General Studies Paper 2

Context: In the recent India-UK Science & Innovation Council meeting, India and the United Kingdom announced the establishment of a ‘NET Zero’ Innovation Virtual Centre aimed at addressing climate change and environmental targets.

What is the NET Zero Innovation Virtual Centre?

• It is a joint initiative of India and the UK to enhance their cooperation on science and technology, especially on climate change and environmental issues.
• It will provide a platform to bring stakeholders from both countries together to work on some of the focus areas such as the decarbonization of manufacturing process and transport systems, and green hydrogen as a renewable source.
• It will support the goal of achieving net zero emissions balancing the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and removed from the atmosphere.
• It will also facilitate knowledge exchange, innovation, research and development, capacity building, and policy dialogue between the two countries.

What are the Key Highlights from the Meeting?

India-UK Science and Technology Cooperation:

• The UK has emerged as India’s 2nd largest international research and innovation partner.
• The joint research program between India and the UK has grown from almost zero to close to £300-400 million.

India’s Economic and Technological Capabilities:

• India is fast moving to become an economic powerhouse driven by its extraordinary technological and innovative capabilities, especially after the Covid vaccine success story.
• Energy efficiency and renewable energy are central pillars where India has already taken the lead through various initiatives like the India Solar Alliance and Clean Energy Mission.
• India is committed to achieving ambitious net-zero targets through consistent efforts towards developing mitigation and monitoring solutions for environmental pollution and techno-based pathways for reducing carbon emissions.

Industry-Academia Collaboration:

The cooperation will provide an opportunity for Indian and UK academia and industry to develop newer products/processes together for the economic growth of both nations.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is making an aggressive push to eradicate drugs in the country. In the past three years, over 89,000 football fields of opium and cannabis cultivation have been destroyed across several states in the country. The government aims to make India “drug-free” by 2047.

What is the Extent of Drug Abuse in India?

• India is facing a serious challenge of drug abuse and trafficking, which affects the health, well-being, and security of millions of people, especially the youth.
• According to World Drug Report 2022, India has the 4th largest quantity of opium seized in 2020 at 5.2 tons, and the 3rd highest amount of morphine was also seized in the same year at 0.7 tons.
• According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), India accounted for 7% of the global opium seizures and 2% of the global heroin seizures in 2019.
• India is also situated between two major drug-producing regions, the Golden Crescent (Iran-Afghanistan-Pakistan) and the Golden Triangle (Thailand-Laos-Myanmar), which makes it vulnerable to illicit drug trafficking.

What are India’s Efforts in Eliminating Opium and Cannabis Cultivation?

• Opium and cannabis are two of the most commonly cultivated and consumed drugs in India.
• Opium is derived from the poppy plant and cannabis from the hemp plant. Both have psychoactive effects and can cause addiction and health problems.
• The government has intensified its crackdown on drugs with various measures such as destroying illegal crops, seizing drugs, arresting traffickers and creating awareness.
• Some of the achievements of the government in this regard are:
• According to the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), opium and cannabis cultivation in area the size of over 89,000 football fields has been destroyed in the past three years.
• The NCB said that in the past three years, 35,592 acres of poppy cultivation and 82,691 acres of cannabis cultivation have been destroyed across the country.
• The States where the crops were destroyed are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tripura, and Telangana.
• The NCB also said that it has seized over 6.7 lakh kilograms of drugs worth over Rs. 3,000 crore in the past three years.
• The seized drugs include heroin, opium, cannabis, cocaine, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy), ketamine, etc.

How is the Government Tackling the Drug Problem?

Legislative Measures: The government has enacted various laws such as the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940; the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985; and the Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (PITNDPS), 1988

• To regulate and prohibit the manufacture, distribution, possession, and consumption of drugs.
• The NDPS Act provides for stringent penalties for drug offenses.

Institutional Measures: The government has created institutions such as the NCB, the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI), the Customs Department, etc.

• These institutions enforce drug laws and coordinate with other agencies at national and international levels.
• The NCB is also part of various bilateral and multilateral initiatives such as the SAARC Drug Offences Monitoring Desk (SDOMD).

