General Studies Paper 3

The State of the Global Climate 2022 report has been released by the World Meteorological Organization.

More about the report

• About:
  • It focuses on key climate indicators: 
    • greenhouse gases, temperatures, sea level rise, ocean heat and acidification, sea ice and glaciers. It also highlights the impacts of climate change and extreme weather.
  • Greenhouse gases & rising temperature:
    • It shows the planetary scale changes on land, in the ocean and in the atmosphere caused by record levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases.
    • It has warned that at least one of the next four years could be5 degrees hotter than the pre-industrial average.
  • Report Highlights;
    • Increase in Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions: 
      • Global GHGs emissions continued to increase in 2022. Carbon dioxide is at 149% of pre-industrial levels, Methane is at 262% of pre-industrial levels, Nitrous oxide is at 124% of pre-industrial levels.
      • The annual increase of methane was 18 ppb from 2020 to 2021. This is the largest increase on record.
    • High Global Mean Temperature: 
      • In 2022, the planet was 1.15 ± 0.13 °C warmer than the pre-industrial (1850-1900) average, making the last 8 years the warmest on record.
      • Despite cooling  La Niña conditions , 2022 was the 5th or 6th warmest year.
    • Above Normal Precipitation: 
      • In 2022, large areas with above normal precipitation included large parts of Asia and the south-west Pacific, areas of northern South America and the Caribbean, the eastern Sahel region, parts of southern Africa, Sudan, and eastern Europe.
      • Meanwhile, regions with rainfall deficits included western and central Europe, northwest Africa, parts of the Middle East, Central Asia and the Himalayas, Eastern Africa and Madagascar, central and southern South America, and central and western North America.
    • Ocean Heat Content: 
      • As GHGs accumulate in the atmosphere, temperatures warm on land and in the ocean.  It is expected that the ocean will continue to warm well into the future – a change which is irreversible on centennial to millennial time scales.
      • In 2022, 58 percent of the ocean surface suffered at least one marine heatwave event and 25 per cent of the surface experienced at least one marine cold spell.
    • Rise in Sea Level: 
      • In 2022, global mean sea level continued to rise. The sea has risen approximately 3.4 ± 0.3 mm per year over the past 30 years .
    • Extreme Events: 
      • Rising global temperatures have contributed to more frequent and severe extreme weather events around the world, including cold and heat waves, floods, droughts, wildfires and storms.

Analysing the report

• IMO’s record for India:
  • The agency did not specify country-wise trends.
  • However, the India Meteorological Organisation recorded 2022 as the fifth warmest year on record since 2021, and the last decade as the hottest 10 years in the country’s history.
• Worldwide impacts:
  • The Indian monsoon arrived earlier last year and withdrew before its normal date.
    • Northeast India experienced floods in June and a dry spell in July and August.
  • Floods in Pakistan claimed more than 1,500 lives and affected more than 30 million people.
  • Heatwaves led to record temperatures in several parts of Europe last year, leading to droughts and reduced river flows.
  • North America had its warmest August and forest fires raged in several parts of the US and Australia.
• What can be done?
  • Need of greater investments:
    • These weather vagaries have underlined the need for greater investments in building people’s resilience —interventions to risk-proof agriculture, build food security, develop flood and cyclone warning systems and strengthen the defences of coasts and other vulnerable areas.
      • According to a UN report released at the end of last year, most countries have adaptation plans in place, and “instruments are getting better at prioritising disadvantaged groups”.
      • However, the report also notes that international “adaptation finance flows to developing countries are 5-10 times below estimated needs and the gap is widening”.
    • Need of reviewing Paris targets:
      • At Paris in 2015, most nations agreed that checking global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels holds the key to keeping climate change at tolerable levels.
        • It was clear then that achieving this goal required making drastic cuts in emissions.
      • However, many experts now argue that the cumulative ambition expressed through the Paris Pact’s voluntary targets—the Nationally Determined Contributions —was insufficient to keep the temperature rise below the tolerance threshold.

Way ahead

• The 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference or Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC, more commonly referred to as COP28, will be the28th United Nations Climate Change conference, held from November 30th until December 12th, 2023 at the Expo City, Dubai.
  • The climate diplomats will take stock of the progress on meeting the Paris Pact’s targets at the COP-28 in Dubai.
  • The latest WMO report should lead to rethinking targets and course corrections, especially to protect the most vulnerable.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Cracks in buildings and ‘sinking’ land in Joshimath, Uttarakhand a hill town in Uttarakhand, made the headlines earlier in 2023.

A similar phenomenon has been playing out for years in the plains of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Faridabad. According to the data gathered for years by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), excessive groundwater extraction is identified as the underlying cause of these alarming incidents.

What has the CGWB Identified About Groundwater Extraction and Land Subsidence?

