprises, as private sector ownership and management can lead to more stringent financial and operational reporting.

How has Disinvestment Fared in Recent Years?

• Since 2014, the government has met (and overachieved) its disinvestment targets twice.
  • In 2017-18, the government earned disinvestment receipts of a little over ₹1 lakh crore as against a target of ₹72,500 crore, and in 2018-19, it brought in ₹94,700 crore when the target was set at ₹80,000 crore.
• The Government has not met the disinvestment target for 2022-23 so far, having realised Rs 31,106 crore to date, of which, Rs 20,516 crore or close to a third of the budgeted estimate came from the IPO (Initial Public Offering)  of 3.5% of its shares in the Life Insurance Corporation (LIC).

What is the Disinvestment Plan in 2023-24?

• The Centre is not going to add new companies to the list of CPSEs to be divested in 2023-24.
• The government has decided to stick to the already-announced and planned privatisation of State-owned companies.
  • These include IDBI Bank, the Shipping Corporation of India (SCI), the Container Corporation of India Ltd (Concor), NMDC Steel Ltd, BEML, HLL Lifecare, and so on.
  • Incidentally, the disinvestments of Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited, SCI, and ConCor had been approved by the government in 2019 but have not gone through yet.

Challenges of Disinvestment in India:

• Political Opposition: Disinvestment is a politically sensitive issue in India, and the process has often been opposed by political parties and trade unions who are opposed to the sale of public sector enterprises.
• Valuation Issues:The valuation of public sector enterprises can be a challenge, as these enterprises may not be able to compete effectively in the market due to their bureaucratic and non-market-oriented structures.
• Labor Issues:Disinvestment can also lead to labor-related issues, as workers in public sector enterprises may fear job losses or wage cuts following the sale of these enterprises.
• Lack of Interest from Buyers:In some cases, the government may struggle to find buyers for its stakes in public sector enterprises, especially if these enterprises are not performing well financially.
• Regulatory Challenges:The process of disinvestment is subject to a range of regulations and approval processes, which can slow down the process and add to its complexity.
• Legal Challenges: The process of disinvestment can also be challenged in the courts, as litigants may challenge the validity of the sale or the terms and conditions under which it was conducted.

Way Forward

• Overall, disinvestment is seen as an important tool for promoting economic growth and development in India. The government in India has continued to pursue its disinvestment program, with the objective of generating revenue, improving the efficiency of public sector enterprises, and promoting economic growth and helping create a more dynamic and sustainable economy.

General Studies Paper 1

• Context: Recently, a new study has been published on Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)   which threatens millions of people globally.
• It is the first global attempt to map potential hotspots for such floods.The study assessed the conditions of glacial lakes and the number of people living downstream from them, which has also increased significantly.

Key Highlights of the Report:

• Vulnerability:
  • Up to 15 million people face the risk of catastrophic flooding   from glacial lakes which could burst their natural dams at any moment.
  • Those facing the greatest threat live in mountainous countries in Asia and South America.
    • The majority of the globally exposed population– 9.3 million (62%) are located in the region of high mountain Asia (HMA).
    • In Asia, around one million people live within just 10 km of a glacial lake.
  • People living in India, Pakistan, Peru and China account for over half of those at risk(globally).
• Most Dangerous Basins:
  • The most dangerous of Glacial basins are found in Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa basin), Peru (Santa basin) and Bolivia (Beni basin) containing 1.2 million, 0.9 million and 0.1 million people respectively who could be exposed to GLOF impacts.
  • Glaciers across the Andes  (S America) have undergone rapid deglaciation over the last 20 years in response to climate changes.
• Threat to India:
  • In the Himalayas, 25 glacial lakes and water bodies have witnessed an increase in water spread area since 2009.
  • There has been a 40% increase in water spread in India, China and Nepal, posing a huge threat to seven Indian states and Union Territories.
    • Of these,six are Himalayan states / UTs: Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The rapid onset and high discharge of GLOFs means there is often insufficient time to effectively warn downstream populations and for effective action to be taken, particularly for populations located within 10-15 km of the source lake.
• Impact:
  • The floods that follow come thick and fast, in many cases being powerful enough to destroy vital infrastructure.
  • GLOF has the potential to catastrophically threaten people’s lives, livelihoods and regional infrastructure.
• Suggestions:
  • Improvements are urgently needed in designing Early Warning Systems  alongside evacuation drills and other forms of community outreach to enable more rapid warnings and emergency action in these highly exposed areas.

What is a GLOF?

• About:
  • A glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is a type of catastrophic flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial lake fails, releasing a large volume of water.
  • This type of flood is typically caused by rapid melting of glaciers or the buildup of water in the lake due to heavy precipitation or the inflow of meltwater.
    • In February 2021, Chamoli district in Uttarakhand witnessed flash floods which are suspected to have been caused by GLOFs.
  • Causes:
    • These floods can be triggered by a number of factors, including changes in the volume of the glacier,changes in the water level of the lake, and earthquakes.
    • According to NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority),  glacial retreat due to climate change occurring in most parts of the Hindu Kush Himalayas has given rise to the formation of numerous new glacial lakes, which are the major cause of GLOFs.

What are the NDMA’s Guidelines to Tackle Glacial Burst?

• Identifying Potentially Dangerous Lakes:
  • Potentially dangerous lakes can be identified based on field observations, records of past events,geomorphologic and geotechnical characteristics of the lake/dam and surroundings, and other physical conditions.
• Use of Technology:
  • Promoting use of Synthetic-Aperture Radar imagery (a form of radar that is used to create two-dimensional images) to automatically detect changes in water bodies, including new lake formations, during the monsoon months.
• Channeling Potential Floods:
  • Reducing the volume of water with methods such as controlled breaching, pumping or siphoning out water, and making a tunnel through the moraine barrier or under an ice dam.
• Uniform Codes for Construction Activity:
  • Developing a broad framework for infrastructure development, construction and excavation in vulnerable zones.
  • There is a need to accept procedures for land use planning in the GLOF prone areas.
• Enhancing Early Warning Systems (EWS):
  • The number of implemented and operational GLOF EWS is very small, even at the global scale.
  • In the Himalayan region, there are at least three reported instances (two in Nepal and one in China) of implementation of sensor- and monitoring-based technical systems for GLOF early warning.
• Training Local Manpower:
  • Apart from pressing specialised forces such as  National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), ITBP and the Army, NDMA has emphasised the need for trained local manpower.
  • It has been observed that over 80% of search and rescue is carried out by the local community before the intervention of the state machinery and specialised search and rescue teams.
• Comprehensive Alarm Systems:
  • Besides classical alarm infrastructure consisting of acoustic alarms by sirens, modern communication technology using cell and smartphones can complement or even replace traditional alarming infrastructure.