Preventive Measures:

• The government has launched various schemes and programmes such as National Action Plan for Drug Demand Reduction (NAPDDR), Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (NMBA), etc. to
• These schemes prevent drug abuse and provide treatment and rehabilitation services to drug addicts.
• The NAPDDR aims to reduce drug demand through awareness generation, capacity building, de-addiction and rehabilitation.
• The NMBA aims to create awareness about harmful effects of drugs among school children.

NIDAAN and NCORD Portals:

• It is a database that contains the photographs, fingerprints, court orders, information and details of all suspects and convicts arrested under the NPDS Act which can be accessed by State and Central law enforcement agencies.
• On the National Narcotics Coordination portal (NCORD), the source and destination of drugs are highlighted and information up to the district levels is maintained.

What are the Challenges Associated with Drug Controlling in India?

• Lack of Adequate Infrastructure: There is a shortage of trained personnel, specialized equipment, and proper infrastructure to effectively combat drug trafficking and abuse.
• Proliferation of New Psychoactive Substances: The use of new psychoactive substances is on the rise in India, and these drugs are often not covered under existing drug control laws, making it difficult for law enforcement agencies to regulate them effectively.
• Dark Net Easing Drug Trafficking: As per NCB, the use of the ‘dark net’ and cryptocurrency in illegal drugs is increasing, and in 2020, 2021 and 2022, the agency investigated 59 such cases.
• Poor Awareness and Education: There is a lack of awareness and education about the dangers of drug abuse and addiction, especially in rural areas.
• High Demand: India has a large population, and there is a high demand for drugs, which fuels the drug trade.
• Social Stigmatization: Drug addiction is still highly stigmatized in Indian society, which makes it difficult for individuals to seek help and treatment.

What Measures can be Taken to Eradicate Drug-Abuse?

Strengthening Law Enforcement:

• Strengthening the implementation of the NDPS Act and PITNDPS Act by providing adequate resources, training and modern equipment to law enforcement agencies.
• Creating a more robust surveillance and intelligence gathering system to effectively curb drug trafficking along with improving coordination between agencies.

Enhancing Preventive Measures: Increasing the availability of affordable treatment and rehabilitation facilities for drug addicts and scaling up awareness campaigns to educate people about the dangers of drug abuse and the importance of seeking help.

Addressing Supply Reduction:

• Increasing the focus on intercepting drug supply chains by improving border controls, using advanced technology and increasing international cooperation.
• Reducing drug production through alternative livelihood programs for farmers engaged in illicit cultivation.
• Jharkhand State has launched an alternate livelihood scheme for farmers growing poppy illegally and provides cash incentives to destroy the illegal crops.

Strengthening International Cooperation:

• Strengthening cooperation with neighboring countries, especially those in the Golden Crescent and the Golden Triangle, to effectively curb drug trafficking.
• Strengthening partnerships with international organizations such as the UNODC and Interpol to exchange information and best practices.

Use of Technology:

• Big Data and analytics and AI to identify and track drug trafficking networks, monitor drug movements, and identify patterns related to drug abuse and trafficking.
• Drones and satellites, to monitor and detect illegal drug cultivation and provide high-resolution images of suspected areas.
• Develop an online reporting system where citizens can report drug abuse and trafficking activities.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: It is disheartening to witness that even 75 years after Independence, Parliament lacks substantial representation of women, with women holding just 14% of the seats.

What are the contributions of women in the field of politics?

• Women played a crucial role in India’s fight for independence, by organising demonstrations, leading rallies, and raising awareness. There were numerous female representatives in the Constituent Assembly as well.
• Just a decade ago, three of India’s largest States, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh, were in the spotlight for being led by women Chief Ministers.
• While Sushma Swaraj led the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, Sonia Gandhi served as both President of the Congress Party and Chairperson of the United Progressive Alliance. Also, India had its first woman President, Pratibha Patil around the same time.

What have been the major developments in India related to women representation in politics?