Land Subsidence Due to Groundwater Extraction:

• Digging operations conducted for mining activities demonstrated the occurrence of “soil settlement” or sinking due to voids created from mining. Similar observations prompted researchers to investigate the role of groundwater extraction in land subsidence in India.

Evidence of Land Subsidence in Different Regions:

• Unlike land movement from landslides or earthquakes, subsidence from groundwater extraction was gradual and barely visible annually.
• Studies utilizing satellite-based analysis of ground movement have identified building deformities resulting from groundwater withdrawals.
• Using data from the Sentinel-1 satellite shows that the National Capital Region (NCR) sank an average of 15 mm per year from 2011-2017.
• Urbanization and unplanned growth exacerbated groundwater withdrawal and contributed to subsidence in the NCR.
• Kolkata and parts of eastern India also experience overexploited groundwater blocks and land subsidence.
  

What is the Status of Ground Water Extraction in India?

• Currently, 85% of rural and 50% of urban population is dependent on groundwater for sustenance, making India the largest groundwater user globally.
• India’s stage of groundwater extraction, which is the percentage of utilization of groundwater against recharge, has dropped from 61.6%in 2020 to 60.08% in 2022, according to the report on the National Compilation of Dynamic Ground Water Resources in India.

Groundwater Depletion in Northwest India:

• Agricultural practices in N-W India heavily depend on groundwater withdrawal due to limited monsoon rain.
• Data from the CGWB reveals alarming levels of groundwater exploitation:
  • Punjab: 76% of groundwater blocks are ‘over exploited.’
  • Chandigarh: 64% of groundwater blocks are ‘over exploited.’
  • Delhi: Approximately 50% of groundwater blocks are ‘over exploited.’

Issues Associated:

• Unregulated Pumping: Several states affected by depletion of groundwater provide free or heavily subsidized power (including solar pumps) for pumping groundwater for irrigated agriculture. This enables overexploitation and depletion of scarce groundwater resources.
• Preference to Water-Intensive Crops: The minimum support price for wheat and rice creates highly skewed incentive structures in favor of wheat and paddy, which are water intensive crops and depend heavily on ground water for their growth. This makes groundwater a heavenly resource for their farming.
• Saline Water Intrusion: In coastal areas, excessive groundwater pumping can cause saline water intrusion. As fresh groundwater is depleted, seawater infiltrates into the aquifers, making the water unsuitable for various uses and adversely impacting agriculture and ecosystems.
• Ecological Impacts: Groundwater depletion affects ecosystems by altering the flow of water in rivers, lakes, and wetlands. This disrupts the natural balance, harming aquatic life and biodiversity. It also affects the availability of water for plants and animals dependent on groundwater sources.

What are the Government Initiatives Related to Groundwater Conservation?

• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
• Jal Shakti Abhiyan- Catch the Rain Campaign
• Atal Bhujal Yojana
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

Way Forward

• Crop Diversification and Efficient Irrigation: There is a need to promote crop diversification and shift to more water-efficient irrigation techniques like drip irrigation and sprinkler systems.
• River Catchment Management: Creation of green corridors, rainwater harvesting zones , mapping of channels for potential recharge zones to store floodwater and artificial groundwater recharge structures in the urban areas (where groundwater is five-six meters below the surface), will subsequently contribute to reducing groundwater depletion.
• Technology and Monitoring: Leverage technology for real-time monitoring of groundwater levels, such as remote sensing, iot devices, and data analytics can help in informed decision-making and enable prompt action to mitigate groundwater depletion.
• Wastewater Recycling and Reuse: There is a need to encourage the use of treated wastewater for non-potable purposes like industrial processes to reduce the reliance on freshwater sources and alleviate the pressure on groundwater extraction.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The government recently cleared the appointment of two judges to the Supreme Court.

• The two new apex court judges are Justice Prashant Kumar Mishra and V. Viswanathan, who is a direct appointment from the Supreme Court Bar.

Appointment of Judges

• Collegium system:
  • Judges of the High Courts and the Supreme Court are appointed by the provisions mentioned in Articles 124 and 217 of the Constitution of India.
    • Articles 124 and 217state that the President shall appoint judges to the Supreme Court and high courts after consultation with the Chief Justice of India and other judges.
  • Composition:
    • The Supreme Court Collegium consists of the CJI and four senior-most judges of the apex court.
    • High Court Collegium consists of the Chief Justice of the High Court and two senior-most judges of that particular court.
  • Recommendations: 
    • Crucially, recommendations made by the Collegium are binding: while the government can flag concerns and ask the Collegium to reconsider, if the Collegium chooses to reiterate its recommendations, they become binding.
  • Significance of the system:
    • The collegium system was created to maintain the basic structure of the Constitution by keeping the judiciary independent.
    • It was also to ensure that the Chief Justice of India does not impose his or her individual opinion regarding the appointment of judges, but rather it is a collective opinion of the entire body.