• The discourse on women’s reservation in India originates from the pre­-Independence era. Several women’s organisations demanded political representation for women.
• In 1955, a government appointed committee recommended that 10% of seats in the Lok Sabha and State legislative assemblies should be reserved for women.
• During the 1980s, the demand for women’s reservations gained momentum. The National Perspective Plan for Women (1988) recommended that 30% of seats in all elected bodies should be reserved for women.
• This recommendation was reiterated in the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, which was adopted in 2001.
• In 1993, the Panchayati Raj Act was amended to reserve 33% of all seats in local government bodies for women.
• In 1996, the Women’s Reservation Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha. The Bill proposed to reserve one third of seats in the Lok Sabha and State legislative Assemblies for women. However, facing strong opposition from some political parties.
• It gained more momentum again in the early 2000s. On March 9, 2010, the Bill was approved in the Rajya Sabha.

What are the global examples of women representation in politics?

• Around the world, women leaders are outperforming their male counterparts.
• The Scandinavian countries have implemented policies and governance structures that support gender equality and women’s empowerment. It includes women’s representation in political and leadership positions.
• Moreover, countries led by women have best policies and governance practices. The deep scars in Rwanda, from the genocide, are being healed by a leadership that comprises women. This has also resulted in key social reforms.
• Norway implemented a quota system in 2003 that required 40% of seats on corporate boards to be occupied by women.

What is the way forward for proper representation of women in politics?

• Babasaheb Ambedkar was of the opinion that the progress of a community can be measured by the degree of progress which women have achieved.
• Women have been waiting for too long for their right to govern. Women’s leadership qualities are not hidden from anyone. So, the denial of opportunity for political representation represents grave injustice.
• As India strives to become a Vishwa Guru, it cannot overlook the pivotal role women can play in nation building and development. The women’s reservation Bill must be passed.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The combined Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI) increased by 3.6 percent (provisional) in March 2023 as compared to the Index of March 2022.

• The production of Coal, Fertilizers, Steel, Natural Gas, and Refinery Products increased in March 2023 over the corresponding month of last year (2022).

Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI)

• ICI measures combined and individual performance of the production of eight core industries viz. Coal, Crude Oil, Natural Gas, Refinery Products, Fertilizers, Steel, Cement, and Electricity.
• The Eight Core Industries comprise 40.27 percent of the weight of items included in the  Index of Industrial Production (IIP).
• The Office of Economic Adviser, Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) releases the Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI).
• Base year: 2011-2012

Summary of the Index of Eight Core Industries 

• Coal – Coal production (weight: 10.33 percent) increased by 12.2 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Crude Oil – Crude Oil production (weight: 8.98 percent) declined by 2.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Natural Gas – Natural Gas production (weight: 6.88 percent) increased by 2.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Petroleum Refinery Products – Petroleum Refinery production (weight: 28.04 percent) increased by 1.5 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Fertilizers – Fertilizer production (weight: 2.63 percent) increased by 9.7 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Steel – Steel production (weight: 17.92 percent) increased by 8.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Cement – Cement production (weight: 5.37 percent) declined by 0.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.
• Electricity – Electricity generation (weight: 19.85 percent) declined by 1.8 percent in March 2023 over March 2022.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, India airlifted 754 of its stranded citizens from Sudan.

More about Operation Kaveri

• Sudan’s conflict:
  • Sudan has been witnessing deadly fighting between the country’s army and a paramilitary group that has reportedly left around 400 people dead.
• About Operation Kaveri:
  • Under Operation Kaveri, India has been rescuing its citizens in buses from conflict zones in Khartoum and other troubled areas to Port Sudan from where they are being taken to Jeddah in Indian Air Force’s transport aircraft and Indian Navy’s ship
  • From Jeddah, the Indians are being brought home in either commercial flights or IAF’s aircraft.
  • India has set up separate control roomsin Jeddah and Port Sudan and the India embassy in Khartoum has been coordinating with them and the MEA’s headquarters in Delhi.
• Indian diaspora in Sudan:
  • As per official estimates, the total number of Indians in Sudan is around 3,400 with around 1,000 PIOs (Persons of Indian Origin) who have been residing in Sudan for generations.
• Challenges:
  • Many Indians working for the oil and gas industry stay in distant places and it is not easy to find out about them in the given circumstances.
  • This is likely to be a more challenging part of the operation as many are caught up in places like El Fashir in Darfur which is highly volatile at the moment.
  • The focus of Operation Kaveri is now shifting to those groups of Indians who live in distant parts of Sudan away from Khartoum.