Issues with the current collegium system

• The collegium system does not provide any guidelines or criteria for the appointment of the Supreme Court judges and it increases the ambit of favouritism.
• In the collegium system, there are no criteria for testing the candidate or for doing a background check to establish the credibility of the candidate.
• The absence of an administrative body is also a reason for worry because it means that the members of the collegium system arenot answerable for the selection of any of the judges.

About the National Judicial Commission (NJAC)

• Significance: 
  • The need for the National Judicial Appointment Commission was aroused because many jurists criticised the existing collegium system, stating that India is the only country where judges appoint themselves and have the power of determining their transfers.
• Statute for NJAC:
  • The NJAC was proposed via the National Judicial Appointments Commission Bill, 2014.
    • In order to have a more transparent system, the National Judicial Appointment Commission Act was enacted.
  • The commission was established by the 99th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2014.
  • The Act proposed that the members of NJAC would be composed of members from the legislative, judicial, and civil society.
• Apex Court’s action:
  • In a collective order, in 2015, the Supreme Court by a majority of 4:1 struck down the NJAC Act, 2014.
  • The NJAC Act was termed unconstitutional citing it as having affected the independence of the judiciary.

Issues with NJAC

• SC’s previous action:
  • The concept of NJAC has come under consideration of the Supreme Court three times in 1993, 1998 and 2016.
  • All three times, while giving importance to independence of the judiciary, the Supreme Court dismissed the framework of the NJAC.
• Issue of political influence:
  • It is cited by critics that the judiciary is the only independent institution left in the country.
    • It is harmful to allow political influence over it.
  • It is also being stated that the collegium system is functioning smoothly.
    • There is scope for improvement, but not for any political interference. The central government should in no manner be allowed to control the appointment of the judiciary.
  • Culture of reciprocity:
    • The involvement of the legislature in the appointment of judges might lead to the creation of a culture of ‘reciprocity.’
    • Meaning that judges might have the feeling of having to pay back the political executive as a consideration for their appointment to the post of judge
  • Constitutional impossibility:
    • The recent bill was opposed in the Rajya Sabha, calling it a “constitutional impossibility”.

Way Ahead

• Speedy appointment of judges:
  • There is an urgent need to improve the judge-to-population ratio to reduce the workload of judges.
• Guidelines by Union government:
  • Centre had suggested measures like increasing the number of working days of courts, establishment of fast track courts and Indian Courts and Tribunal Services (icts) to increase the productivity of the court system.
• E-platforms:
  • Improve judicial infrastructure through the use of e-platforms and setting up of more courts.
  • India has launched the e-Courts National portal ecourts.gov.in of the ecourts Project.
• Strengthen the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) mechanism:
  • It uses modes like Arbitration, Mediation and Conciliation.
  • It uses a neutral third party who helps the parties to communicate, discuss the differences and resolve the dispute.
  • It offers to resolve all types of matters related to civil disputes, as explicitly provided by the law.
• Counseling:
  • Disputes can be settled at the pre-litigation stage through counseling.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: India’s National Quantum Mission could be a game changer in multiple sectors, from defence, energy, and environment to healthcare and civil applications.

About Quantum Technology 

• It is based on the principles of Quantum mechanics developed in the early 20th century to describe nature at the scale of atoms and elementary particles.
• Scientists have expanded quantum theory to understand biological phenomena such as smell, consciousness, enzyme catalysis, photosynthesis, avian navigation like that of the Robin, origin of life and effects on coronavirus.

Applications: It is manifested through applications in secure communication, disaster management through better prediction, computing, simulation, chemistry, healthcare, cryptography, imaging among others.

About National Quantum Mission (NQM) 

• It will mainly work towards strengthening India’s research and development in the quantum arena alongside indigenously building quantum-based (physical qubit) computers which are far more powerful to perform the most complex problems in a highly secure manner.
• DST will lead this national mission, supported by other departments.
  • Presently, R&D works in quantum technologies are underway in the US, Canada, France, Finland, China, and Austria.

Focus: 

• The mission will focus on developing quantum computers (qubit) with physical qubit capacities ranging between 50 – 1000 qubits developed over the next eight years.
  • Computers up to 50 physical qubits will be developed over three years,
  • 50 – 100 physical qubits in five years, and
  • Computers up to 1000 physical qubits in eight years.
• It will also support the design and synthesis of quantum materials such as superconductors, novel semiconductor structures, and topological materials for the fabrication of quantum devices.
• Single-photon sources/detectors, and entangled photon sources will also be developed for quantum communications, sensing, and metrological applications.
• Themes: 
  • Four Thematic Hubs (T-Hubs)will be set up in top academic and National R&D institutes on the domains –
    • Quantum Computing,
    • Quantum Communication,
    • Quantum Sensing & Metrology, and
    • Quantum Materials & Devices.
  • The hubs will focus on the generation of new knowledge through basic and applied research as well as promote R&D in areas that are mandated to them.

Significance

• For India, investments in quantum materials and devices can generate a cadre of highly skilled workforce.
• As India gears to become the world’s third-largest economy by 2027, a strongly networked material infrastructure in the country will be crucial.
  • It will cater to not just quantum technologies but also other major scientific megaprojects ranging from the semiconductor mission to neutrino observatory and gravitational wave detection.
• It would greatly benefit communication, health, financial and energy sectors as well as drug design, and space applications.
• It will provide a huge boost to National priorities like digital India, Make in India, Skill India and Stand-up India, Start-up India, Self-reliant India, and Sustainable Development Goals (SDG).

Suggestions

• Research:
  • Research will be required to develop low-loss materials for superconducting quantum electronics that preserve quantum information over a long period, novel semiconductor nanostructures for the high-brightness source of entangled photons and much more.
    • The impact of much of the research cuts across multiple verticals of quantum technologies, and this necessitates dedicated and centralised material/device infrastructures.
  • Capacity building:
    • Achieving these tasks will require leveraging the evolving scientific infrastructure in the country and aligning with some of the key national mandates.
    • Capacity buildingin the past two decades under national initiatives, such as the Nano Mission, has enabled a five-fold increase in research publications in this area
  • Need of new talent:
    • The National Quantum mission will require a significant component of materialsresearch to be carried out in goal-oriented multi-institutional consortia.
    • This will demand strategic recruitment of new talent, synergistic multi-institutional collaboration and political will to ease bureaucratic norms and prevent delays in infrastructure building — to ensure that the mission’s deadlines are met.
  • Benefitting from existing initiatives:
    • This activities could also benefit from the government’s support through the Startup India initiative and other schemes.

Way Ahead

• India needs to create a well-balanced R&D ecosystem where material research for near-term goals and applications needs to coexist and collaborate with those with more fundamental and futuristic objectives.
• Material domains in all aspects of quantum technology — computing, communications, and sensing — are still developing.
• Hence there is a chance that through timely investment and efficient management, India will emerge a global leader in the field.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Recently, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) issued the Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update.

About Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update

• It is produced annually in May and summarizes the predicted future of the global climate over the next year and the next five years.
• The focus is on climate indices such as global mean near-surface temperature, Atlantic multidecadal variability, and the El Niño/Southern Oscillation, as well as regional indices and annual and multi-year seasonal means of near-surface temperature, mean sea-level pressure, and precipitation.

Findings 

• Global temperatures are likely to surge to record levels in the next five years, fuelled by heat-trapping greenhouse gases and a naturally occurring El Niño event. 
  • The annual mean global near-surface temperature for each year between 2023 and 2027 is predicted to be between 1°C and 1.8°C higher than the 1850-1900 average.
    • This is used as a baseline because it was before the emission of greenhouse gases from human and industrial activities.
  • There is a 66% chance that the annual average near-surface global temperature between 2023 and 2027will be more than 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels for at least one year.
  • There is a 98% chance that at least one of the next five years, and the five-year period as a whole, will be the warmest on record.
  • Arctic warming is disproportionately high.
    • Compared to the 1991-2020 average, the temperature anomaly is predicted to be more than three times as large as the global mean anomaly when averaged over the next five northern hemisphere extended winters.
  • Predicted precipitation patterns for the May to September 2023-2027 average, compared to the 1991-2020 average, suggest increased rainfall in the Sahel, northern Europe, Alaska, and northern Siberia, and reduced rainfall for this season over the Amazon and parts of Australia.

Implications 

• A warming El Niño is expected to develop in the coming months and this will combine with human-induced climate change to push global temperatures into uncharted territory.
• In addition to increasing global temperatures, human-induced greenhouse gases are leading to more ocean heating and acidification,sea ice and glacier melt, sea level rise, and more extreme weather.
• This will have far-reaching repercussions for health, food security, water management, and the environment.

Way Ahead 

• This report does not mean that we will permanently exceed the 1.5C specified in the Paris Agreement, which refers to long-term warming over many years.
• However, WMO is sounding the alarm that we will breach the 1.5C level on a temporary basis with increasing frequency.
• There is a need to strengthen weather and climate services to support climate change adaptation.
• The focus should be on the ongoing Early Warnings for All initiative to protect people from increasingly extreme weather

General Studies Paper 1

Militant activity has claimed more casualties in the Pir Panjal valley than in the Kashmir valley this year.