More about the Conflict in Sudan

• Background:
  • The roots of the ongoing conflict go back to April 2019,when Sudan’s long-serving authoritarian President Omar al-Bashir was overthrown by military generals following a countrywide uprising against him.
  • Despite Bashir’s ouster, civilians continued their demonstrations seeking democratic elections.
    • It led to an agreement between the military and the protesters under which it was decided to constitute the Sovereignty Council, a power-sharing body of military officers and civilians, and elections at the end of 2023.
  • But, the new arrangement was short-lived as the military overthrew the government in October 2021, and Lt Gen Abdel Fattah al-Burhan became de-facto leader of the country.
    • Burhan announced that the military would hold power until elections are held in July 2023.
  • Over the past few weeks, the RSF (Para-military which was formed in 2013) was redeployed around the country, which the army saw as a provocation and threat.
    • With both sides on edge, a ferocious battle broke out.
  • Reason of recent crisis:
    • Clashes erupted after heightened tensions between the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), a paramilitary groupled by Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo — also known as Hemedti — and the military, headed by Lt Gen Abdel Fattah al-Burhan.
    • The two generals disagree over the proposed transition to civilian rule in Sudan.
  • Repercussions for Sudan:
    • The third largest country in Africa by size has seen repeated pro-democracy protests since the 2021 coup.
    • Some experts fear the tussle could transform into a wider conflict leading to the country’s collapse.
    • Sudan’s economy is struggling, battered by hyperinflation and crippled by massive foreign debt.
    • Billions of dollars given in international support and debt relief, were frozen after the ouster of the government.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: The World Health Organization (WHO) has launched a new initiative to be better prepared for future outbreaks of a similar scale and devastation as the COVID-19 pandemic.

More about the PRET Initiative

• Global Meeting for Future Respiratory Pathogen Pandemics:
  • The initiative was announced at the Global Meeting for Future Respiratory Pathogen Pandemics held in Geneva, Switzerland.
• Aim:
  • The Preparedness and Resilience for Emerging Threats (PRET) Initiative is aimed at providing “guidance on integrated planning for responding to any respiratory pathogen such as influenza or coronaviruses”.
• Immediate focus of the mission:
  • While the current focus of PRET will be on respiratory viruses — in the backdrop of the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak.
    • Possible threat of an avian influenza outbreak work is already underway to assess what should be the next group of pathogens to be mitigated under this initiative.
  • Approach:
    • The three-pronged approach includes: 
      • Updating preparedness plans that affirm priority actions,
      • Increase connectivity among stakeholders in pandemic preparedness planning through systematic coordination and cooperation and dedicate sustained investments,
      • Financing and monitoring of pandemic preparedness with a special focus on bridging the lacunes highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic.
    • The PRET monitoring framework:
      • The framework is expected to be outlined soon, lists a host of actions which countries will be expected to work on with progress being achieved by December 2025.

Challenges faced globally, during COVID pandemic

• All countries had insufficient health capacities. This left the world acutely vulnerable to future health emergencies.
  • All countries remain dangerously unprepared for future epidemic and pandemic threats, including threats potentially more devastating than COVID-19.
• 65% of assessed countries had not published and implemented an overarching national public health emergency response plan for diseases with epidemic or pandemic potential.
• 73% of countries did not have the ability to provide expedited approval for medical countermeasures, such as vaccines and antiviral drugs, during a public health emergency.
• Most countries, including high-income ones, have not made dedicated financial investments in strengthening epidemic or pandemic preparedness.

India’s Health Sector

• About:
  • India’s health care system consists of both public and private components:
    • The government healthcare system concentrates on establishing primary healthcare centers (PHCs) in rural areas while maintaining a small number of secondary and tertiary care facilities in major cities.
    • Majority of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary care facilities are run by the private sector, with a focus on metropolises and tier-I and tier-II cities.
  • In the Economic Survey of 2022, India’s public expenditure on healthcare stood at 2.1% of GDP in 2021-22 against 1.8% in 2020-21 and 1.3% in 2019-20.
• Challenges:
  • Unequal distribution: 
    • India’s health care system is concentrated in urban areas with very little presence in the rural areas where majority of the population lives.
  • Low Budget Spending: 
    • India’s public expenditure on healthcare is only 2.1% of GDP in 2021-22 while Japan, Canada and France spend about 10% of their GDP on public healthcare.
  • Lack of Medical Research: 
    • In India, R&D and cutting-edge technology-led new projects receive little attention.
  • Low doctor-patient ratio: 
    • The doctor patient ratio in India is about 1:1500 much higher than the WHO norm of one doctor for every 1,000 people.
  • Initiatives: 
    • Pradhan Mantri-Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM): 
      • It aims to strengthen India’s health infrastructure and improve the country’s primary, secondary and tertiary care services.
    • Ayushman Bharat: 
      • Ayushman Bharat follows a two- pronged approach:
        • Creation of health and wellness centres to bring health care closer to homes.
        • Formulation of a Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) to protect poor and vulnerable families against financial risk arising out of health episodes.
      • Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission:
        • It aims to connect the digital health solutions of hospitals across the country. Under this, every citizen will now get a digital health ID and their health record will be digitally protected.
      • National Ayush Mission:
        • It is a centrally sponsored scheme for the development of traditional medicines
      • Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY):
      • It aims to correct regional imbalances in the availability of affordable/reliable tertiary healthcare services and also to augment facilities for quality medical education in the country

Suggestions for effective pandemic preparedness:

• Prioritizing health security:
  • Prioritize the building and maintaining of health security capacities in national budgets as they are important for responding to routine health threats and can provide important benefits to countries’ overall health and development.
• Transparency in capacities and risk factors:
  • National decision-makers need readily available information about their country’s plans and other capacities, and increased transparency is essential for a global prevention, detection, and response to epidemics and pandemics.
• Conducting post COVID pandemic surveys:
  • Conduct comprehensive after-action COVID-19 pandemic reports so that they can learn from this crisis and ensure that capacities developed during the pandemic are expanded and sustained for future public health emergencies.
• Global support:
  • Support countries in addressing the urgent global need to strengthen health systems as part of countries’ public health capacity-building efforts.
• Community engagement and equity:
  • Just as health emergencies have impacts across many sectors, so must our preparedness and response efforts span sectors, disciplines and pathogens.
  • It is critical, too, that community engagement and equity are the centre of our efforts, especially for those populations that are marginalised and most at risk.

Way ahead

• The PRET Initiative ushers in anew era for pandemic preparedness and represents an evolution of WHO’s core activities to support all member states in strengthening health emergency preparedness, prevention, and response capacities and capabilities.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Recently, the World Bank published the World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees & Societies. The report estimated a 120% income gain for Indians who migrate to another country for work, compared to a 40% rise in the case of internal migration.

What are the Highlights of the Report?

• An Increase in Income: Under-skilled Indian citizens migrating to the US noticed a hike in their income of nearly 500%, followed by the UAE by almost 300%. Those migrating to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations other than UAE stand to gain less.
• Overview of Global Migration and Refugees: There are currently 184 million migrants globally, which is 2.3% of the population, including 37 million refugees. There are four types of migrants:

1. Economic migrants with strong skill match (e.g., Indian IT professionals in the US or construction workers in GCC nations)
2. Refugees with skills in demand at the destination (e.g., Syrian entrepreneurs in Turkey)
3. Distressed migrants (e.g., Some poorly skilled migrants at the US southern border)
4. Refugees (e.g., Rohingya in Bangladesh)

• Top Migration Corridors: India-US, India-GCC and Bangladesh-India have been identified to be among the top migration corridors globally along with Mexico-US, China-US, Philippines-US and Kazakhstan-Russia.
• Increase in Remittances: The remittances have increased to some of the countries with a large migrant population, including India, Mexico, China and the Philippines. India received the highest ever foreign inward remittances of USD 89,127 million in FY 2021-22. In 2021, total global remittances were estimated at USD 781 billion and have further risen to USD794 billion in 2022.
• A Decline in Working-Age Adults: The share of working-age adults will drop sharply in many countries over the next few decades. Spain is projected to shrink by more than one-third by 2100.