• Militants are changing tack in the Pir Panjal valley to outsmart the security agencies and survive longer in a region with topography as tough as Afghanistan’s mountains.
• The valley comprises the twin districts of Rajouri and Poonch, and includes 225 km of the Line of Control (LoC) with Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK).
• The questioning of residents living in and around has thrown a light on the new modus operandi used by militants after infiltrating into the jungles of the Pir Panjal valley.
• It is not just the spike in militant activities in Rajouri-Poonch that is a cause of concern among security agencies, but also thechange in strategy, the use of “smarter” sleeper cells, the impenetrable means of communication, the use of technology, and the high level of training that militants are being given to fight and survive in hostile forests.

Pir Panjal valley

• The Pir Panjal is a sub-Range of Himalayas and it runs from the Neelam River in J&K all the way to the Beas River in Kullu in Himachal Pradesh extending into Pakistan.
• Near the bank of the Satluj river, it dissociates itself from the Himalayas and forms a divide between the rivers Beas and Ravi on one side and the Chenab on the other.
• On the eastern side of Pir Panjal range is the famous Rohtang pass which connects two districts of Himachal Pradesh namely Kullu & Lahaul and Spiti.
  • This pass is a gateway for the people of Lahaul Valley who wants to go to Kullu or other parts of Himachal.
• Easternmost and highest point of this range is  Indrasan is located in Manali, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh.
• Highest Pass in Pir Panjal range is Kugti Pass which connects Bharmour area of Chamba to Lahaul Valley of Lahaul-Spiti district, Himachal Pradesh.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Serum Institute of India and Panacea Biotec apply for Expression of Interest for clinical trials for indigenous manufacturers of Dengue vaccine.

Dengue Virus (DENV)

• Dengue is a viral infection caused by the dengue virus (DENV), transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes.
• DENVis a pathogenic arthropod-borne flavivirus (arbovirus), it is a single-stranded and positive-sense RNA molecule belonging to the family

Geographical Distribution

• Dengue is found intropical and sub-tropical climates worldwide, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas.
• Presently, DENV is prevalent throughout the different countries (at least 100 countries) including in Asia, the Pacific, the Americas, Africa, and the Caribbean. 

Transmission

• Transmission through the mosquito bite: The virus is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female mosquitoes, primarily theAedes aegypti mosquito. Other species within the Aedes genus can also act as vectors, but their contribution is secondary to Aedes aegypti.
• Human-to-mosquito transmission: Mosquitoes can become infected by people who are viremic with DENV. This can be someone who has a symptomatic dengue infection, also people who show no signs of illness as well (they are asymptomatic).
  • Human-to-mosquito transmission can occur up to 2 days before someone shows symptoms of the illness, and up to 2 days after the fever has resolved.
• Maternal transmission: There is evidence of the possibility of maternal transmission (from a pregnant mother to her baby).
• Other transmission modes: Rare cases of transmission via blood products, organ donation and transfusions have been recorded. Similarly, transovarial transmission of the virus within mosquitoes have also been recorded.

Symptoms

• high fever (40°C/104°F)
• severe headache
• pain behind the eyes
• muscle and joint pains
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• swollen glands
• Individuals who are infected for the second time are at greater risk of severe dengue. Severe dengue symptoms often come after the fever has gone away:
  • severe abdominal pain
  • persistent vomiting
  • rapid breathing
  • bleeding gums or nose
  • Fatigue
  • Restlessness
  • blood in vomit or stool
  • being very thirsty
  • pale and cold skin
  • feeling weak.

Prevention

• The mosquitoes that spread dengue are active during the day. The risk of getting dengue can be reduced by:
  • clothes that cover as much of your body as possible.
  • mosquito nets if sleeping during the day, ideally nets sprayed with insect repellent window screens.
  • mosquito repellents (containing DEET, Picaridin or IR3535).
  • Avoid water collection around the house to prevent breeding of mosquitoes. If needed, one must cover water with a lid to refrain breeding.
  • coils and vaporizers.

Treatment

• Rest
• drink plenty of liquids
• use acetaminophen (paracetamol) for pain
• avoid non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, like ibuprofen and aspirin
• watch for severe symptoms.
• So far one vaccine (Dengvaxia) has been approved and licensed in some countries. However, only persons with evidence of past dengue infection can be protected by this vaccine. Several additional dengue vaccine candidates are under evaluation.

Vaccines Proposed

• Two potential vaccines that Serum Institute of India initiated is to conduct Phase-III randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials in 10,335 healthy adults (aged 18-80 years) in 20 sites (ICMR-funded).
• The Phase-III protocol has been approved by the Drugs Controller General of India (January 2023) and the company is trying to upscale vaccine production with the trials expected to start in August-September this year.
• ICMR has noted that the desirable characteristics of a dengue vaccine includes acceptable short- and long-term safety profile(no antibody dependent enhancement), inducing protection against all four serotypes of dengue, reducing risk of severe diseases and deaths, inducing a sustained immune response and effectiveness irrespective of the earlier sero-status and age of the individual.