What are the Challenges in this Regard?

• Global Inequalities: As per the World Bank, migration issues are becoming even more widespread and urgent due to severe divergences between and within countries— in terms of real wages, labour market opportunities, demographic patterns and climate costs.
• Lack of Citizenship: A significant number of people do not have citizenship in the country where they reside. Less than half of the global migrant population, about 43%, live in low- and middle-income countries. This underscores the global nature of the issue of statelessness and highlights the need for action to address it.
• Distressed Migration: Some migrants move without skills that match the needs in the destination country and they are not refugees either. Such movements are often distressed irregular and take place under harrowing circumstances.

Way Forward:

• Match-Motive Framework: The “match” aspect is grounded in labour economics and focuses on how well migrants’ skills and related attributes match the needs of the destination countries. “Motive” refers to the circumstances under which a person moves in search of opportunity. This determines the extent to which migrants, origin countries and destination countries gain from migration: The stronger the match, the larger the gains.
• Manage Migration Strategically: Origin countries should make labour migration an explicit part of their development strategy.
• Balancing Skill Demand and Social Inclusion: Destination countries should encourage migration where the skills migrants bring are in high demand, facilitate their inclusion and address social impacts that raise concerns among their citizens.
• Ensuring Protection: Provide international protection to refugees in a manner that can be sustained, financially and socially because most refugee situations last many years.
• Manage Cross-border Relations Differently: Bilateral cooperation can be used to strengthen the match of migrants’ skills and attributes with the needs of destination economies.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: Countries around the world are adopting climate mitigation technologies to tackle climate change. However, climate finance still remains a hindrance towards adopting such technologies.

What are different climate mitigation technologies being adopted and what are the concerns associated with them?

• Renewable Power: The most mitigation technologies being adopted are solar, wind, hydropower, etc. The cost of solar panels, wind turbines, storage batteries and other components have declined dramatically such that the cost of renewable power is now comparable to fossil-fuel based power. However, despite the low cost of renewable power, renewable energy still accounts for only around 15% of global power generation.
• Green Hydrogen: The cost of green hydrogen has been dependent on the cost of electrolyzers, which has come down, making green hydrogen commercially viable and attracting large-scale corporate investment, including in India. However, despite this, the rollout of green hydrogen on a scale is just starting.
• Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CSS): CCS technologies are needed to capture carbon and store it till it can be broken down for commercial use. However, existing CSS technologies are very expensive. Much investment is required in R&D to reduce costs before CSS technologies become commercially viable.
• Carbon Sink: Terrestrial and underwater forests are the natural carbon sinks that contain the carbon load in the atmosphere. But the level of emissions has gone far beyond the capacity of natural ‘carbon sinks’ to absorb the additional carbon load. Hence, to lower the ambient carbon load and eventually reverse global warming, it is necessary to invest heavily in R&D to create technologies that synthetically imitate and improve the capacity of natural carbon sinks.
• These all imply that vast amounts of capital are required to successfully address the climate crisis.
• As per the Emission Gap Report 2022, the current annual investment in climate finance of about $571 billion needs to rise to at least $1.7-2 trillion.

What measures can be taken for climate finance?

• First, Global public sector finance can be considered to finance global public goods.
• However, the report of the G20-appointed Committee to Review the Multilateral Development Banks’ (MDBs) Capital Adequacy Framework indicates that MDBs may at best generate additional assistance of $1 trillion for all purposes. There is doubt even over this amount.
• Second, Private capital may be relied upon and may act as an alternative to public capital. However, most of this capital originates in advanced countries and would not easily flow to tropical developing countries.
• Third, along with private capital flows, developing countries must focus on creating a suitable ecosystem including universally accepted concepts, definitions and standards for climate finance, appropriate rating systems and technical assessment methodologies.
• Fourth, developing countries will also require de-risking of such private capital flows, along with its attendant moral hazard. MDBs can play a crucial role by providing credit guarantees.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: Decentralized governance has gained importance in the development paradigm with over 123 countries, including India, amending their legislations. This involves transferring authority and responsibility for public functions from central government to subordinate organisations.

India has a historical background of decentralised governance, but the legal framework was established through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992. The 73rd Amendment made it mandatory to establish a three-tier Panchayat system in rural areas. This is expected to enhance human development and improve the welfare of the rural population through administrative and political devolution.

What is human development?

• Human development refers to the process of improving people’s lives by expanding their freedoms, opportunities, and capabilities, enabling them to lead lives they value. It encompasses a wide range of factors such as health, education, economic growth, gender equality, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability.
• The goal of human development is to create an environment where people can fully realise their potential and participate in the decision-making processes that affect their lives.

How is Human Development brought within the ambit of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India?

• Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) was first recommended by the Balwantrai Mehta committee in 1957, and their role in rural development has been emphasized in subsequent government plans and committees. The 73rd Constitutional Amendment formalized PRI as a three-tier system in rural areas and mandated citizen participation in the planning process.
• PRI is also responsible for implementing plans related to economic development, social justice, service delivery, infrastructure development, and livelihood development for rural people. The 11th Schedule of the Constitution specifies 29 subjects to be placed under the purview of PRI.
• This decentralization of power to PRI has helped to promote participatory governance in rural areas and improve human development indicators. PRI can also play a crucial role in addressing climate change and disaster risk management in rural areas.

How do Panchayati Raj Institutions contribute to decentralized governance?

• Public Participation in Decision-Making: Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) foster public participation in decision-making processes at the local level. By involving community members in planning, monitoring, and evaluating various schemes and service delivery programs, PRIs ensure that governance becomes more responsive to the needs and priorities of the people.
• Promoting Social Equity and Inclusiveness: PRIs promote social equity and inclusiveness through the reservation of seats for women and weaker sections of society. This ensures that traditionally underrepresented groups have a voice in local governance, contributing to more equitable and inclusive decision-making. In the case of Madhya Pradesh, the involvement of PRIs in managing education led to a narrowing of the gender gap in primary school enrollment.
• Empowering Local Communities: PRIs empower local communities by transferring responsibilities and decision-making authority from higher levels of governance to the grassroots level. This allows for better-tailored policies and services that address the specific needs and concerns of rural populations.
• Addressing Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management: PRIs can play a crucial role in addressing climate change and disaster risk management at the local level. As immediate providers of public services and natural connectors to local communities, PRIs can raise awareness about climate change, foster disaster preparedness, and help train communities in adaptive and mitigation strategies. This approach to community preparedness can sometimes be more effective than costly public investments in disaster risk reduction.

What is the role of PRI in human development, particularly in rural areas?

In India, PRI plays an important role in enhancing human development, like

• Improvement in education: Panchayats play a vital role in improving access to quality education in rural areas. They collaborate with Village Education Committees to monitor and enhance educational services at the village level. For instance, in Madhya Pradesh, the transfer of school management responsibilities to Panchayati Raj Institutions led to increased enrollment, especially for girls and disabled children, between 2003-04 and 2006-07.
• Healthcare and Social Welfare: Panchayats contribute to the improvement of healthcare and social welfare services in rural areas. They participate in the implementation of health and family welfare programs, such as maternal and child health initiatives, which directly impact human development outcomes. Panchayats also support the implementation of social welfare schemes targeting marginalized communities, including scheduled castes and tribes.
• Livelihood Enhancement and Poverty Alleviation: Panchayats are involved in implementing livelihood enhancement and poverty alleviation programs, such as the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) and Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). These programs aim to provide self-employment and wage employment opportunities, helping to improve the economic well-being of rural populations.
• Community Participation and Empowerment: Panchayats encourage community participation and empower local communities by organizing Gram Sabha and Ward Sabha meetings. These spaces enable villagers to voice their concerns, influence policies, and hold local authorities accountable. For example, studies have shown that Gram Sabha meetings in South India allowed disadvantaged groups to influence resource allocation in their favor.