Why India Sees Massive Dengue Outbreaks Every Year

• Poor sewer systems lead to pooling of water in many of the cities in India which leads to breeding of mosquitoes.
• Many people store water in their habitat because of shortage of water in many parts of India. This makes the place perfect for breeding mosquitoes.
• There are no adequate efforts from the government to develop a vaccine against Dengue because of other prevalent health conditions.
• Lack of awareness in the community to prevent mosquito bites and to avoid breeding places for mosquitoes.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, a tribal council’s order not to issue a Scheduled Tribe (ST) certificate to any Khasi person who adopts the surname of her or his father

More about the news

• The order:
  • The Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council (KHADC) has directed the headmen of all villages and urban localitiesacross the Khasi domain not to issue ST certificates to those who adopt their father’s surname instead of sticking to tradition by taking their mother’s clan name.
  • The Khasi Hills Autonomous District Khasi Social Custom of Lineage Act, 1997 also says that in order for someone to legally belong to their mother’s Khasi clan, they or their mother cannot adopt the “personal laws” of their non-Khasi father (or husband).
• Significance:
  • KHADC claimed that the move is for the preservation and protection of the age-old tradition of the community.

Matriliny in Meghalaya

• Communities:
  • The Khasis, numbering about 1.39 lakh, are one of the three indigenous matrilineal communities in the northeastern State. The other two are Garos and Jaintias.
• What constitutes Matriliny?
  • In this system, lineage and descent are traced through the mother’s clan, like
    • Children take the mother’s surname,
    • The husband moves into his wife’s house, and
    • The youngest daughter (khatduh)of the family is bequeathed the full share of the ancestral — or the clan’s — property.
  • The khatduh becomes the “custodian” of the land.
    • She assumes all responsibility associated with the land, including taking care of aged parents, unmarried or destitute siblings.
  • Khasi marrying non-Khasi person:
    • It is mandatory for any Khasi woman who marries a non-Khasi needs to obtain the Khasi tribe certificate for applying for the ST certificate for her children.
  • Activism to switch to the patrilineal system:
    • Men’s rights activists among the Khasis have been fighting for switching over from the matrilineal to the patrilineal system since the 1960s.

Difference between ‘matrilineal’ & ‘matriarchal’ society

• Matriliny:
  • Matriliny is formed with regard to the rules of inheritance. In matrilineal societies pass on property from mother to daughter.
• Matriarchy:
  • Matriarchy on the other hand is formed with regard to the exercise of authority and domination.
  • A matriarchal family structure is where the women exercise authority and dominance.
• The case of Meghalaya:
  • With the entire state of Meghalaya following a matrilineal system, the one thing most people tend tomisuse is the word ‘matrilineal’ and mistake it to be matriarchal in nature.
    • In the case of the Khasi community, this, however, is not true. The husband is still the head of the family and elder men have a vital part to play in society.
    • The traditional matrilineal society has always kept women out of the larger decision-making process in social institutions like the village council.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The Aadhaar-enabled Payment System (AePS) in India has recently faced exploitation by cybercriminals, leading to unauthorized access to users’ bank accounts.

• Scammers have been using leaked biometric details to bypass the need for One Time Passwords (OTPs) and drain funds from unsuspecting victims.
• A series of recent scams have exposed the vulnerabilities of the AePS and how cybercriminals are exploiting the loopholes in the system to defraud unsuspecting customers.

What is AePS?

• Th AePS is a bank-led model that allows online interoperable financial transactions at Point of Sale (PoS) or micro-ATMs through the Business Correspondent (BC) of any bank using the Aadhaar authentication.
• It was taken up by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) – a joint initiative of Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and Indian Banks’ Association (IBA).
• The AePS is meant to provide easy and secure access to banking services for the poor and marginalized sections of society, especially in rural and remote areas.
• It eliminates the need for OTPs, bank account details, and other financial information.
• Transactions can be carried out with only the bank name, Aadhaar number, and captured fingerprint during Aadhaar enrollment.

Benefits:

• Deepening Social Security: The AePS helps in deepening social security by facilitating cash transfers from various government schemes such as PM-KISAN, MGNREGA, etc., directly into the beneficiaries’ bank accounts.
• Enabling Interoperability: The AePS enables interoperability among different banks and financial institutions, allowing customers to access their bank accounts through any BC or micro-ATM of any bank.
• Drawbacks:
• Neither Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) nor NPCI mentions clearly whether AePS is enabled by default.

How is AePS Exploited?

Leaked Biometric Details:

• Cybercriminals obtain leaked biometric information, which includes fingerprints captured during Aadhaar enrollment.
• They use this stolen data to operate biometric POS devices and ATMs without the need for two-factor authentication or OTPs. By bypassing these security measures, they can transfer money from users’ bank accounts.

Silicone Thumbs:

• Scammers have been known to use silicone thumbs to deceive biometric devices.
• They place the artificial thumb on the fingerprint sensor, tricking the system into authenticating their fraudulent transactions.
• This method allows them to perform unauthorized financial activities on behalf of the account holder.

Lack of Transaction Notifications:

• In some cases, victims of AePS scams do not receive any notification from their banks regarding unauthorized transactions.
• They remain unaware of the fraudulent activity until they notice discrepancies in their bank account balance.
• This lack of immediate alerts enables scammers to continue draining funds undetected.

Exploiting Weak Security Measures:

Gaps in the AePS system’s security protocols, such as inadequate identity verification or authentication processes, provide opportunities for cybercriminals to carry out their fraudulent activities. They take advantage of these weaknesses to exploit the system and access users’ bank accounts.

Systemic Issues:

• The AePS also faces issues such as biometric mismatches, poor connectivity, weaker systems of certain banking partners, etc., that affect its performance and reliability.
• Sometimes, the transactions fail due to these reasons but the money gets debited from the customers’ accounts without their knowledge.

How to Prevent AePS Frauds?

Amendments to Aadhar Regulations 2016:

• UIDAI proposes an amendment to the Aadhaar (Sharing of Information) Regulations, 2016.
• The amendment requires entities in possession of an Aadhaar number to not share details unless Aadhaar numbers have been redacted or blacked out.

Aadhaar Lock:

• Users are advised to lock their Aadhaar information using the UIDAI website or mobile app.
• Locking Aadhaar prevents the unauthorized use of biometric information for financial transactions.
• Aadhaar can be unlocked when biometric authentication is required, such as for property registration or passport renewals.
• After the necessary authentication, Aadhaar can be locked again for security purposes.

Other Preventive Measures:

• It is advisable to avoid scanning QR codes or clicking on links sent by unknown or suspicious sources.
• Exercise caution and refrain from trusting individuals who offer assistance in withdrawing money from locations other than authorized bank branches or ATMs.
• Prior to providing a fingerprint on a PoS machine, it is recommended to verify the displayed amount and request a receipt for every transaction.
• Regularly check the balance and transaction alerts of the bank account linked to the mobile number.
• In the event of any suspicious or fraudulent activity, promptly report it to both the bank and the police.
• According to the RBI, customers are entitled to zero liability for unauthorized transactions if promptly reported within three working days.

What are the Challenges of AePS?

• Lack of Awareness and Literacy: Many customers are not aware of the benefits and features of the AePS or how to use it safely and securely. They also lack financial literacy and digital skills, which makes them vulnerable to fraud and errors.
• Inadequate Infrastructure and Connectivity: The AePS depends on the availability and quality of infrastructure and connectivity, such as biometric devices, PoS machines, internet, power supply, etc. However, these are often lacking or unreliable in rural and remote areas, where the AePS is most needed.
• Regulatory and Policy Issues: The AePS also faces some regulatory and policy issues, such as the legal validity of Aadhaar authentication, the privacy and security of biometric data, the MDR charges for transactions, the grievance redressal mechanism for customers, etc.

Way forward

Strengthening the Security and Authentication of AePS Transactions:

• Implement encryption and digital signatures to protect transaction data.
• Incorporate biometric liveness detection to prevent cloning or spoofing of biometric data.
• Certify devices used for AePS transactions and monitor transactions for suspicious activity.

Raising Awareness:

• Educate users about the risks associated with sharing Aadhaar number and biometrics.
• Utilize the Aadhaar lock/unlock feature to control access to biometrics.
• Ensure service providers follow guidelines and standards issued by authorities and comply with data protection laws.

Enhancing Coordination and Cooperation among Stakeholders:

• Facilitate information sharing among UIDAI, NPCI, RBI, banks, fintech companies, law enforcement agencies, and civil society organizations.
• Develop joint strategies and action plans to address cybercrime challenges.
• Provide technical assistance and capacity building to stakeholders.
• Establish a platform for reporting and resolving grievances related to AePS.

General Studies Paper 3

The Indian government has been aware of the need to make farming more economically viable and sustainable. The government has been taking various measures to address the problems faced by the farmers, such as low productivity, high input costs, market fluctuations, climate change, indebtedness, and lack of institutional support. The agricultural sector is very crucial for the overall economy and society of India, as it provides employment to a large segment of the workforce and ensures food security for the country’s population. Improving the condition of Indian agriculture has been a priority and a challenge for the policymakers in India.

Why is it Important to make Agriculture Economically Viable?