How do PRIs contribute to education in rural areas?

• Decentralization of School Management: PRIs have enabled the decentralization of school management in rural areas, empowering communities to make education more responsive to their needs. In Madhya Pradesh, the management of school education was transferred to Panchayati Raj Institutions, leading to the creation of Standing Committees on Education and Parent-Teacher Associations with administrative and financial powers.
• Increased Enrollment: The involvement of PRIs in education management has led to a significant increase in enrollment, particularly for girls and disabled children. In Madhya Pradesh, girl enrollment at the primary stage rose from 46.6% in 2003-04 to 47.5% in 2006-07, demonstrating the impact of PRIs on education accessibility.
• Community Participation: PRIs encourage community participation in school management, fostering local ownership and accountability. Through Village Education Committees and Parent-Teacher Associations, community members can provide valuable input on how to improve educational outcomes in their area.
• Addressing Out-of-School Children: Despite the progress made through PRIs, challenges remain, such as the issue of out-of-school children. However, PRIs are well-positioned to identify and address the barriers that prevent children from attending school, ensuring that no child is left behind in their pursuit of education.

How has the shift towards decentralized governance impacted India’s rural development strategies?

• Increased Participation: Decentralized governance through PRIs has led to greater community participation in the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of various schemes and service delivery programs, resulting in improved service quality tailored to local needs.
• For instance, in the state of Madhya Pradesh, Village Education Committees were established at the Gram Panchayat level, promoting community involvement in managing school education and leading to a significant increase in enrollment rates.
• Enhanced Accountability and Transparency: The shift towards decentralized governance has promoted better accountability and transparency in local decision-making processes, ensuring that public resources are utilized effectively and efficiently for rural development.
• A prime example is the creation of Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs) in Madhya Pradesh, which were granted administrative and financial powers to manage schools, leading to more effective resource allocation and improved educational outcomes.
• Empowering Women and Marginalized Groups: The reservation of seats for women and marginalized groups in PRIs has helped increase their representation in decision-making processes, giving them a voice in shaping policies that directly affect their lives.
• In Kerala, the Kudumbashree initiative empowered women by involving them in PRI activities, which led to improved access to resources and increased economic opportunities for women.
• Local-Level Planning and Implementation: Decentralization has facilitated local-level planning and implementation of development projects, enabling PRIs to address specific needs and priorities of rural communities more effectively. In the context of climate change and disaster risk management, PRIs have been instrumental in raising awareness and promoting community preparedness.
• For example, in Odisha, PRIs played a crucial role in disaster management during Cyclone Phailin, which helped save countless lives and minimize property damage.

General Studies Paper 3

Context: The Union Minister for Women and Child Development and Minority Affairs opened a Mahila Samman Savings Certificate (MSSC) account.

About Mahila Samman Savings Certificate Scheme

• It is a new small savings scheme launched specifically for female investors and was announced in Budget 2023 to promote investment among women.
  • Accounts opened under this scheme will be single-holder accounts that can be opened at the Post Office or any registered bank.
• Who can open a Mahila Samman Savings account: Any woman can open a Mahila Samman account that can be opened for herself or on behalf of a little girl.
  • A time gap of three months shall be maintained between the existing account and the opening of other account.
• Limit on minimum and maximum investment: The minimum investment amount is Rs 1000, and the maximum investment authorised under the plan is Rs 2 lakh.
• Interest rate: 7.5% annually
• Payment on maturity:  After two years from the date opening eligible balance will be paid to the depositor.
• Withdrawal from account:The account holder may withdraw up to 40% of the balance after the first year from the date of account opening but before the account matures.
• Premature closure of account: The account shall not be closed before maturity except in the following cases, namely:
  • On the death of the account holder
  • On extreme compassionate ground (i) Life threatening decease of account holder (ii) death of the guardian on production of relevant documents.

When an account is closed prematurely, interest on the principal amount is payable at the rate applicable to the Scheme for which the account was held.