• To Ensure Food Security: India is a country with a large population and a growing demand for food. In order to ensure that everyone has access to enough food, it is important to make agriculture economically viable so that farmers can produce enough food to meet the demand.
• To Promote Rural Development: Agriculture is a major contributor to the rural economy. By making agriculture economically viable, it is possible to promote rural development and improve the lives of people living in rural areas.
• To Support the Livelihoods of a Majority of Indians: Making agriculture economically viable can help improve the living standards and well-being of millions of Indians who depend on farming for their survival. Agriculture is the main source of income and employment for more than 50% of the Indian population directly.
• To Enhance the Growth and Stability of The Economy: Agriculture contributes around 17-18% to the GDP of India. Making agriculture economically viable can help boost the overall economic growth and stability of India by increasing farm productivity, reducing wastage, diversifying crops, enhancing value addition and ensuring food security.
• To Adopt Sustainable and Natural Farming Practices: Agriculture causes environmental degradation, water scarcity, soil erosion, and greenhouse gas emissions. Current farming practices rely on harmful chemicals, irrigation, and subsidies. Making agriculture economically viable can encourage sustainable and natural farming practices that reduce environmental impact and enhance adaptation to climate change.

What are the challenges?

• Lack of Digital Literacy: Many farmers in rural areas may not have access to smartphones or reliable internet connectivity, which can limit their ability to access digitalized agri-services. Another challenge is the need for education and training to help farmers understand how to use these new technologies effectively.
• Small land holdings: Many farmers in India have small land holdings, which can limit their ability to achieve economies of scale and reduce their profitability.
• Lack of Access to Credit: Many farmers in India lack access to formal credit, which can limit their ability to invest in their farms and improve their productivity.
• Lack of Access to Markets: Many farmers in India lack access to markets where they can sell their produce at a fair price. This can result in farmers receiving low prices for their produce and reduce their profitability.
• Climate change: Climate change is resulting in more frequent and severe weather events such as droughts and floods, which can have a devastating impact on farmers’ livelihoods.
• Lack of infrastructure: Many rural areas in India lack basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, and irrigation systems, which can limit farmers’ ability to improve their productivity and profitability.
• Natural calamities: India is prone to natural calamities such as floods, droughts, and pests. These calamities can damage crops and livestock, leading to losses for farmers.
• Inefficient marketing: The marketing system for agricultural produce in India is inefficient. This leads to low prices for farmers and high prices for consumers.

What are some Policy Options for making Agriculture Economically Viable?

• Digitalisation of Agriculture: The new age technology based Agri start-ups offer full-stack solutions for farmers from seed to market. They prioritize the farmer by providing direct access to supplies, loans, insurance, and selling their produce at the best price.
• For Example, Gurugram-based DeHaat caters to 15 lakh farmers covering over 35 crops, through artificial intelligence, machine learning, and data analytics.
• Typically, the farmers with smart phone can access digitalized agri-services for agri-inputs, farm advisory, and marketing of agri-produce.
• Integrated/Natural Farming: Integrated farming can be profitable for farmers with small land holdings. By having a few animals, fishponds, and vermi-culture for natural manure, farmers can become self-reliant and financially empowered. Family labor is important for this type of farming, and it is both commercially viable and environmentally sustainable.
• Natural farming offers a solution to various problems such as food insecurity, farmers’ distress, health issues and natural calamities by using locally available resources and minimizing external inputs.
• Climate Smart Agriculture: Climate smart agriculture can make agriculture economically viable by shifting towards eco-friendly agri-inputs such as Nano Urea. This can reduce the indiscriminate use of fertilizers, which can lead to irreparable ecological damage, soil infertility, and a toxic food chain. By using cost-effective and sustainable farming practices, farmers can increase crop yields while reducing input costs. This can help farmers become more profitable and sustainable in the long run.
• Adopting Best Farm-practices: Adopting best farm-practices such as co-operative principles can make agriculture economically viable. For instance, Israel, despite its unfavourable climate and limited resources, has become a major exporter of farm-produce and a global leader in agricultural technologies. By following social equality, co-operation and mutual aid in generating agricultural output in the most productive manner, farmers can increase their efficiency and productivity. This can lead to increased profitability and sustainability in the long run.
• Say ‘NO’ to Informal Credit: Besides easing access to formal credit, farmers need to be counselled on financial prudence. Formal credit facilities can increase agricultural productivity and profitability by providing farmers with funds to invest in their farms.
• Despite the availability of formal sources of finance, a recent survey shows that money lenders/traders/landlords still exist in rural India, making farmers financially unstable and dependent on informal credit sources.
• Development of Agri-Value Chains: Key drivers of agri-value chains are customer focus, infrastructure, technology, training & capacity building.
• VAPCOL, a multi-state farmer producer company based in Maharashtra, is a case in point. It has a membership of 55 FPOs covering over 40,000 tribal farmers spread across seven States.
• Leveraging Collectives: Convergence of SHGs, Farmers Producer Organisations (FPOs) and Co-operatives will lead to better bargaining power of farmers in terms of bulk procurement of inputs at a discounted price, economies of scale in transportation and warehousing, access to low-cost institutional finance, farm mechanisation (drones for monitoring of crops and spraying of fertilisers and plant protection chemicals, etc.).